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Physical and Data Link Layer: Kameswari Chebrolu Dept. of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kanpur

Physical and Data Link layer deals with communication between computers at a low level. It describes the basic hardware components like hosts, interface cards, and physical links that connect the hosts. It discusses different types of physical links like fiber optics, coaxial cable, and twisted pair cables. It also covers signal encoding techniques used to transmit binary data over these physical layers, such as NRZ, NRZI, and Manchester encoding, which help deal with issues like clock recovery and consecutive signal transitions.

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23wings
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198 views

Physical and Data Link Layer: Kameswari Chebrolu Dept. of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kanpur

Physical and Data Link layer deals with communication between computers at a low level. It describes the basic hardware components like hosts, interface cards, and physical links that connect the hosts. It discusses different types of physical links like fiber optics, coaxial cable, and twisted pair cables. It also covers signal encoding techniques used to transmit binary data over these physical layers, such as NRZ, NRZI, and Manchester encoding, which help deal with issues like clock recovery and consecutive signal transitions.

Uploaded by

23wings
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physical and Data Link Layer  

Kameswari Chebrolu
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kanpur
Problem Statement

●
Make two computers talk to each other

Pictures courtesy Peterson & Davie
Hosts

Communication end­points
– PCs, Workstations, PDAs, Cellphones, Servers

Pictures courtesy Google
Interface Cards/Network Adaptor
Attach the host to the link

Pictures courtesy Google
Links

Carry signals from one place to other place(s)

Fiber Optics Co­axial Cat5­twisted pair


Pictures courtesy Google
Characteristics of Links
●
Data Rate
●
Loss rate
●
Delay

Link Type Typical Bandwidths Distance


Twisted Pair 10-100 Mbps 100m
Coaxial Cable 10-100 Mbps 200-500m
Fiber Optics 100-2400 Mbps 40kms
Shannon's Theorem
●
Signals attenuate with distance
●
Get distorted due to noise, crosstalk, fading, 
multi­path
●
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) measures these 
effects
●
C = W log_2 (1 + S/N) bits/sec
●
Data over telephone line calculation
●
W = 3300Hz – 300Hz = 3000Hz; S/N = 1000 
(30db); C ~ 30kbps
Encoding
●
Physical media transmit Analog signals
●
Modulate/demodulate: 
– Encode/decode binary data into signals
– E.g. Non­return to Zero (NRZ)
●
0 as low signal and 1 as high signal

Bits 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ

Picture courtesy Peterson & Davie
Problems with NRZ
●
Consecutive 1s and 0s
– Changes the average making it difficult to detect 
signals (baseline wander)
– Clock Recovery
●
Sender's and receiver clocks have to be precisely 
synchronized
●
Receiver derives the clock from the received signal vis 
signal transition
●
Lesser number of transitions leads to clock drift
Alternative Encodings
●
Non­return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
– To encode a 1, make a transition
– To encode a 0, stay at the current signal
– Solves problem of consecutive 1's but not 0's
●
Manchester Encoding
– Transmits XOR of the NRZ encoded data and the 
clock 
●
0 is encoded as low­to­high transition, 1 as high­to­low 
transition
– Only 50% efficient
Example
Bits 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ

Clock

Manchester

NRZI

Picture courtesy Peterson & Davie

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