Week 5 / Lecture 6 (NET 1002)

author : Soran / AI Bot date : 2024-10-01

1. Exam Preparation Overview

Midterm Lab Exam: Involves casing, configurations, testing, and troubleshooting. No

assistance allowed during the exam, except from lab journals. Lab journal must be
well-organized, hardcover, with no loose or printed sheets. Tabs for organization are
allowed; sticky notes with additional information are not permitted.

Final Exam and Bonus Marks: Theory exams are closed-book; practical exams allow
limited resources. Bonus marks are awarded through flash quizzes but only apply if the
student has passed the final grade.

1. Layer 1 and Layer 2 Overview

Lecture covered OSI Layer 1 (Physical Layer) and Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) in detail,
emphasizing their functions, protocols, and the role they play in networking.

1. Layer 1: Physical Layer

Definition: Responsible for transmitting raw bits over a physical medium. It interfaces
with physical media such as copper, fiber optics, and wireless.

Key Elements:

• Physical Connections: Ethernet, coaxial cables (RJ45), and unshielded twisted

pair (UTP).

• Data Representation (Signaling): Converts data bits to signals for transmission

over media (e.g., electrical voltages for copper, light pulses for fiber optics).

• Bit Representation Standards: Defines how bits are represented physically,

including the type of cables, connectors, and signaling methods.

Ethernet Cable Types:

• RJ45 Connectors: Commonly used for Ethernet networking.

• Coaxial Cable: An older technology, used for connecting to cable TV or ISP

modems.

• Twisted Pair:
◦ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Standard cable type in modern networks.
 ◦ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Similar to UTP but with a shielding layer to
reduce interference, used in high-noise environments.

Signal Representation:

• Copper (Voltage): Signals are represented by different voltage levels (e.g., +5V
for binary 1 and -5V for binary 0).

• Fiber Optics (Light On/Off): Uses light signals, making it less susceptible to
electrical interference.

• Wireless: Uses electromagnetic waves to carry data.

1. Encoding Techniques in Networking

Purpose of Encoding: Prevent long strings of zeros or ones from causing the receiver to
lose synchronization. Control codes (e.g., start and end of frame) are used for proper
data delineation.

• Manchester Encoding: Used in early Ethernet (10 Mbps). Voltage changes mid-bit
to indicate 0 or 1.

• 4B/5B Encoding: Used in Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps). Converts 4-bit data groups to
5-bit symbols to improve synchronization and error detection. Prevents data
patterns from being confused with control information.

• Gigabit Ethernet Encoding (8B/10B): Converts 8 bits of data to 10-bit symbols for
higher speeds and more reliable error detection.

1. MAC Address Table and Learning Process

MAC Address Table: Maintained by switches to keep track of devices and the ports they
are connected to. Each entry includes the device's MAC address and the corresponding
switch port.

Learning Process:

• Switches learn MAC addresses by examining incoming frames.

• If a frame arrives at a port, the switch associates the MAC address with that port.

• If the destination MAC address is unknown, the switch broadcasts the frame to all
ports until the destination is found (flooding).

1. Layer 1 Physical Media and Installation Standards

Cabling Standards:

• TIA/EIA 568A and 568B: Define how twisted pairs should be terminated in RJ45
connectors.

• Straight-through Cable: Used for connecting dissimilar devices (e.g., PC to

switch).
 • Crossover Cable: Used for connecting similar devices (e.g., PC to PC, switch to
switch).

• Auto-MDIX: Modern network devices can automatically detect and configure to

use either type of cable.

Copper Attenuation and Noise:

• Attenuation: Loss of signal strength as it travels over the cable; limited to 100
meters for UTP cables.

• Noise Interference: Signals can be distorted by electromagnetic interference from

other cables or devices. Proper cable shielding and twisting help reduce this
interference.

1. Full Duplex and Half Duplex Modes

Full Duplex: Allows sending and receiving simultaneously (used in 1 Gbps Ethernet and
higher).

Half Duplex: Communication happens in only one direction at a time (similar to walkie-
talkies).

1. Types of Ethernet

• 10BASE-T: Older technology using UTP cables, supports 10 Mbps, half duplex.

• 100BASE-TX: Fast Ethernet, uses two pairs in UTP cable, supports 100 Mbps.

• 1000BASE-T: Gigabit Ethernet, uses all four pairs in UTP, supports 1 Gbps, full
duplex.

• 10GBASE-T: Uses UTP or fiber optics, supports 10 Gbps.

Fiber Ethernet:

• Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Uses laser light, supports longer distances (up to 40 km
or more).

• Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Uses LED light, suitable for shorter distances (up to 550
meters).

1. Physical Layer Issues and Maintenance

Installation Quality: Proper cable termination and installation are crucial for
maintaining signal quality. Improper installation can lead to reduced performance or
loss of connectivity.

Signal Attenuation and Noise: Attenuation requires repeaters or shorter cable

segments to ensure data integrity. Noise shielding is achieved by careful twisting of
pairs (as seen in CAT5e, CAT6 cables).
Additional Information for Deeper Understanding

• Importance of Synchronization in Encoding: Synchronization ensures that the

receiver interprets the incoming bits correctly. Encoding techniques like
Manchester or 4B/5B include inherent transitions to help maintain
synchronization even when data values remain constant.

• Difference Between MAC Address Table and ARP Table:

◦ MAC Address Table: Maintained by switches, links MAC addresses to ports.

◦ ARP Table: Maintained by hosts/routers, maps IP addresses to MAC

addresses to facilitate communication between different devices in a
network.

• Practical Application of Fiber Optics: Fiber is used for backbone connections

because of its high speed and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Single-
Mode vs Multi-Mode: The mode refers to the number of light paths; SMF has a
single path which allows it to travel longer distances, while MMF has multiple
paths, making it cheaper but suitable for shorter runs.