The Physical Layer

Chapter 2

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bits

Digital
Physical Layer
modulation/demodulation

Multiplexing Signals

Guided media: Copper wire, fiber optics

Unguided media: Wireless (terrestrial radio), Satellite
Modulation n(t) Demodulation
f(t) h(t) + f(t)*h(t)+n(t)
Tx
Rx
Guided Transmission Media

• Guided transmission media

– Persistent storage
– Twisted pairs
– Coaxial cable
– Power lines
– Fiber optics
Persistent Storage

• Consists of magnetic or solid-state storage

• Common way to transport data
– Write to persistent storage
– Physically transport the tape or disks to the destination machine
– Read data back again

• Cost effective for applications where a high data rate or

cost per bit transported is the key factor
• Never underestimate the bandwidth of a station wagon
full of tapes hurtling down the highway
Twisted Pairs

• Links in use: Full-duplex, Half-duplex, or Simplex

A category 5e twisted pair consists of two insulated wires gently twisted together. Four
such pairs are typically grouped in a plastic sheath to protect the wires and keep them
together.
Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating
material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven
braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
Power Lines

Using power lines for networking is simple. In this case, a TV and a receiver are plugged
into the wall, which must be done anyway because they need power. Then they can send
and receive movies over the electrical wiring.
Fiber Optics (1 of 7)

• Allows essentially infinite bandwidth

• Must consider costs
– For installation over the last mile and to move bits

• Uses
– Long-haul transmission in network backbones
– High-speed LANs
– High-speed Internet access

• Key components
– Light source, transmission medium, and detector

• Transmission system uses physics

– … Multimode fiber, single-mode fiber …
Fiber Optics (2 of 7)

Figure (a) illustrates a light ray inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at
different angles. Figure (b) illustrates light trapped by total internal reflection.
Fiber Optics (3 of 7)

• Transmission of light through fiber

– Attenuation of light through glass
▪ Dependent on the wavelength of the light
▪ Defined as the ratio of input to output signal power

• Fiber cables
– Similar to coax, except without the braid

• Two kinds of signaling light sources

– LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
– Semiconductor lasers
Fiber Optics (4 of 7)

Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region is measured in units of decibels
(dB) per linear kilometer of fiber.
Fiber Optics (5 of 7)

Views of a fiber cable

Fiber Optics (6 of 7)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.

Fiber Optics (7 of 7)

• Fiber advantages over copper

– Handles higher bandwidth
– Not affected by power surges, electromagnetic interference,
power failures, corrosive chemicals
– Thin and lightweight
– Do not leak light
– Difficult to tap

• Fiber disadvantage
– Less familiar technology that requires specific engineering skills
– Fibers damaged easily by being bent too much
Wireless Transmission

• The electromagnetic spectrum

– Modulate wave amplitude, frequency, or phase

• Frequency hopping spread spectrum

– Transmitter hops from frequency to frequency hundreds of times
per second

• Direct sequence spread spectrum

– Code sequence spreads data signal over wider frequency band

• Ultra-wideband communication
– Communication sends a series of low-energy rapid pulses,
varying their carrier frequencies to communicate information
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Direct sequence spread spectrum uses a code sequence to spread the data signal over a
wider frequency band.
Using the Spectrum for Transmission

• Radio transmission
– Omnidirectional waves, easy to generate, travel long distances,
penetrate buildings

• Microwave transmission
– Directional waves requiring repeaters, do not penetrate buildings

• Infrared transmission
– Unguided waves used for short-range communication, relatively
directional, cheap, easy to build, do not penetrate solid walls

• Light transmission
– Unguided optical communication
Radio Transmission

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth. In the HF
band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
Light Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems. A bidirectional

system with two lasers is pictured here.
 Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Maximum data rate of a channel

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Fourier Analysis (← Hilbert space)
• We model the behavior of variation of voltage or
current with mathematical functions
• Fourier series is used

• Function reconstructed with

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (1)

A binary signal and its root-mean-square

Fourier amplitudes.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (4)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (5)

(b)-(e) Successive approximations

to the original signal.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Bandwidth

• For a wire, the amplitudes are transmitted mostly

undiminished from 0 up to some frequency fc
Herz (Hz), with all frequencies above this cutoff
frequency (3dB freq.) attenuated. The width of
the frequency range transmitted without being
strongly attenuated is called the bandwidth.
• For wireless, …
• Signals that run from 0 up to a maximum
frequency are called baseband signals.
• Signals that are shifted to occupy a higher range
of frequencies are called passband signals.
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (6)

Relation between data rate and

harmonics for our example.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

• Nyquist’s theorem
maximum data rate= 2B log2 V bits/sec

• Shannon’s formula for capacity of a noisy channel

dB, deci-bel
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
An example on using the Shannon capacity
theory

• ADSL (asynchronous digital subscriber line),

which provides Internet access over normal
telephone lines, use a bandwidth of around 1
MHz. The SNR depends strongly on the distance
of the home from the telephone exchange, and an
SNR of ~40dB for short lines of 1~2 km is very
good. With these characteristics, the channel can
never transmit much more than 13 Mbps.
– In practice, ADSL is specified up to 12Mbps.
 Modulation: D-to-A
Demodulation: A-to-D

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Multiplexing
• Time division multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing
– Wavelength division multiplexing
• Code division multiplexing
CDM FDM

TDM