Computer Networks: Maarten Van Steen
Computer Networks: Maarten Van Steen
Chapter 02
(version April 20, 2007)
01 Introduction
02 Physical Layer
03 Data Link Layer
04 MAC Sublayer
05 Network Layer
06 Transport Layer
07 Application Layer
08 Network Security
00 – 1 /
Physical Layer
02 – 1 Physical Layer/
Transmitting Signals (1/2)
+5
-5
distance --->
-5
distance --->
-5
distance --->
-5
distance --->
1 n=2
0.5
-0.5
n = 50
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0.50
0.25
0 Time T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Harmonic number
(a)
1 harmonic
0 1
(b)
1 2 harmonics
0 1 2
(c)
1 4 harmonics
0 1 2 3 4
(d)
1 8 harmonics
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time Harmonic number
(e)
Note: root mean squares (on the right) reflect the dis-
persed energy at the given frequency.
02 – 5 Physical Layer/2.1 Theoretical Background
Bandwidth (1/2)
Bandwidth (2/3)
Example: (We are trying to transmit a single byte):
• With a bit rate of b bits/sec, it takes 8/b seconds
to send a byte.
• The frequency f1 of the first harmonic is b/8 Hz;
Assume maximum supported frequency is 3000
Hz.
bps T (ms) f1 # har.
300 26.67 37.5 80
600 13.33 75.0 40
1200 6.67 150.0 20
2400 3.33 300.0 10
4800 1.67 600.0 5
9600 0.83 1200.0 2
19200 0.42 2400.0 1
38400 0.21 4800.0 0
00 → 0 volt 01 → 2 volt
10 → 4 volt 11 → 6 volt
(a) (b)
Coax cable: Like the one you use for your TV Set:
Air
Air/silica Total internal
boundary β1 β2 β3
reflection.
α1 α2 α3
Silica Light source
(a) (b)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Wavelength (microns)
Fiber Connections
To/from computer
Computer
Copper wire
of interface
tail
De
Direction
of light
propagation
c = λ· f
The larger the wavelength is, the longer the distance
it can travel without attenuation. Also, the dispersion
of higher frequencies is much lower.
Visible
light
f (Hz) 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016
Satellite Fiber
Twisted pair
Coax optics
Terrestrial
AM FM microwave
Maritime radio radio
TV
c = λ · f ⇒ ddλf = − c2 ⇒ ∆ f = − c·∆λ
λ λ2
ere
Ground osph
wave Ion
Communication Satellites
Observation: Satellites are attractive because they
provide a relatively simple model of communication:
one signal up can be broadcast to many receivers
downwards.
30,000
25,000
20,000
Upper Van Allen belt
15,000
5,000
Lower Van Allen belt
0 1–7 50
LEO
Communication
satellite
1 4
3 2
VSAT
Hub
(a) (b)
Switching
on the
ground
(a) (b)
Computer ISP 2
ISP 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Phase changes
+5
-5
distance --->
becomes
+5
-5
distance --->
90 90
180 0 180 0
270
270
(b) (c)
50
40
30
Mpbs
20
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Meters
0 25 1100 kHz
Voice Upstream Downstream
Voice
switch Telephone
Codec
Computer
DSLAM
ADSL Ethernet
modem
To ISP
Telephone company end office Customer premises
Telephone
Network ISP
Channel 1
Channel 2
Attenuation factor
Channel 2
Channel 1 Channel 3
1
60 64 68 72
Channel 3 Frequency (kHz)
1 (c)
300 3100 60 64 68 72
Multiplexing: WDM
Power
Power
Power
Power
λ λ λ λ λ
Filter
λ1
Fiber 1 λ2
λ2
Fiber 2 λ1+λ2+λ3+λ4 λ4
λ3 Combiner Splitter
Fiber 3 λ1
λ4 Long-haul shared fiber
Fiber 4 λ3
sender-3 buffer
receiver-1 buffer
receiver-2 buffer
receiver-3 buffer
1
0
1 × 106 =
Observation: T1 supports a total of 193 × 125
1.544 Mbps
40 1 T2 stream out
51
4:1 6 5 4 32 10 7:1 6:1
62
73
1.544 Mbps 6.312 Mbps 44.736 Mbps 274.176 Mbps
T1 T2 T3 T4
Switching (1/2)
(a)
Switching office
Computer
(b)
Pkt 1
Propagation
delay Msg
Pkt 2
Pkt 1
Pkt 3
Pkt 2
Msg Queuing Pkt 1
delay Pkt 3
Time Pkt 2
spent
Time
hunting
for an Pkt 3
outgoing
Msg
trunk
Call
accept
signal
Data
AB BC CD
trunk trunk trunk
A B C D A B C D A B C D
Switching: Comparison
B
B G C
G C A
A F D
F D E
E B
G C
A
F D
E
(a) (b)
GSM (1/2)
GSM: Global System for Mobile communications, is a
full-blown digital cellular radio transmission system. A
cell has one or more base stations, and uses a unique
set of frequencies.
Time
CDMA (1/2)
Code Division Multiple Access allows transmissions
to be interleaved, but avoids interference. Note that
this means inherently no message collision.
Six examples:
S1 ● C = (1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1)/8 = 1
S2 ● C = (2 +0 +0 +0 +2 +2 +0 +2)/8 = 1
S3 ● C = (0 +0 +2 +2 +0 –2 +0 –2)/8 = 0
S4 ● C = ( 1 +1 +3 +3 +1 –1 +1 –1)/8 = 1
S5 ● C = (4 +0 +2 +0 +2 +0 –2 +2)/8 = 1
S6 ● C = (2 –2 +0 –2 +0 –2 –4 +0)/8 = –1
(d)
Cable Television
High-bandwidth
fiber
Switch Coaxial
trunk
cable
Fiber node
Head-
end
Tap
House
Fiber
(a)
House
Toll High-bandwidth End Local
office fiber trunk office loop
Fiber
Copper
twisted pair
(b)
TV FM TV Downstream data
frequencies
Upstream
Downstream frequencies
Fiber
ISP Head-
Modem
end