Department of Electronics &

communication
COMPUTER NETWORKS(CS1302)
by A.Asha
AIM:
– To introduce the concept ,terminologies and
technologies used in modern data
communication and computer networking.
• OBJECTIVES:
– To introduce the students the functions of
different layers.
– To introduce IEEE standard employed in
computer networking.
– To make students to get familiarized with
different protocols and network components
Unit I

• DATA COMMUNICATIONS
8
• Components – Direction of Data flow
– networks – Components and
Categories – types of Connections –
Topologies –Protocols and Standards
– ISO / OSI model – Transmission
Media – Coaxial Cable – Fiber Optics –
Line Coding – Modems – RS232
Interfacing sequences
Line Configuration -
Topology
• physical arrangement of stations on
medium
– point to point - two stations
• such as between two routers / computers
– multi point - multiple stations
• traditionally mainframe computer and
terminals
• now typically a local area network (LAN)
Line Configuration - Duplex
• simplex
– one direction eg. television
• half duplex (two-way alternate)
– only one station may transmit at a time
– requires one data path
• full duplex (two-way simultaneous)
– simultaneous transmission and reception
between two stations
– requires two data paths
• separate media or frequencies used for
each direction or echo canceling
Transmission Terminology

• data transmission occurs between a

transmitter & receiver via some
medium
• guided medium
– eg. twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical
fiber
• unguided / wireless medium
– eg. air, water, vacuum
Transmission Media-
Overview
• guided - wire / optical fibre
• unguided - wireless
• characteristics and quality
determined by medium and signal
– in unguided media - bandwidth
produced by the antenna is more
important
– in guided media - medium is more
important
 Transmission Characteristics of
Guided Media

  Frequency Typical Typical Repeater

Range Attenuatio Delay Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz n
0.2 dB/km 50 µs/km 2 km
(with @ 1 kHz
loading)
Twisted 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km 5 µs/km 2 km
pairs (multi- @ 1 kHz
pair cables)
Coaxial 0 to 500 7 dB/km @ 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km
cable MHz 10 MHz
Optical fiber 186 to 370 0.2 to 0.5 5 µs/km 40 km
THz dB/km
Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
• analog
– needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km
• digital
– can use either analog or digital signals
– needs a repeater every 2-3km
• limited distance
• limited bandwidth (1MHz)
• limited data rate (100MHz)
• susceptible to interference and noise
Unshielded vs Shielded
• unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– ordinary telephone wire
– cheapest
– easiest to install
– suffers from external EM interference
• shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
– metal braid or sheathing that reduces
interference
– more expensive
– harder to handle (thick, heavy)
• in a variety of categories - see EIA-568
Near End Crosstalk

• coupling of signal from one pair to

another
• occurs when transmit signal entering
the link couples back to receiving
pair
• ie. near transmitted signal is picked
up by near receiving pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber - Benefits

• greater capacity
– data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• smaller size & weight
• lower attenuation
• electromagnetic isolation
• greater repeater spacing
– 10s of km at least
Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
• uses total internal reflection to transmit
light
– effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015
Hz
• can use several different light sources
– Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts
longer
– Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• more efficient, has greater data rate
• relation of wavelength, type & data rate
Cable Modems
• dedicate two cable TV channels to data
transfer
• each channel shared by number of
subscribers, using statistical TDM
• Downstream
– cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
– active subscribers share downstream capacity
– also allocates upstream time slots to
subscribers
• Upstream
– user requests timeslots on shared upstream
Cable Modem Scheme
UNIT II

• DATA LINK LAYER 12

• Error – detection and correction –
Parity – LRC – CRC – Hamming code –
Flow Control and Error control: stop
and wait – go back N ARQ – selective
repeat ARQ- sliding window
techniques – HDLC.
• LAN: Ethernet IEEE 802.3, IEEE
802.4, and IEEE 802.5 – IEEE 802.11–
responsibilities of data
link layer
• a) Framing
• b) Physical addressing
• c) Flow control
• d) Error control
• e) Access control
2.1 Error – detection and correction

• 2 types of errors
• a) Single-bit error.
• b) Burst-bit error.
• parity
– parity bit set so character has even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity) number
of ones
– even number of bit errors goes
undetected
Error Detection Process
4 types of redundancy
checks
• a) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC). The
most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection
is the vertical
• redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this
technique a redundant bit 3 called a parity bit, is appended to
every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in the unit
(including the parity bit) becomes even.
• b) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).
In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is
divided into rows and a
• redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
• c) Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC). A CRC
checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data
appended with the CRC it does the same modulo-2 division.
If the remainder is all 0’s the CRC is dropped and the data
accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and
Cyclic Redundancy Check
• one of most common and powerful checks
• The sender follows these steps
• a) The units are divided into k sections each of n bits.
• b) All sections are added together using 2’s complement to
get the sum.
• c) The sum is complemented and become the checksum.
• d) The checksum is sent with the data.
Error Correction Process
Flow Control

• ensure sending entity does not

overwhelm receiving entity
– by preventing buffer overflow
• influenced by:
– transmission time
• time taken to emit all bits into medium
– propagation time
• time for a bit to traverse the link
• assume here no errors but varying
Stop and Wait

• source transmits frame

• destination receives frame and
replies with acknowledgement (ACK)
• source waits for ACK before sending
next
• destination can stop flow by not send
ACK
• works well for a few large frames
• Stop and wait becomes inadequate if
Stop and Wait Link
Utilization
Sliding Windows Flow
Control
• allows multiple numbered frames to be in
transit
• receiver has buffer W long
• transmitter sends up to W frames without
ACK
• ACK includes number of next frame
expected
• sequence number is bounded by size of
field (k)
– frames are numbered modulo 2k
– giving max window size of up to 2k - 1
Sliding Window Diagram
Sliding Window Example
Error Control

• detection and correction of errors

such as:
– lost frames
– damaged frames
• common techniques use:
– error detection
– positive acknowledgment
– retransmission after timeout
– negative acknowledgement &
Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ)
• collective name for such error control
mechanisms, including:
• stop and wait
• go back N
• selective reject (selective
retransmission)
Stop and Wait
• source transmits single frame
• wait for ACK
• if received frame damaged, discard it
– transmitter has timeout
– if no ACK within timeout, retransmit
• if ACK damaged,transmitter will not
recognize it
– transmitter will retransmit
– receive gets two copies of frame
– use alternate numbering and ACK0 /
Stop and wait
see example with both types of errors
pros and cons
simple
inefficient
Go Back N

• based on sliding window

• if no error, ACK as usual
• use window to control number of
outstanding frames
• if error, reply with rejection
– discard that frame and all future frames
until error frame received correctly
– transmitter must go back and retransmit
that frame and all subsequent frames
Go Back N - Handling

• Damaged Frame
– error in frame i so receiver rejects frame
i
– transmitter retransmits frames from i
• Lost Frame
– frame i lost and either
• transmitter sends i+1 and receiver gets
frame i+1 out of seq and rejects frame i
• or transmitter times out and send ACK with
P bit set which receiver responds to with
Go Back N - Handling
• Damaged Acknowledgement
– receiver gets frame i, sends ack (i+1) which is
lost
– acks are cumulative, so next ack (i+n) may
arrive before transmitter times out on frame i
– if transmitter times out, it sends ack with P bit
set
– can be repeated a number of times before a
reset procedure is initiated
• Damaged Rejection
– reject for damaged frame is lost
Selective Reject
• also called selective retransmission
• only rejected frames are retransmitted
• subsequent frames are accepted by the
receiver and buffered
• minimizes retransmission
• receiver must maintain large enough
buffer
• more complex logic in transmitter
• hence less widely used
• useful for satellite links with long
Go Back N vs
Selective Reject
High Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
• an important data link control
protocol
• specified as ISO 33009, ISO 4335
• station types:
– Primary - controls operation of link
– Secondary - under control of primary
station
– Combined - issues commands and
responses
HDLC Transfer Modes
• Normal Response Mode (NRM)
– unbalanced config, primary initiates transfer
– used on multi-drop lines, eg host + terminals
• Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
– balanced config, either station initiates
transmission, has no polling overhead, widely
used
• Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
– unbalanced config, secondary may initiate
transmit without permission from primary,
rarely used
HDLC Frame Structure

• synchronous transmission of frames

• single frame format used
Address Field

• identifies secondary station that sent

or will receive frame
• usually 8 bits long
• may be extended to multiples of 7
bits
– LSB indicates if is the last octet (1) or
not (0)
• all ones address 11111111 is
broadcast
Control Field
• different for different frame type
– Information - data transmitted to user (next
layer up)
•Flow and error control piggybacked on
information frames
– Supervisory - ARQ when piggyback not
used
– Unnumbered - supplementary link control
• first 1-2 bits of control field identify frame
type
Control Field
• use of Poll/Final bit depends on context
• in command frame is P bit set to1 to solicit (poll) response
from peer
• in response frame is F bit set to 1 to indicate response to
soliciting command
• seq number usually 3 bits
– can extend to 8 bits as shown below
Information & FCS Fields

• Information Field
– in information and some unnumbered
frames
– must contain integral number of octets
– variable length
• Frame Check Sequence Field (FCS)
– used for error detection
– either 16 bit CRC or 32 bit CRC
HDLC Operation
• consists of exchange of information,
supervisory and unnumbered frames
• have three phases
– initialization
• by either side, set mode & seq
– data transfer
• with flow and error control
• using both I & S-frames (RR, RNR, REJ, SREJ)
– disconnect
• when ready or fault noted
Timers and time registers
in FDDI.
• Time registers
– Synchronous allocation(SA)
– Target token rotation time(TTRT)
– Absolute maximum time(AMT)
• Timers
– Token rotation timer(TRT)
– Token holding timer(THT)
Ethernet.
• Access method :CSMA/CD
• Addressing
• Electrical specification
• Frame format
• Implementation
• 10 base 5 :Thick Ethernet
• 10 base 2 :Thin Ethernet
• 10 base T :Twisted-pair Ethernet
• 1 base 5 :Star LAN
UNIT III

• NETWORK LAYER 10
• Internetworks - Packet Switching and
Datagram approach – IP addressing
methods – Subnetting – Routing –
Distance Vector Routing – Link State
Routing – Routers
Packet Switching

• circuit switching was designed for

voice
• packet switching was designed for
data
• transmitted in small packets
• packets contains user data and
control info
– user data may be part of a larger
message
Advantages

• line efficiency
– single link shared by many packets over
time
– packets queued and transmitted as fast
as possible
• data rate conversion
– stations connects to local node at own
speed
– nodes buffer data if required to equalize
rates
Switching Techniques

• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach
• Switched virtual circuit(SVC)
• Permanent virtual circuit(PVC)
• Circuit – switched connection versus
virtual – circuit connection
– Path versus route
– Dedicated versus shared
Virtual Circuits v Datagram

• virtual circuits
– network can provide sequencing and
error control
– packets are forwarded more quickly
– less reliable
• datagram
– no call setup phase
– more flexible
– more reliable
Routing in Packet Switched
Network
• key design issue for (packet) switched
networks
• select route across network between end
nodes
• characteristics required:
– correctness
– simplicity
– robustness
– stability
– fairness
– optimality
Routing Strategies - Fixed
Routing
• use a single permanent route for
each source to destination pair
• determined using a least cost
algorithm
• route is fixed
– at least until a change in network
topology
– hence cannot respond to traffic changes
• advantage is simplicity
Distance vector routing and
link state routing.
• Distance vector routing
– Sharing information
– Routing table
– Creating the table
– Updating the table
– Updating algorithm
• Link state routing
– Information sharing
– Packet cost
– Link state packet
– Getting information about neighbors
– Initialization
– Link state database
Bridges

• Types of bridges
– Simple bridge
– Multiport bridge
– Transparent bridge
Subnetting

• Three levels of hierarchy

• Masking
– Masks without subnetting
– Masks with subnetting
• Finding the subnetwork address
– Boundary level masking
– Non-boundary level masking
UNIT IV

• TRANSPORT LAYER
8
• Duties of transport layer –
Multiplexing – Demultiplexing –
Sockets – User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) – Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) – Congestion Control –
Quality of services (QOS) –
Integrated Services.
Duties of transport layer

• end-to-end data transfer service

• shield upper layers from network
details
• reliable, connection oriented
– has greater complexity
– eg. TCP
• best effort, connectionless
– datagram
– eg. UDP
Multiplexing

• of upper layers (downward

multiplexing)
– so multiple users employ same transport
protocol
– user identified by port number or
service access point
• may also multiplex with respect to
network services used (upward
multiplexing)
– eg. multiplexing a single virtual X.25
Sockets
• process sends/receives messages to/from
its socket
• socket analogous to mailbox
• sending process relies on transport
infrastructure which brings message to
socket at receiving process
User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
• connectionless service for application level
procedures specified in RFC 768
– unreliable
– delivery & duplication control not guaranteed
• reduced overhead
• least common denominator service
• uses:
– inward data collection
– outward data dissemination
– request-response
– real time application
TCP
• Transmission Control Protocol (RFC 793)
• connection oriented, reliable
communication
• over reliable and unreliable
(inter)networks
• two ways of labeling data:
• data stream push
– user requires transmission of all data up to
push flag
– receiver will deliver in same manner
– avoids waiting for full buffers
TCP Services

• a complex set of primitives:

– incl. passive & active open, active open
with data, send, allocate, close, abort,
status
– passive open indicates will accept
connections
– active open with data sends data with
open
• and parameters:
– incl. source port, destination port &
TCP Header
TCP and IP

• not all parameters used by TCP are in

its header
• TCP passes some parameters down
to IP
– precedence
– normal delay/low delay
– normal throughput/high throughput
– normal reliability/high reliability
– security
TCP Mechanisms
Connection Establishment
• three way handshake
– SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK
• connection determined by source
and destination sockets (host, port)
• can only have a single connection
between any unique pairs of ports
• but one port can connect to multiple
different destinations (different
ports)
TCP Mechanisms
Data Transfer
• data transfer a logical stream of octets
• octets numbered modulo 223
• flow control uses credit allocation of
number of octets
• data buffered at transmitter and receiver
– sent when transport entity ready
– unless PUSH flag used to force send
• can flag data as URGENT, sent
immediately
• if receive data not for current connection,
TCP Mechanisms
Connection Termination
• graceful close
– TCP user issues CLOSE primitive
– transport entity sets FIN flag on last
segment sent with last of data
• abrupt termination by ABORT
primitive
– entity abandons all attempts to send or
receive data
– RST segment transmitted to other end
TCP Implementation Options

• TCP standard precisely specifies

protocol
• have some implementation policy
options:
– send
– deliver
– accept
– retransmit
– acknowledge
Congestion Control

• flow control also used for congestion

control
– recognize increased transit times &
dropped packets
– react by reducing flow of data
• RFC’s 1122 & 2581 detail extensions
– Tahoe, Reno & NewReno
implementations
• two categories of extensions:
Retransmission Timer
Management
• static timer likely too long or too
short
• estimate round trip delay by
observing pattern of delay for recent
segments
• set time to value a bit greater than
estimate
• simple average over a number of
segments
Exponential RTO Backoff

• timeout probably due to congestion

– dropped packet or long round trip time
• hence maintaining RTO is not good
idea
• better to increase RTO each time a
segment is
re-transmitted
– RTO = q*RTO
– commonly q=2 (binary exponential
Karn’s Algorithm
• if segment is re-transmitted, ACK may be
for:
– first copy of the segment (longer RTT than
expected)
– second copy
• no way to tell
• don’t measure RTT for re-transmitted
segments
• calculate backoff when re-transmission
occurs
Window Management
• slow start
– larger windows cause problem on connection
created
– at start limit TCP to 1 segment
– increase when data ACK, exponential growth
• dynamic windows sizing on congestion
– when a timeout occurs perhaps due to
congestion
– set slow start threshold to half current
congestion window
– set window to 1 and slow start until threshold
Window Management
Fast Retransmit
Fast Recovery
• retransmit timer rather longer than
RTT
• if segment lost TCP slow to
retransmit
• fast retransmit
– if receive 4 ACKs for same segment then
immediately retransmit since likely lost
• fast recovery
– lost segment means some congestion
Effects of
Congestion
Mechanisms for
Congestion Control
Backpressure
• if node becomes congested it can slow
down or halt flow of packets from other
nodes
– cf. backpressure in blocked fluid pipe
– may mean that other nodes have to apply
control on incoming packet rates
– propagates back to source
• can restrict to high traffic logical
connections
• used in connection oriented nets that
allow hop by hop congestion control (eg.
Choke Packet

• a control packet
– generated at congested node
– sent to source node
– eg. ICMP source quench
• from router or destination
• source cuts back until no more source
quench message
• sent for every discarded packet, or
anticipated
• is a rather crude mechanism
Implicit Congestion
Signaling
• transmission delay increases with
congestion
• hence a packet may be discarded
• source detects this implicit
congestion indication
• useful on connectionless (datagram)
networks
– eg. IP based
• (TCP includes congestion and flow control -
see chapter 17)
Explicit Congestion
Signaling
• network alerts end systems of
increasing congestion
• end systems take steps to reduce
offered load
• Backwards
– congestion avoidance notification in
opposite direction to packet required
• Forwards
– congestion avoidance notification in
same direction as packet required
Integrated Services

• changes in traffic demands require

variety of quality of service
– eg. internet phone, multimedia,
multicast
• new functionality required in routers
• new means of requesting QoS
• IETF developing a suite of Integrated
Services Architecture (ISA) standards
• RFC 1633 defines overall view of ISA
ISA Approach
• IP nets control congestion by
– routing algorithms
– packet discard
• ISA provides enhancements to
traditional IP
• in ISA associate each packet with a
flow
• ISA functions:
– admission control
– routing algorithm
ISA in Router
ISA Services
• Guaranteed
– assured data rate
– upper bound on queuing delay
– no queuing loss
• Controlled load
– approximates best effort behavior on unloaded
net
– no specific upper bound on queuing delay
– very high delivery success
• Best Effort
– traditional IP service
Token Bucket Scheme
Queuing Discipline
• traditionally FIFO
– no special treatment for high priority flow
packets
– large packet can hold up smaller packets
– greedy connection can crowd out less greedy
connection
• need some form of fair queuing
– multiple queues used on each output port
– packet is placed in queue for its flow
– round robin servicing of queues
– can have weighted fair queuing
UNIT V

• APPLICATION LAYER
7
• Domain Name Space (DNS)
• SMTP
• FDP
• HTTP
• WWW
• Security
5. 1 DNS
The Internet Directory Service
• the Domain Name Service (DNS)
provides mapping between host
name & IP address
• defined in RFCs 1034 / 1035
• key elements
– domain name space
– DNS database
– name servers
– name resolvers
Domain Names
DNS Database

• hierarchical database
• containing resource records (RRs)
• features
– variable-depth hierarchy for names
– distributed database
– distribution controlled by database
• provides name-to-address directory
service for network applications
Resource Records (RRs)
DNS Operation
DNS Server Hierarchy

• DNS database is distributed

hierarchically
– may extend as deep as needed
• any organization owning a domain
can run name servers
• each server manages authoritative
name data for a zone
• 13 root name servers at top of
hierarchy share responsibility for top
Name Resolution
• query begins with name resolver on
host
• knows name/address of local DNS
server
• given a name request, the resolver
can:
– return name from cache if already
known
– send DNS query to local server which
may return answer, or query other
servers
5.2 SMTP
• RFC 821
• not concerned with format of messages or
data
– covered in RFC 822 (see later)
• SMTP uses info written on envelope of mail
– message header
• does not look at contents
– message body
• except:
– standardize message character set to 7 bit
Basic Operation

• email message is created by user

agent program (mail client), and
consists of:
– header with recipient’s address and
other info
– body containing user data
• messages queued and sent as input
to SMTP sender program
– yypically a server process (daemon on
UNIX)
SMTP Mail Flow
Mail Message Contents
• each queued message has two parts
• message text
– RFC 822 header with envelope and list of
recipients
– message body, composed by user
• list of mail destinations
– derived by user agent from header
– may be listed in header
– may require expansion of mailing lists
– may need replacement of mnemonic names
with mailbox names
• if BCCs indicated, user agent needs to
SMTP Sender
• takes message from queue
• transmits to proper destination host
– via SMTP transaction
– over one or more TCP connections to
port 25
• host may have multiple senders
active
• host must create receivers on
demand
• when delivery complete, sender
SMTP Protocol - Reliability

• used to transfer messages from

sender to receiver over TCP
connection
• attempts to provide reliable service
• no guarantee to recover lost
messages
• no end to end acknowledgement to
originator
• error indication delivery not
SMTP Receiver

• accepts arriving message

• places in user mailbox or copies to
outgoing queue for forwarding
• receiver must:
– verify local mail destinations
– deal with errors
• sender responsible for message until
receiver confirm complete transfer
– indicates mail has arrived at host, not
SMTP Forwarding

• mostly direct transfer from sender

host to receiver host
• may go through intermediate
machine via forwarding capability
– sender can specify route
– target user may have moved
SMTP Replies
• positive completion reply (2xx)
– e.g. 220 <domain> Service ready
– e.g. 250 Requested mail action okay, completed
• positive intermediate reply (3xx)
– e.g. 354 Start mail input; end with <CRLF>.<CRLF>
• transient negative completion reply (4xx)
– e.g. 452 Requested action not taken: insufficient system 
storage
• permanent negative completion reply
(5xx)
– e.g. 500 Syntax error, command unrecognized 
– e.g. 550 Requested action not taken: mailbox unavailable 
FTP

• Transfer a file from one system to

another.
• TCP connections
• Basic model of FTP
5.4 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTP
• base protocol for World Wide Web
• for any hypertext client/server
application
• is a protocol for efficiently
transmitting information to make
hypertext jumps
– can transfer plain text, hypertext, audio,
images, and Internet accessible
information
HTTP Overview
• transaction oriented client/server protocol
• between Web browser (client) and Web
server
• uses TCP connections
• stateless
– each transaction treated independently
– each new TCP connection for each transaction
– terminate connection when transaction
complete
• flexible format handling
HTTP Operation - Caches

• often have a web cache

• stores previous requests/ responses
• may return stored response to
subsequent requests
• may be a client, server or
intermediary system
• not all requests can be cached
Intermediate HTTP Systems
HTTP Messages
HTTP Messages BNF Format
HTTP-Message = Simple-Request | Simple-
Response | Full-Request | Full-Response
Full-Request = Request-Line
*( General-Header | Request-Header | Entity-
Header )
CRLF
[ Entity-Body ]
Full-Response = Status-Line
*( General-Header | Response-Header | Entity-
Header )
CRLF
[ Entity-Body ]
Simple-Request = "GET" SP Request-URL CRLF
HTTP General Header Fields

• Cache-Control
• Connection
• Data
• Forwarded
• Keep-Alive
• Mime-Version
• Pragma
• Upgrade
Request Methods

• request-line has
– method
– Request URL
– HTTP version
– Request-Line = Method Request-URL HTTP-
Version CRLF
• HTTP/1.1 methods:
– OPTIONS, GET, HEAD, POST, PUT,
PATCH, COPY, MOVE, DELETE, LINK,
UNLINK, TRACE, WRAPPED, Extension-
Status Codes

• informational - headers only

• successful - headers & body if
relevant
• redirection - further action needed
• client error - has syntax or other
error
• server error - failed to satisfy valid
request
Response Header Fields

• Location
• Proxy-Authentication
• Public
• Retry-After
• Server
• WWW-Authenticate
Entity Header Fields
• Allow • Expires
• Content-Encoding • Last-Modified
• Content-Language • Link
• Content-Length
• Content-MD5
• Title
• Content-Range • Transfer-
• Content-Type Encoding
• Content-Version • URL-Header
• Derived-From • Extension-
Entity Body

• entity body is an arbitrary sequence

of octets
• HTTP can transfer any type of data
including:
– text, binary data, audio, images, video
• data is content of resource identified
by URL
• interpretation data determined by
header fields:
WWW

• Hypertext & Hypermedia

• Browser Architecture
• Categories of Web Documents
• HTML
• CGI
• Java
Network Security

• Security Requirements
• confidentiality - protect data
content/access
• integrity - protect data accuracy
• availability - ensure timely service
• authenticity - protect data origin
Passive Attacks

• eavesdropping on transmissions
• to obtain information
– release of possibly sensitive/confidential
message contents
– traffic analysis which monitors
frequency and length of messages to
get info on senders
• difficult to detect
• can be prevented using encryption
Active Attacks

• masquerade
– pretending to be a different entity
• replay
• modification of messages
• denial of service
• easy to detect
– detection may lead to deterrent
• hard to prevent
–
Requirements for Security

• strong encryption algorithm

– even known, unable to decrypt without
key
– even if many plaintexts & ciphertexts
available
• sender and receiver must obtain
secret key securely
• once key is known, all
communication using this key is
type of
encryption/decryption
method
• Conventional Methods:
• Character-Level Encryption:
Substitutional & Transpositional
• Bit-Level Encryption:
Encoding/Decoding, Permutation,
Substitution, Product,
• Exclusive-Or & Rotation
• Public key Methods
Cryptography :RSA Security

• brute force search of all keys

– given size of parameters is infeasible
– but larger keys do slow calculations
• factor n to recover p & q
– a hard problem
– well known 129 digit challenge broken in
1994
– key size of 1024-bits (300 digits)
currently secure for most apps
• TEXT BOOKS
• Behrouz A. Foruzan, “Data communication and
Networking”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2004.
• REFERENCES
• James .F. Kurouse & W. Rouse, “Computer
Networking: A Topdown Approach Featuring”,
Pearson Education.
• Larry L.Peterson & Peter S. Davie, “COMPUTER
NETWORKS”, Harcourt Asia Pvt. Ltd., Second
Edition.
• Andrew S. Tannenbaum, “Computer
Networks”, PHI, Fourth Edition, 2003.
• William Stallings, “Data and Computer
Communication”, Sixth Edition, Pearson