Unit 4

Network Access

Overview

This lesson will discuss the used of physical layer and data link layer in data communications.

Learning Outcomes
The students should:

a. Explain how physical layer protocols and services support communications across data networks.
b. Explain the role of the data link layer in supporting communications across data networks.
c. Build a simple network using the appropriate media
d. Compare media access control techniques and logical topologies used in networks.

Course Materials

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8TbuZHmvYQ
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wK3QzfVnAZI
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-uKPOIXWQJ4

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgmcqcOThuI
Lesson 1

Physical Layer Protocols

Types of Connections

 Connecting to the wired LAN

 Connecting to the wireless LAN

The Physical Layer

 Encapsulation is a function of the data link layer. Different media types require different data link layer
encapsulation
 The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across
the network media.

Physical Layer Media

Electrical signals – copper cable

Light pulse – fiber optic cable

Microwave signals – wireless

Functions

Encoding – is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined code. It is used to distinguish data bits
from control bits and identify where the frames starts and ends.

Signaling-sending the signals asynchronously mean that they are transmitted without a clock signal.
Bandwidth

 Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds.

 Data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput.
 Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.
 Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second or megabits per seconds.

Throughput

 Throughput is the measure of transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
 Latency refers to the amount of time, to include delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.
 There is a third measurement to measure the transfer of usable data that is known as goodput.
 Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time (throughput) minus the traffic
overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgements, and encapsulation.

Lesson 2

Network Media

Characteristics of Copper Cabling

 Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical
current.
 Copper media is limited by distance and signal interference.
 Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses.
 Longer the signal travels, the more it deteriorates in a phenomenon referred to as signal attenuation. For
this reason, all copper media must follow strict distance limitations as specified by the guiding standards.

Three main types of copper media

 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

 Shielded twisted pair (STP)
 Coaxial

Copper media safety

 The separation of data and electrical power cabling must comply with safety codes.
 Cables must be connected correctly.
 Installations must be inspected for damage.
 Equipment must be grounded correctly.

Properties of UTP Cabling

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designer have discovered
that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk by cancellation.

Cancellation

When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each
other. Therefore, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out and also cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.
UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how many twist or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet)
of cable.

UTP Cabling Standards

Category 3

 Used for voice communications

 Most often used for phone lines

Category 5 and 5e

 Used for data transmission

 Cat 5 supports 100 Mb/s and can support 1000 Mb/s but it is not recommended
 Cat 5e support 1000 Mb/s

Category 6

 Used for data transmission

 An added separator is between each pair of wires allowing it to function at higher speeds
 Supports 1000 Mb/s up to 10 Gb/s, although 10 Gb/s is not recommended.

Types of UTP Cables

Cable type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight- Both ends T568A or both Connects a network host to a network device such as a
through ends T568B switch or hub.
Ethernet Crossover One end T568A, other end Connects two network hosts
T568B Connect two network intermediary devices (switch to
switch, or router to router)
Rollover Cisco proprietary Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port,
using an adapter

T568A

1 white of green
2 green
3 white of orange
4 blue
5 white of blue
6 orange
7 white of brown
8 brown

T568B

1 white of orange
2 orange
3 white of green
4 blue
5 white of blue
6 green
7 white of brown
8 brown

Properties of fiber optic cabling

 Fiber optic is now being used in four types of industry

Enterprise network
Fiber to the home (FTTH) and Access networks
Long haul networks
Submarine networks
 Although an optical fiber is very thin, it is composed of two kinds of glass and a protective outer shield.
 Core is consists of pure glass and is the part of the fiber where light is carried.
 Cladding is the glass that surrounds the core and acts as a mirror. The light pulses propagate down the core
while the cladding reflects the light pulses.
 Jacket is typically a PVC jacket that protects the core and the cladding.

Types of Fiber Media

Single-mode fiber

Consist of a very small core and uses expensive laser technology to send a single ray of light. Popular in long-
distance situations spanning hundreds of kilometers.

Multi-mode fiber

Consist of a larger core and uses LED emitters to send light pulses. Light from an LED enters the multimode fibers at
different angles. Popular in LANs. It provides bandwidth up to 10 Gb/s over link lengths up to 550 meters.

Fiber versus Copper

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-optic cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 MB/s – 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s – 100 Gb/s
Distance 1 to 100 meters 1 to 100, 000 meters
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High
Immunity to electrical hazards Low High
Media and Connector cost Lowest Highest
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest

Properties of wireless media

Wireless does have some areas of concern including

 Coverage area
 Interference
 Security

Types of Wireless Media

WiFi Bluetooth Wi Max

IEEE 802.11 standards IEEE 802.15 standard IEEE 802.16 standards
Variations include: Supports speeds up to 3 Mb/s Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 Provides device pairing over Uses a point to multipoint topology to provide
GHz distances from 1 to 100 meters wireless broadband access.
802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4
GHz
802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4
GHz
802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4
and 5 GHz
802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5
GHz
802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4
GHz, 5 GHz

Lesson 3

Data Link Layer Protocol

The Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes over a physical network media. It allows
the upper layers to access the media and controls how data is placed and received on the media. Specifically the
data link layer performs these two basic services:

1. It accepts layer 3 packets and packages them into data units called frames.
2. It control media access control and performs error detection.

Data Link Sublayers

The data link layer is actually divided into two sublayers:

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This upper sublayer defines the software processes that provide services to the network layer. It places information in
the frame that identifies which network layer protocol is being used for the frame. This information allows multiple
layer 3 protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to utilize the same network interface and media.

Media Access Control (MAC)

This lower sublayer defines the media access process performed by the hardware. It provides data link layer
addressing and delimiting of data according to physical signaling requirements of the medium and the type of data
link layer protocol in use. Separating the data link layer into sublayers allows for one type of frame defined by the
upper layer to access different types of media defined by the lower layer

Physical LAN Topologies

 Star Topology
 Extended Star topology
 Bus topology
 Ring Topology

Lesson 4

Media Access Control

Control Access

Characteristics Controlled Access Technologies

Only one station can transmit at a time Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
Devices wanting to transmit must wait their turn FDDI
No collisions
May use a token passing method

Contention-based Access

Characteristics Contention-based Technologies

Station can transmit at any time CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
Collision exist CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
There are mechanism to resolve contention for the media

The Frame

Frames have three basic parts

 Header
 Data
 Trailer