Computer Networks

Physical Layer

Dr. Satish Anamalamudi,

Department of CSE
SRM University-AP
 Transmission Terminology
• Data transmission occurs between a transmitter & receiver via some medium

• Guided medium
• eg. twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber

• Unguided / wireless medium

• eg. air, water, vacuum
 Transmission Terminology
 Direct link
 no intermediate devices

 Point-to-point
 direct link
 only 2 devices share link (Telephone Communication, Backbone optical Networks)

 Multi-point
 more than two devices share the link (Ethernet)
 Transmission Terminology
• Simplex
• one direction
• eg. television
• Half duplex
• either direction, but only one way at a time
• eg. police radio
• Full duplex
• both directions at the same time
• eg. telephone
 Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth
• Time domain concepts
• Analog signal
• Varies in a smooth way over time
• Digital signal
• Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant level
• Periodic signal
• Pattern repeated over time
• Aperiodic signal
• Pattern not repeated over time
Periodic
Signals
 Wavelength, Period and Frequency
• Arrow indicates one cycle of the signal.
• Period(T) : The time it takes to complete a cycle
• Frequency : Number of cycles per second
• Frequency=1/T
• Frequency (f)
– Rate of change of signal
– Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
– Period = time for one repetition (T)
– T = 1/f
• Wavelength : Distance occupied by one cycle.
• Amplitude : Value of the signal at different instants of time.
– Peak amplitude (A) : Maximum strength of signal
– Volts
a) Phase ()
– Relative position in time

http://www.procato.com/calculator-wavelength-frequency/
 Frequency Domain Concepts
 Signals are made up of many frequencies

 Components are sine waves

 Fourier analysis can show that any signal is made up of component sine waves

 Can plot frequency domain functions

 Digital Data
• As generated by computers etc.
• Achievable Bandwidth depend on data rate.
Analog and Digital Signals
 Transmission media
a) Magnetic media
– Tapes, diskettes
– Supports very high data rate (high bandwidth)
– A 8 mm tape = 7 GB  A 50*50*50 Cm box = 1000 tapes =7000 GB
7000GB/24 Hrs= 648 Mbps 7000GB/1Hr=15Gbps
– Sometimes it's cheaper and faster to load a box of tapes in your car!
– Problem: Delay !

b) Twisted pair (1)

– Simply two wires twisted together – thickness=1mm
The twisting cuts down on electrical interference.
– Heavily used in the phone system
– Until some Kilometers/ Some Mbps
– For Analog and Digital
 Transmission media (2)
a) Twisted pair (2)
– Bandwidth depends on thickness and distance
Need repeater for long distances
– Category 3 and 5 - with 5 having more twists and better insulation .
– Popular by UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

Cat3 Cat 5
• UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair
- Cat 3: Home telephone lines
- Cat 5: Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
- Cat 5e: Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
- Cat 6: 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gps) up to 100 m
- Cat 6A: Better quality Cat 6
- Cat 7: Includes shielding (not in common use)
 Transmission Media (3)
• Baseband Coaxial cable
– Used for digital transmissions (called baseband)
– Works only with half-duplex.
– Mostly used in LAN(steady drop after 0.62 miles)
– Data rates is 10 Mbps for 1 Km distance.
– Low cost(No need modems) and easy to use.
– Now being replaced by fiber.
• Broadband Coaxial cable
– Used for analog transmissions (called broadband.)
– Use 300 MHz for long distances using Frequency Multiplexing(FDM)
– Operates at distances up to 100 km (metropolitan area!)
– Interfaces must convert digital signals to analog and vice versa.
– Designed for long distances - can use amplifiers.
 Transmission Media (4)
• Fiber Optic (1)
– Transmission of light through fiber.
– Fiber medium: Current technology carries light pulses for tremendous distances (e.g., 100s of kilometres) with virtually no signal loss.
– Light source: typically a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or laser diode. Running current through the material generates a pulse of light.
– A photo diode light detector, which converts light pulses into electrical signals.
– Including 3 components:
• Light source: Pulse of light=1, absence of light=0
• Transition medium: an ultra-thin fiber of glass
• detector: generate an electrical pulse when light falls on it

Light source Light trapped by

(LED, Photodetector
total internal reflection
 Transmission Media (4)
• Advantages of Fiber optics:
• Very high data rate(response time=1ns, data rate = 1 Gbps ).
• Very low error rate(almost negligible).
• Much thinner than existing copper wires
• Not susceptible to electrical interference (lightning) or corrosion (rust).
• Greater repeater distance than coax.

Comparison of fiber optic and copper wire

Fiber Copper
Bandwidth Higher Lower
Distance between repeaters 30 KM 5 Km
Interference Low High
Cost High Low
Flow Uni-directional Bi-directional
 Wireless transmission

• Radio transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Lightwave Transmission
• Satellites
 Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)
Different bands have different uses:
− Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G; Networking focus

Microwave
 Electromagnetic Spectrum (2)

To manage interference, spectrum is carefully divided,

and its use regulated and licensed, e.g., sold at auction.

300 MHz 3 GHz

WiFi (ISM bands)

3 GHz Source: NTIA Office of Spectrum Management, 2003 30 GHz

Part of the US frequency allocations

 Electromagnetic Spectrum (3)
Fortunately, there are also unlicensed (“ISM”) bands:
−Free for use at low power; devices manage interference
−Widely used for networking; WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.

802.11 802.11a/g/n/ac
b/g/n