The Physical Layer

Chapter 2

• Theoretical Basis for Data Communications

• Guided Transmission Media
• Wireless Transmission
• Communication Satellites
• Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
• Public Switched Telephone Network
• Mobile Telephone System
• Cable Television

Revised: February 2018

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 The Physical Layer

Foundation on which other layers build

• Properties of wires, fiber, wireless
limit what the network can do Application
Transport
Network
Key problem is to send (digital) bits
Link
using only (analog) signals
Physical
• This is called modulation

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 Physical Layer Issues

• Media: wires, fiber, satellites, radio

• Signal propagation: bandwidth, attenuation, noise
• Modulation: how bits are represented as voltage signals
• Fundamental limits: Nyquist, Shannon

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 Abstract Model of a Link
Channel: bit rate, delay, error rate
Sender Receiver

• Bit rate: bits/sec depends on the channel’s bandwidth

• Delay: how long does it take a bit to get to the end?
• Error rate: what is the probability of a bit flipping?

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 Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Bits have a physical size on the channel!
• Storage capacity of a channel is: bit rate x delay
• Example:
• 100 Mbps 5000-km fiber, delay = 50 msec
• In 50 msec we can pump out 5 million bits
• So the fiber can store 5 million bits in 5000 km
• 1 km holds 1000 bits so a bit is 1 meter long
• At 200 Mbps, a bit is 0.5 m long

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 Signal Propagation over a Wire
• The signal has a finite propagation speed (2/3 c)
• The signal is attenuated per km
• Frequencies above a cutoff are strongly reduced
• Noise is added to the signal

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Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
Communication rates have fundamental limits

• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Maximum data rate of a channel

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 Sine wave
g(t) = A sin (2 π f t + ϕ)
A (Volts)

Period = 1/f Time

• A is the amplitude = how strong the signal is
• f is the frequency (cycles/sec or Hz) = how fast it changes in time
A (Volts)
A

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 Fourier Analysis
A time-varying periodic signal can be represented as a
series of frequency components (harmonics):

Signal over time a, b weights of harmonics

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 Bandwidth
• At the signal level, bandwidth refers to the range of
frequencies over which a signal can operate
effectively. It is typically defined as the difference
between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a
signal, where the signal's power falls to a certain
threshold (usually -3 dB) of its maximum value. This
is often expressed in hertz (Hz).
• For data transmission it is bits/sec

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals
Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal

8 harmonics

Lost!

Bandwidth

4 harmonics
Lost!

2 harmonics

Lost!

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Maximum Data Rate of a Channel - Nyquist
Nyquist’s theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth (B)
and number of signal levels (V) on a noiseless channel:

Max. data rate = 2B log2V bits/sec

• Examples
– 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), binary signals = 6000 bps
– 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), 4-level signals = 12,000 bps
– 3000 Hz channel (tel. line), 16-level signals = 48,000 bps

• Nyquist is a property of mathematics that relate

bandwidth to symbols/sec and bits/sec

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Maximum Data Rate of a Channel - Shannon

• Signal to noise is signal power to noise power:

- Expressed as log10 signal power/noise power
- S/N of 10 is written as 10 dB
- S/N of 100 is written as 20 dB
- S/N of 1000 is written as 30 dB

Shannon's theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth

(B) and signal strength (S) relative to the noise (N):

Max. data rate = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

How fast signal How many levels

can change can be seen
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 Example of Shannon’s limit
• DSL line of 1 MHz
• Suppose S/N = 50 dB (S = 100,000)
• Data rate = 106 log2 (100,001) bit/sec
• Data rate = 16.6 Mbps
• To go higher, you have to cheat:
- Fiber to the curb
- Bonding: Use two or more pairs
- Dynamic spectrum mgmt (basically, reduce noise)

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 Nyquist vs. Shannon
• Nyquist:
- For noiseless channel
- Depends on number signal levels per symbol

• Shannon
- For noisy channel
- Depends on S/N ratio, not bits/symbol

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Guided Transmission (Wires & Fiber)

Media have different properties, hence performance

• Reality check
– Physical transport of storage media
• Wires:
– Twisted pairs
– Coaxial cable
– Power lines
• Fiber cables

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 Transporting Physical Media
• AST 1990: Never underestimate the bandwidth
of a station wagon full of tapes hurtling down
the highway.

• Ultrium 7 tape = 6 TB, 400 cm2 (costs €100)

• Typical van has capacity of 7 x 106 cm2
• Van holds 17,500 tapes holding 105 x 1015 bytes
• One person can drive NYC to LA in 5 days = 4 x 105 s
• This is a bandwidth of 2 Tbps or 2000 Gbps

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 Amazon’s Snowmobile Service

• No longer. Enter Amazon’s Snowmobile service

• It is for companies to put their data in the cloud

• The Truck holds 100 PB (100,000 terabytes) on HDs

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 Wires – Twisted Pair
Very common; used in LANs, telephone lines
• Twists reduce radiated signal (interference)
• UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

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 Kinds of Wire

• STP = Shielded Twisted Pair

• UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair
- Cat 3: Home telephone lines
- Cat 5: Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
- Cat 5e: Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
- Cat 6: 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gps) up to 100 m
- Cat 6A: Better quality Cat 6
- Cat 7: Includes shielding (not in common use)

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 Connectors

RJ11 – 4 wires RJ45 – 8 wires

Modern buildings are wired for RJ45 but there are adaptors

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 Link Terminology
Simplex link
• Only one fixed direction at all times; not common
Half-duplex link
• Both directions, but not at the same time
• e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel
Full-duplex link
• Used for transmission in both directions at once
• e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction

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 Wires – Coaxial Cable (“Co-ax”)
Also common. Better shielding and more bandwidth for
longer distances and higher rates than twisted pair.

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 Wires – Power Lines
Household electrical wiring is another example of wires
• Convenient to use, but poor for sending data

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 Fiber Optics (1)

Three examples of a light ray from inside a

silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary
at different angles.

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 Fiber Cables (2)
Common for high rates and long distances
• Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home
• Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass

Light source Light trapped by

(LED, laser) Photodetector
total internal reflection

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 Fiber Cables (3)

Fiber has enormous bandwidth (THz) and tiny signal

loss – hence high rates over long distances

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 Fiber Cables (3)

Single-mode
• Core so narrow (10um) light can’t
even bounce around
• Used with lasers for long distances,
e.g., 100km

Multi-mode
• Other main type of fiber
• Light can bounce (50um core)
• Used with LEDs for cheaper, shorter
distance links

Fibers in a cable
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 TAT-14 TransAtlantic Cable

• Fiber cable lies on the ocean floor (8000 m deep)

• Ring structure
• Two pairs of fibers used plus two pairs for backup
• Theoretical capacity is 3 Tbps
• Cables are not well protected and there is no backup

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 Wire vs. Fiber

Comparison of the properties of wires and fiber:

Property Wires Fiber

Distance Short (100s of m) Long (tens of km)
Bandwidth Moderate Very High
Cost Inexpensive Less cheap
Convenience Easy to use Less easy
Security Easy to tap Hard to tap

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 Wireless Transmission
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Light Transmission
• Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

Different bands have different uses:

– Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight
– Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G; Networking focus

Microwave

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum (2)

To manage interference, spectrum is carefully divided,

and its use regulated and licensed, e.g., sold at auction.

300 MHz 3 GHz

WiFi (ISM bands)

3 GHz Source: NTIA Office of Spectrum Management, 2003 30 GHz

Part of the US frequency allocations

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum (3)
Fortunately, there are also unlicensed (“ISM”) bands:
– Free for use at low power; devices manage interference
– Widely used for networking; WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.

802.11 802.11a/g/n/ac
b/g/n

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 Radio Waves
• Radio waves have a frequency, f, in Hz
• They have a wavelength, λ in meters
• λf = c in vacuum
• Speed of radio/light = 1 foot/nsec
• For microwaves, megahertz x meters = 300
– 300 MHz waves are 1 meter long
– 1 GHz waves are 30 cm long
– 2.4 GHz waves are 12.5 cm long

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 Radio Transmission

Radio signals penetrate buildings well and propagate for

long distances with path loss

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio In the HF band, radio waves bounce off
waves follow the curvature of the earth the ionosphere.

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Name Abrv Band# F & Wavelength Use

Navigation, time signals, communication with

Very low 3–30 kHz
VLF 4 submarines, landline telephony, wireless heart rate
frequency 100–10 km
monitors, geophysics
Low 30–300 kHz Navigation, time signals, AM longwave broadcasting
LF 5
frequency 10–1 km (Europe and parts of Asia), RFID, amateur radio.
AM (medium-wave) broadcasts, amateur
radio, avalanche beacons, magnetic resonance
Medium 300–3,000 kHz
MF 6 imaging, positron emission tomography, electrical
frequency 1,000–100 m
telegraph, wireless telegraphy, radioteletype, dial-up
internet.
Shortwave broadcasts, citizens band radio, amateur
radio, over-the-horizon aviation
communications, RFID, over-the-horizon
High 3–30 MHz radar, automatic link establishment (ALE) / near-vertical
HF 7
frequency 100–10 m incidence skywave (NVIS) radio communications, marine
and mobile radio telephony, CT scan, magnetic
resonance imaging, positron emission
tomography, ultrasound, cordless phones.
 Microwave Transmission
Microwaves have much bandwidth and are widely used
indoors (WiFi) and outdoors (3G, satellites)
• Signal is attenuated/reflected by everyday objects
• Strength varies with mobility due multipath fading, etc.

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 Light Transmission
Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links
• Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
• Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors

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 Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Wireless:
+ Easy and inexpensive to deploy
+ Naturally supports mobility
+ Naturally supports broadcast
– Transmissions interfere and must be managed
– Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly

Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
– Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
– Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast

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 Communication Satellites

Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution

and anywhere/anytime communications
• Kinds of Satellites
• Geostationary (GEO) Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
• Satellites vs. Fiber

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 Kinds of Satellites
Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
• Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO),
and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)

Sats needed for

global coverage

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 Geostationary Satellites (1)

GEO satellites orbit 36,000 km above a fixed location

• VSAT (computers) can communicate with the help of a hub
• Up and down time is about 250 msec
• Big problem for voice

GEO satellite

VSAT

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 Geostationary Satellites (2)

The principal satellite bands

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 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Systems such as Iridium use many low-latency satellites

for coverage and route communications via them

The 66 Iridium satellites form six

necklaces around the earth.

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 Most satellite internet services come from single geostationary
satellites that orbit the planet at 35,786 km. As a result, the
round trip data time between the user and satellite—also
known as latency—is high, making it nearly impossible to
support streaming, online gaming, video calls or other high
StarLink data rate activities.Starlink is a constellation of thousands of
satellites that orbit the planet much closer to Earth, at about
550km, and cover the entire globe. Because Starlink satellites
are in a low orbit, latency is significantly lower—around 25 ms
vs 600+ ms.
 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (2)

Relaying in space.

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 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (3)

Relaying on the ground

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Voyager 1 at 24,758,490,068 km
Communication Network of Voyager 1
The radio communication system of Voyager 1 was
designed to be used up to and beyond the limits of
the Solar System. It has a 3.7-metre
(12 ft) diameter high-gain Cassegrain antenna to send
and receive radio waves via the three Deep Space
Network stations on the Earth. The spacecraft normally
transmits data to Earth over Deep Space Network
Channel 18, using a Radio frequency of either 2.3 GHz
or 8.4 GHz, while signals from Earth to Voyager are
transmitted at 2.1 GHz. When Voyager 1 is unable to
communicate with the Earth, its digital tape recorder
(DTR) can record about 67 megabytes of data for later
transmission
 Satellite vs. Fiber
Satellite:
+ Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after
satellites have been launched)
+ Can broadcast to large regions
– Limited bandwidth and interference to manage

Fiber:
+ Enormous bandwidth over long distances
– Installation can be more expensive/difficult
– Doesn’t work at sea or in remote areas

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 Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
Modulation schemes send bits as signals
Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users.

• Baseband Transmission
• Passband Transmission
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Code Division Multiple Access

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 Baseband Transmission
Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits
• NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=“1”, -1V=“0”)
• Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions

Four different line codes

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 Clock Recovery
To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions
• Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 um, 0? er, 0?

Strategies:
Manchester coding, mixes clock signal in every symbol
4B/5B maps 4 data bits to 5 coded bits with 1s and 0s:

Data Code Data Code Data Code Data Code

0000 11110 0100 01010 1000 10010 1100 11010
0001 01001 0101 01011 1001 10011 1101 11011
0010 10100 0110 01110 1010 10110 1110 11100
0011 10101 0111 01111 1011 10111 1111 11101

Scrambler XORs tx/rx data with pseudorandom bits

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 Passband Transmission (1)

Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier

signal sends bits in a (non-zero) frequency range

NRZ signal of bits

Amplitude shift keying

Frequency shift keying

Phase shift keying

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 Passband Transmission (2)

Constellation diagrams are a shorthand to capture the

amplitude and phase modulations of symbols:

BPSK QPSK QAM-16 QAM-64

2 symbols 4 symbols 16 symbols 64 symbols
1 bit/symbol 2 bits/symbol 4 bits/symbol 6 bits/symbol

BPSK/QPSK varies only phase QAM varies amplitude and phase

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 Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) shares the

channel by placing users on different frequencies:

Overall FDM channel

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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

• WiFi and Bluetooth change frequencies many times/sec

• Called “frequency hopping”
• Invented by Hedy Lamarr
• She patented it, but Navy wasn’t interested

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 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time division multiplexing shares a channel over time:

• Users take turns on a fixed schedule; this is not
packet switching or STDM (Statistical TDM)
• Widely used in telephone / cellular systems

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Code Division Multiple Access (1)

(a) Chip sequences for four stations.

(b) Signals the sequences represent
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Code Division Multiple Access (2)

(c) Six examples of transmissions.

(d) Recovery of station C’s

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The Public Switched Telephone Network

• Structure of the telephone system

• Politics of telephones
• Local loop: modems, ADSL, and FttH
• Trunks and multiplexing
• Switching

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Structure of the Telephone System (1)

(a) Fully interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
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Structure of the Telephone System (2)

A hierarchical system for carrying voice calls made of:

• Local loops, mostly analog twisted pairs to houses
• Trunks, digital fiber optic links that carry many calls
• Switching offices, that move calls among trunks

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Structure of the Telephone System (3)

Major Components
• Local loops analog twisted pairs to houses, businesses).
• Trunks (digital fiber optic links between switching offices).
• Switching offices (calls are moved from one trunk to
another)

• Core of phone system is optical & digital in Europe, US

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 The Politics of Telephones

There is a distinction for competition between serving a

local area (LECs) and connecting to a local area (at a POP)
to switch calls across areas (IXCs)
• Customers of a LEC can dial via any IXC they choose

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 Physics of Cat 3 Wiring

Bandwidth versus distance over Category 3

UTP for DSL.
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 Local loop (2): modems

Telephone modems send digital data over an 3.3 KHz

analog voice channel interface to the POTS
• Rates <56 kbps; early way to connect to the Internet

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Local loop (3): Digital Subscriber Lines
DSL broadband sends data over the local loop to the local
office using frequencies that are not used for POTS

• Telephone/computers
attach to the same old
phone line
• Rates vary with line
– ADSL2 up to 24 Mbps
– VDSL2 to 100 Mbps
• OFDM used to 1.1 MHz
– Most bandwidth down

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 Local loop (4): Fiber To The Home

FttH broadband relies on deployment of fiber optic

cables to provide high data rates customers
• One wavelength can be shared among many houses
• Fiber is passive (no amplifiers, etc.)

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 Pulse Code Modulation (1)

Calls are carried digitally on PSTN trunks using TDM

• A call is an 8-bit PCM sample each 125 µs (64 kbps)
• Traditional T1 carrier has 24 call channels each 125
µs (1.544 Mbps)

• Europe uses 8 bits for data: E1 at 2.048 Mbps

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 Pulse Code Modulation (2)

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers

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 SONET/SDH (1)

• Different carriers had to interconnect

• For international calls, T3 and E3 had to be harmonized
• Need for standards above T4 and E4
• Better network management was needed

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 SONET/SDH (2)

SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) is the worldwide

standard for carrying digital signals on optical trunks
• Keeps 125 µs frame; base frame is 810 bytes (52Mbps)
• Payload “floats” within framing for flexibility

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 SONET/SDH (3)

Hierarchy at 3:1 per level is used for higher rates

• Each level also adds a small amount of framing
• Rates from 52 Mbps (STS-1) to 40 Gbps (STS-768)

SONET/SDH rate hierarchy

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 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), another name

for FDM, is used to carry many signals on one fiber:

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Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (1)

(a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

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Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (2)

Timing of events in (a) circuit switching,

(b) packet switching
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 Circuit Switching/Packet Switching (3)

A comparison of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

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 QUEUEING DELAY
Packet

Switch

• Queueing delay for M/M/1 system: Q = 1/(1-ρ) * T

• Where ρ is the line utilization
• Examples:
- ρ = 0.01 means Q = 1.01T
- ρ = 0.5 means Q = 2T
- ρ = 0.8 means Q = 5T
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 Mobile Telephone System

• Generations of mobile telephone systems

• Cellular mobile telephone systems
• GSM, a 2G system
• UMTS, a 3G system
• 4G LTE
• 4G

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Generations of mobile telephone systems

• 1G, analog voice

– AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) is example, deployed
from 1980s. Modulation based on FM (as in radio).

• 2G, analog voice and digital data

– GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is example,
deployed from 1990s. Modulation based on QPSK.

• 3G, digital voice and data

– UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is
example, deployed from 2000s. Modulation based on CDMA

• LTE, digital data including voice

– LTE (Long Term Evolution) is example, deployed from 2010s.
Modulation based on OFDM

• 4G based on CDMA and 802.16m (WiMax)

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 Cellular mobile phone systems

All based on notion of spatial regions called cells

– Each mobile uses a frequency in a cell; moves cause handoff
– Frequencies are reused across non-adjacent cells
– To support more mobiles, smaller cells can be used

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
2G GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications (1)
• Mobile is divided into handset and SIM card
(Subscriber Identity Module) with credentials
• Mobiles tell their HLR (Home Location Register) their
current whereabouts for incoming calls
• Cells keep track of visiting mobiles (in the Visitor LR)

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
2G GSM – Global System for Mobile
Communications (2)
Air interface is based on FDM channels of 200 KHz
divided in an eight-slot TDM frame every 4.615 ms
• Mobile is assigned up- and down-stream slots to use
• Each slot is 148 bits long, gives rate of 27.4 kbps

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
2G GSM—The Global System for Mobile
Communications (3)

A portion of the GSM framing structure.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Goals for UMTS (3G)

Basic services desired

• High-quality voice transmission.
• Messaging (replacing email, fax, SMS, chat).
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, television).
• Internet access (Web surfing, incl. audio, video).

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 3G UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (1)
Architecture is an evolution of GSM; terminology differs
Not compatible with 2G GSM

Internet

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 3G UMTS – Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (2)
Air interface based on CDMA over 5 MHz channels
• Rates over users <14.4 Mbps (HSPDA) per 5 MHz
• CDMA permits soft handoff (connected to both cells)

Soft
handoff

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 4G

• ITU defined spec in 2008, before the technology existed

• ITU can’t enforce what carriers do or call their services
• Pure IPv6 packet switching, no circuit switching
• No voice (except as VoIP)
• 1 Gbps for stationary user, 100 Mbps for moving user
• Uses carrier aggregation (multiple bands together)
• Uses OFDMA (Orthogonal Freq. Div. Mux Access)

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 OFDMA

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4

0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1

Each channel is broadcast in parallel on different

frequency bands

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Cable Television

• Internet over cable

• Spectrum allocation
• Cable modems
• ADSL vs. cable

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Community Antenna Television

An early cable television system

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Internet over Cable

Internet over cable reuses the cable television plant

• Data is sent on the shared cable tree from the head-
end, not on a dedicated line per subscriber (DSL)

ISP
(Internet)

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 Internet over Telephone System

The fixed telephone system.

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Spectrum Allocation

Upstream and downstream data are allocated to

frequency channels not used for TV channels:

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 Cable Modems

Cable modems at customer premises implement the

physical layer of the DOCSIS standard
• QPSK/QAM is used in timeslots on frequencies that
are assigned for upstream/downstream data

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
Comparison of Cable and Telephone

Item Cable Internet Telephone Internet

Type of wiring Shared Dedicated
Interference from neighbors Possible Impossible
Wiring Coax CAT 3 twisted pair
Age of system Newer Very old
Max speed 400 Mbps 100 Mbps (copper)
Fiber possible? No Yes
Security Poor Good

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
 End

Chapter 2

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CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011