ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES B. Two-way Floor System - If the support ratio is S/L ≥ 0.

50, the
load is assumed to be delivered to the supporting beams and
girders in two directions. When this is the case, the slab is
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS referred to as a two-way slab

Structure

- refers to a system of connected parts used to support

a load. Important examples related to
civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and
towers.
- When designing a structure to serve a specified
function for public use, the engineer must account for
its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking 2. Beams and Girders
into consideration economic and environmental - Beams are usually straight horizontal members used
constraints primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are
- Often this requires several independent studies of classified according to the way they are supported, as
different solutions before a final judgment can be indicated in the figure
made as to which structural form is most appropriate
- This design process is both creative and technical and
requires a fundamental knowledge of material
properties and the laws of mechanics that govern
material response
- Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed,
the structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it
has its required stiffness and strength

- Beams are primarily designed to resist

TYPES OF STRUCTURES bending moment; however, if they are short and
1. Slabs - are flat horizontal panels that support the carry large loads, the internal shear force may
floor. It can be supported by beams/girders on edges become quite largely and this force may govern
or directly by columns. They carry gravity loads their design
and transfer them to the vertical - For bending and deflections, if the deformations
components (columns and/or walls), and also act disappear and the structure regains its original shape
as horizontal diaphragms by transferring the lateral when the actions causing the deformations are
load to the vertical components of a structure removed, the deformations are termed elastic
deformations
A. One-way Floor System - a slab or deck that is supported - The permanent deformations of structures are
such that it delivers its load to the supporting members by one- referred to as inelastic, or plastic, deformations
way action. It is often referred to as a one-way slab. One-way - A positive moment tends to bend a beam or
slab bends in only one direction along the short span. S/L < 0.50 horizontal member concave upward. On the other
hand, a negative moment tends to bend the beam or
member concave downward

Flexure Cracks - originates in the maximum moment region

because the flexural capacity of the beam is inadequate
Shear Cracks - Originates near supports because the shear E. Impact Loads - When live loads are applied rapidly to a
capacity of the beam is inadequate structure, they cause larger stresses than those that would be
produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually.
The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in
stress in the structure is referred to as an impact

3. Columns - members that are generally vertical and

resist axial compressive loads are referred to as
columns

2. Lateral Loads - The horizontal loads, induced mainly

by wind and earthquake
LOADS ON STRUCTURES
A. Wind Loads - When structures block the flow of wind,
Once the structural form has been determined, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential energy
the actual design begins with those elements that of pressure, which causes a wind loading. The effect of wind
are subjected to the primary loads the structure is intended to on a structure depends upon the density and velocity of the
carry and proceeds in sequence to the various supporting air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness
members until the foundation is reached. In order to design a of the structure, and the roughness of its surface
structure, it is, therefore, necessary to first specify the loads
B. Earthquake Loads - Earthquakes produce loadings on
that act on it
a structure through its interaction with the ground and
TYPES OF LOADS its response characteristics. These loadings result from
the structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s motion and
1. Gravity Loads - The vertical loads, due mainly to the the lateral resistance of the structure
occupancy, self-weight, and snow or rain

A. Dead Loads - consist of the weights of the various structural

members and the weights of any objects that are permanently
attached to the structure. The values for dead loads are shown
in NSCP Section 204, Tables 204-1 and 204-2 for common
material densities and minimum design dead loads for
common components

B. Live Loads - can vary both in their magnitude and location.

They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily
placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. NSCP NSCP 2015 Section 203.3: Load Combinations Using Allowable
Section 204, Table 205-1 provides recommended design live Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design
loads depending on the use of the space
203.3.1 Basic Load Combinations for Load and Resistance
C. Snow and Rain Loads - In some parts of the country, roof Factor Design (LRFD)
loading due to snow or rain can be quite severe, and therefore
protection against possible failure is of primary concern Where strength design or load and resistance factor
design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist
D. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure - When structures are used to the most critical effects from the following combinations
retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure of factored loads:
developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion
for their design 203-1 1.4(D + F)

203-2 1. 2 (D + F + T) + 1. 6(L + H) + 0. 5(Lr or R)

203-3 1. 2D + 1. 6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0. 5W) Sample Problem 1:

203-4 1. 2D + 1. 0W + f1L + 0. 5(Lr or R) Given:

203-5 1. 2D + 1. 0E + f 1 L • Dead Load = 450 KN

• Live Load = 200 KN
203-6 0.9D + 1. 0W + 1. 6H
• Roof Live Load = 80 KN
203-7 0.9D + 1. 0E + 1. 6H
Find the following:

1. Controlling load combination, factored load, and

203.3.4 Basic Load Combinations for Allowable Stress Design required nominal strength (LRFD). Use 0.9 as
(ASD) reduction factor.
2. Controlling load combination, service load strength
D+F and required nominal strength (ASD). Use factor of
D+H+F+L+T safety 1.67.

D + H + F + (Lr or R)

D + H + F + 0.75[L + T(Lr or R)] Sample Problem 2:

D + H + F + (0.6W or E/1.4) Results of the frame analysis of a certain structure

provide the following values of loads for one of the critical
where: members:

f1 = (Non-reducible live loads) 1.0 for floors in places of public • Gravity Loads: Dead load, D = 150kN; Roof live load,
assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live Lr = 60kN; Floor live load (non reducible), L = 240kN
load, or (Reducible live loads) 0.5 for other live loads • Wind Load: W = 50kN (compression); W = 20kN
(tension)
D = Dead load
• Seismic Load: E = 40kN (compression); E = 15kN
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and (tension)
maximum heights
Determine the following:
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or
1. Determine the factored load (kN) if the dead load and
expansion resulting from temperature change, shrinkage,
live load combination governs.
moisture change, creep in component materials, movement
2. Determine the design compression load if wind load
due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof
combination governs.
L = Live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live 3. Determine the value of factored compression load
load reduction (kN) if seismic governs in the design
4. Determine the critical factored load (kN) that will be
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
used in the design of the member.
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction

W = Wind load

E = Earthquake load or Seismic Load

INTRODUCTION TO FLEXURAL ANALYSIS OF BEAMS AND
= ρEh + Ev UNCRACKED CONCRETE STAGE

Assume a concrete beam with tensile reinforcing is

applied with small transverse load, and that the load is
For Required Nominal Strength: (LRFD) gradually increased in magnitude until the beam fails.
LRFD: Ra ≤ Φ (Rn)

ASD: Ra ≤ (Rn) / Ω

As this takes place, the beam will go through three (3)

distinct stages:
 1. The Uncracked Concrete Stage Conditions:
2. The Concrete Cracked – Elastic Stresses Stage
1. Compressive Stress < 0.5fc’
3. The Ultimate Strength Stage
2. Steel Stress < fy
Stage 1: The Uncracked Concrete Stage
Stage 3: The Ultimate Strength Stage (Beam Failure)
At small loads when the tensile stress (f) are less than
As the load is increased further so that the
the modulus of rupture, the entire cross-section of the beam
compressive stresses are greater than 0.50fc’, the tensile cracks
resists bending, with compression on one side and tension on
move farther upward, as does the neutral axis, and the
the other.
concrete compression stresses begin to change appreciably
Modulus of Rupture, fr - it is the bending tensile stress at which from a straight line.
the concrete begins to crack.
Conditions:
Conditions:
1. Compressive Stress ≥ 0.5fc’
1. f < fr : (Uncracked Concrete Stage) 2. Steel Stress ≥ fy

2. f = fr : (Cracked Concrete Stage)

Stage 2: The Concrete Cracked – Elastic Stage

When the load is increased, the tensile stress in

bottom of the beam becomes equal to the modulus of rupture,
the cracks then start to develop. The moment at which these
cracks begin to form is referred to as the cracking moment, Mcr.

Conditions:

1. M < Mcr : (Uncracked Concrete Stage)

2. M = Mcr : (Cracked Concrete Stage)

SUMMARY:

1st Stage: Small moments are less than the cracking moment.
The entire beam cross-section is available to resist bending

2nd Stage: When the moment is increased beyond the cracking

moment Mcr , the slope of the curve will decrease a little
Take note that this stage will continue as long as the because the beam is not quite as stiff as it was in the initial
compression stress in the top fibers is less than about one-half stage before it cracked
of concrete’s compression strength, fc’, and as long as the steel
3rd Stage: Until the steel yields, a fairly large additional load is
stress is less than the yield stress.
required to appreciably increase the beam’s deflection
Stage 1: Uncracked Concrete Stage Analysis 19.2.4 Lightweight concrete

Flexure Formula: [Link] To account for the properties of lightweight concrete,

a modification factor is used as a multiplier of in all
• If the beam is uncracked, the bending stress in the applicable provision of this code.
beam can be obtained based on the gross properties
of the beam cross section
• The stress in the concrete at any point at distance y
from the neutral axis of the cross-section can be
determined from the following flexure formula in
which M is the bending moment equal to or less than
the cracking moment of the section and Ig is the gross
moment of inertia of the cross section.
𝑴𝒚
f=
Ig

Cracking Moment (Mcr)

ACI 318-14

NSCP 2015

NSCP 2015

Modulus of Rupture (fr)

ACI 318-14
Sample Problem 1:

1. Compute the bending stress in the extreme tension

fiber of the beam in the figure for a bending moment
of 33 kN-m. The normal weight of concrete has an fc’
of 27.6 MPa. Does cracking occur in the section?
2. Determine the cracking moment of the section, in kN-
m.

Sample Problem 2:

1. Neglecting the steel reinforcements, calculate the

stress in the concrete at the top and the bottom
extreme fibers under a positive bending moment of
80 kip-ft, in psi.
2. If fc’ = 3,000 psi and normal weight concrete is used,
does cracking occurs? What is the maximum
uniformly distributed load the beam can carry if it is
used as a simple beam with 24-ft span without
exceeding the modulus of rupture of the concrete, in
lb/ft?