4 PAs AIOE SO ed ENGR. JANEL C. TAHIL Course InstructorCourse code / title Credit units Course Description Pre-requisit course/s re CED 315 / Structural Theory 3 units lec. & 3 units lab. This is a professional course common to all Civil Engineering students designed to provide fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the theory of structures and structural analysis for internal actions in a structure and its deformations under load. CED 225 - Mechanics of Deformable BodiesContent Stand In this lesson, the student is able to demonstrate the behavior and deformation of a structure under load. A prior knowledge about the fundamentals of force reaction calculations (refers to external forces) as well as their nature while acting in the structure (refers to the internal forces) is important.Course Outcomes At the end of this module, the student can be able to: 1. Identify and classify various types of planar and spatial; structural systems and the manner by which these are supported for stability. 2. Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy and stability of structural systems, externally and internallyTextbooks ELEMENTARY Bie) ge)y STRUCTURES peony Elementary Theory of Structures (4¢* E ieTopic ‘L: Introduction to Structural Engineering; The Analysis and Design Process; structural forms; nature of loads; building materials Topic 2: Types of supports; support reactions, degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacy for planar and spatial structures; degrees of freedom of joint translation and rotation; conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy of structures; Topic 3:Concept of axial, shear, torsional, flexural rigidities and stiffness of structural members.TOPIC 1 Introduction to Structural Engineering; The Analysis and Design Process; structural forms; nature of loads; building materialsStructural ee — Analysis is an yi integral part q . Of a structural | a ‘coe @ngineering ‘woe _ projectStructures can’t be analyzed. They can be load-tested We analyze the “model” of the structure aaa sss Structural Model " SeIt is imperative that the model represents the real structure i with an re appropriate likeness to 1) 2 hen capture the desired response+ Dead Load sLive Load * Wind Load * Seismic Load * Impact ~ Temperature + Roller Pinned Fixed + Spring + SettlementsStructural Analysis Output + Displacements + Axial Forces * Shear Forces * Bending Moments * StressesBeams Are usually horizontal members, primarily designed to resist bending moment. Columns Are generally vertical and designed to resist compressive loadsSeon a ie Creed Cee ur ee uy Pee iy Ee El Ce ea) Rec CE a each weighing Ce ES oe Cet Rone aria emis Ree au OC ie) Peace eee eatsDefinition: A continuous beam is one having more than one span and it is carried by several supports (minimum of three supports). Continuous beams are widely used in bridge construction.D Sample illustrations of Free body diagram/model for a continuous i a 2A Sample illustrations of Free body diagram/model for a continuous ~ beam w " a b c 0.5w er RP £ 0.5P 0.5w. up erredIllustration of the actual pplication of continuous beam 14* Street Bridge over Potomac River Continuous riveted steel girders. Note the absence of _ internal hinges and resulting internal-straining forces in the girders if one of the support should settle. (Washington, D.C.)Definition: A cantilever beam is one having supported on only one end. That means one end is fixed and the other end is exposed beyond the support.A ee illustrations of Free bodyU.C. parking structure ‘A’. The variable depth cantilever slab supports its own weight, automobile loading, and also any impact due to an automobile hitting the timber wall guard. (University of eile}STRUCTURAL FORMSMass structures consist of materials that are put together to form a solid structure. Their strength is a function of the weight and hardness of the materials. Examples of mass structures include dams, adobe walls, and mountains. Mass structures are robust in that small amounts of the structure can be lost with little effect on the strength of the structure, but are limited in application to relatively simple designs. Consider mass structures for barriers, walls, and small shelters— especially in primitive environments where building skills and materials are limited.Adobe wall Masonry wallae laneeagv Cael est) Frame structures consist of struts joined to form a framework. Their strength is a function of the strength of the elements and joints, and their organization. Often a cladding or skin is added to the frame, but this rarely adds strength to the structure. Examples of frame structures include most modern homes, bicycles, and skeletons. Frame structures are relatively light, flexible, and easy to construct. The most common frame configuration is the assembly of struts into triangles, which are then assembled to form larger structures. Consider frame structures for most large design applications.~—— eat eM tata nvT getsSpace FrameShell structures consist of a thin material that wraps around to contain a volume. They maintain their form and support loads without a frame or solid mass inside. Their strength is a function of their ability to distribute loads throughout the whole structure. Examples of shell structures include bottles, airplane fuselages, and domes.SY aTeV Saale le) Shell structures are effective at resisting static forces that are applied in specific ways, but are poor at resisting dynamic forces. For example, an egg effectively resists loads that are applied to its top and bottom, but collapses quickly when the loads are applied to its sidesShell Structure Shell structures are lightweight and economical with regards to material, but are complex to design and vulnerable to catastrophic failure if the structure has imperfections or is damaged. Consider shell structures for containers, small cast structures, shelters, and designs requiring very large and lightweight spans. Large shell structures should generally be reinforced by additional support elements to stabilize against buckling.BARREL VAULT SHELL ROOFNATURE OF LOADSwe Nature of Loads A well studied area is modelling of loading. Depending on the structure of interest, different types of loading will be prevalent. For example, a structure such as a bridge will experience a loading for each vehicle that passes over it, with the magnitude of the loading dependent upon factors such as weight of vehicles, and their time of arrival at the bridge. An airplane on the other hand, experiences stresses during flight, as a continuous function, coupled with spikes on take off and landing.Nature of Loads Measurement of the stresses at a particular point in a particular structure yields a trace which can be denoted S(f) representing the stress as a function of time. For different applications, the characteristic shape of this function will differ. It is useful to be able to classify the various stresses that will be experienced by structures, so that these may be taken into account during the design process. These functions may be summarized with statistics, which it is assumed yield a classification of the load experienced.The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet. The roof is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads. Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position.Live Loads Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load. These dynamic loads may _ involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.Live Loads Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or environmental loads.Live Loads Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers, equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects, such as planters and people. Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge.Environmental loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind, rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures. * Wind loads * Snow, rain and ice loads * Seismic loads + Hydrostatic loads + Temperature changes leading to thermal expansion cause thermal loads Ponding loads Frost heaving Lateral pressure of soil, groundwater or bulk materials Loads from fluids or floods Permafrost melting Dust loadsEngineers must also be aware of other actions that may affect a structure, such as: * Foundation settlement or displacement * Fire * Corrosion * Explosion * Creep or shrinkage * Impact from vehicles or machinery vibration * Construction loadsLoad Combination A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase, a dead load factor may be 1.2 times the weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load. These two "factored loads" are combined (added) to determine the "required strength” of the staircase.Load Combina The reason for the disparity between factors for dead load and live load, and thus the reason the loads are initially categorized as dead or live is because while it is not unreasonable to expect a large number of people ascending the staircase at once, it is less likely that the structure will experience much change in its permanent load.Aircraft structural loads For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads. Limit loads are the maximum loads a component or structure may carry safely. Ultimate loads are the limit loads times a factor of 1.5 or the point beyond which the component or structure will fail. Gust loads are determined statistically and are provided by an agency such as the Federal Aviation Administration. Crash loads are loosely bounded by the ability of structures to survive the deceleration of a major ground impact. Other loads that may be critical are pressure loads (for pressurized, high-altitude aircraft) and ground loads. Loads on the ground can be from adverse braking or maneuvering during taxiing. Aircraft are constantly subjected to cyclic loading. These cyclic loads can cause metal fatigue.