LOADS ON STRUCTURE

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students

are expected to
1. Define Structural Analysis;
2. Identify the different types of structural members;
3. Classify the types of structural loads as per NSCP 2010; and
4. Analyze and solve load distribution on structural members.

TIME FRAME: 12 Hours (3 weeks)

INTRODUCTION:

As it relates to civil engineering, a structure is a system of connected

members used to support external loads. The anticipated external loads are
estimated using the minimum loads prescribed in the code and coupled with
experience during the initial design phase. The objective is to ensure that the
structural members satisfy the safety and the serviceability requirements of
the National Building Code and the National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP).

To check your learnings from the pre-requisite to this subject,

which is the Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, we will have a
short pre-test. Please answer the exercise below and submit it
st
on the 1 week of the class.

PRE-TEST: Answer the following problems. Write your

solution in a bond paper and submit it on or before the end
of the 1st week.

INSTRUCTION: Add all the loads, to be converted in N, N/m,

N/m2 or Pa with your last 3 digit USeP ID number.
 Problem P1.1

A portion of the floor plan of a certain building as 5@2m=10m

shown is subjected to total vertical loads in
each bay.

10KPa

10KPa

10KPa
10KPa
10KPa
1. Determine the loads carried by beam AB. 6.0m
2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for
beam AB assume the supports are simply A
supported. Open Area 2.0m
3. Compare the shear and moment diagrams of

10KPa

10KPa
beam AB if each support is assumed to be

5KPa

5KPa

5KPa
4m
fixed at both ends. What is the implication of
the difference? B

✓ From the pre-test above and your previous lessons

in the Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, how do
you distribute the floor loads to the structural
members?
✓ Can you compute the support reactions?
✓ What assumptions you made to compute the beam
reactions?

Are you ready for our new lessons?

Ok, Let’s get started….

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INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1. Structural Analysis.
Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under
prescribed loads and other external effects, such as support movements and
temperature changes (Kassimali, 2011, p 3). Structural analysis is an integral
part of any structural engineering project, its function being the prediction of
the performance of the proposed structure.

2. Types of Structures
A combination of structural elements and the materials is referred to as a structural
system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures. The types of structures that we commonly encountered are as
follows.

2.1. Trusses
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in a triangular fashion, and
are frequently used for bridge and roof support. Trusses are assumed to be
pinned connected, thus carry pure axial forces only, either tension or
compression. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show the typical trusses.

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2.2. Cables and Arches

CABLES
Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the
arch. The cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. Cables
carry tension force only. Figure 1.3 shows a typical structural cable.

ARCHES
The arch achieves its strength in compression since it has a reverse curvature to
that of the cable. The arc must be rigid, however, to maintain its shape, and
this results in secondary loadings involving moments, which must be
considered in its design. Figure 1.4 shows a typical structural arch.

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2.3. Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that
are either pin or fixed connected. Members of a frame carry both axial force

and bending moment. The strength of a frame structure is derived from the

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 moment interactions between the beams and the, at the rigid joints. Figure 1.5
shows a typical structural frame.

2.4. Surface Structures

The surface structure is made from a material having a minimal thickness
compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and
can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases, the material
acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Figure1.6 shows a
typical surface structures.

3. Loads on Structure
Once the structural model of the structure is set up, i.e., the geometric
configuration is already defined and approved by the client, the next step is
estimating the loads that will be supported by the structure. Structural loads
can be classified into several groups: dead loads, live loads, and lateral loads.
There are two types of lateral loads; the wind load and the earthquake loads.
For this course, the wind load analysis is discussed since one course in
earthquake engineering will make sure the earthquake loading. These loads
are briefly described in the following sections.

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3.1. Dead Loads
Dead loads are structural loads of a constant magnitude over time. They include
the self-weight of structural members. The NSCP requires that dead loads
consist of the weight of all construction materials incorporated into the building
or other structure. It also includes but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings,
stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding, and other similarity
incorporated architectural and structural items and fixed service equipment,
including the weight of cranes. NSCP provides the minimum weight of Table
204-1 and Table 204-2.

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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 Sample 1.1
The floor system of a
building consists of a
150-mm-thick
reinforced concrete
slab resting on four
steel floor beams,
which in turn are
supported by two
steel girders, as shown in the figure
shown. The cross-sectional areas of
the floor beams and the girders are
9,480 mm2 and 33,740 mm2,
respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder
AD
Required:
1. Dead loads along beam CG
2. Dead loads along beam DH
3. Dead loads along girder AD

Solution:
Data: From NSCP 204-1
kN kN
γC = 23.6 3
; γS = 77 3
m m
𝐴𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 9,480 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 33,740 𝑚𝑚2

Solution:
1. Along Beam CG
Check first if one-way slab, m = S/L 11.35kN/m
m=3/8=0.375 < 0.5, one-way
C G
hence, distribution of the loads is by strip 8m
𝑊𝑆 = 23.6(0.15 ∗ 3) = 10.62𝑘𝑁/𝑚
9480 RC RG
𝑊𝐵 = 77 ( ) = 0.73 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
10002
𝑊𝐶𝐺 = 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝐵 = 10.62 + 0.73

𝑾𝑪𝑮 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝒌𝑵/𝒎 6.04 kN/m

2. Along Beam DH D H
8m
𝑊𝑆 = 23.6(0.15 ∗ (3/2) = 5.31 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 RH
9480 RD
𝑊𝐵 = 77 ( ) = 0.73 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
10002
𝑊𝐷𝐻 = 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝐵 = 5.31 + 0.73

𝑾𝑫𝑯 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟒𝒌𝑵/𝒎

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3. Along Girder AD
24.16 kN 45.4 kN 45.4 kN 24.16 kN
33740
𝑊𝐵 = 77 ( ) = 2.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 2.6kN/m
10002
8
𝑅𝐶 = 11.35 ( ) = 45.4 𝑘𝑁 A D
2 9m
8
𝑅𝐷 = 6.04 ( ) = 24.16 𝑘𝑁 RD
2 RA

𝒌𝑵
𝑾𝑨𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟔
𝒎
𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝑫 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵
𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟒 𝒌𝑵

3.2. Live Loads

Live loads are movable or temporarily attached to a structure. They include the
loads on a building created by the storage of furniture and equipment,
occupancy (people), and impact. NSCP requires that the live loads shall be the
maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy, but in no case
shall be less than the necessary loads in Table 205-1.

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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 Sample 1.2
The floor system of a building consists of a 150-mm-thick reinforced
concrete slab resting Girder

on four steel floor A B C D

beams, which in turn

are supported by two Floor Beam

steel girders, as shown

8m
in the figure shown.
Column
Floors ABFE and CDHG are used for a
typical office occupancy, while floor E F G H
BCGF is used for light storage.
3m 3m 3m
Determine the live loads acting on
the beams CG and DH and the girder AD.
Required:
1. Live loads along beam CG
2. Live loads along beam DH
3. Live loads along girder AD

Solution:
1. Along Beam CG
Check first if one-way slab, m = S/L 12.6kN/m
m=3/8=0.375 < 0.5, one-way hence,
distribution of the loads is by strip C G
8m
𝑊𝑂 = 2.4(3/2) = 3.6𝑘𝑁/𝑚
𝑊𝑆 = 6.0(3/2) = 9.0 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 RC RG
𝑊𝐶𝐺 = 𝑊𝑂 + 𝑊𝑆 = 3.6 + 9.0
𝑾𝑪𝑮 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝒌𝑵/𝒎
3.6 kN/m
2. Along Beam DH D H
8m
𝑊𝑂 = 2.4(3/2) = 3.6𝑘𝑁/𝑚
𝑾𝑫𝑯 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝒌𝑵/𝒎 RD RH

3. Along Girder AD
8
𝑅𝐶 = 12.6 ( ) = 50.4 𝑘𝑁
2 14.4 kN 50.4 kN 50.4 kN 14.4 kN
8
𝑅𝐷 = 3.6 ( ) = 14.4 𝑘𝑁
2 A D
𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝑫 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒 𝒌𝑵 9m
𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟒 𝒌𝑵 RA RD

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3.3. Lateral Loads: Wind Pressure
Wind loads are pressures exerted on structures by wind flow. Wind forces have
been the cause of many structural failures in history, especially in coastal
regions.
The first thing we need to know in calculating the wind load is the location of the
structure or building. It will tell us the basic wind speed (V) that we will consider
in our computation.
Basic Wind Speed, V
NSCP Table 207-1 shows the provinces or locations in the Philippines with its
corresponding basic wind speed are shown.
Exposure Category
The next step is to take its exposure category. It depends mainly on the
structure’s surrounding environment.

Exposure B
Urban and suburban area, wooden area, or other terrain with numerous closely
spaced obstruction having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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 Exposure C
Open terrain with scattered obstruction having heights generally less than 9
meters. This category includes flat open country, grasslands, and all water
surfaces in regions with records of extreme typhoons.
Exposure D
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud
flats and salt flats.

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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Importance Factor, I
Every structure has its importance factor (Iw) depending on its occupancy
category. Refer to Tables 207-3 (Iw) and 103-1 (Occupancy Category).

Wind Directionality Factor, Kd

This is solely based on what structural type/part we are designing. Use NSCP
Table 207-2. More often, the “Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS)”
and “Components and Claddings” are being considered since we are dealing
mostly with buildings and warehouses.
Main Wind Force Resisting Systems are structural elements that support large
area exposed to the wind. Meanwhile, Components and Cladding are the
structural elements that support small areas exposed to the wind.

Exposure Coefficient, Kz/Kh

The velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz or Kh) goes larger as the height
above the ground increases. All possible or applicable values of “height above
ground level” should be taken into consideration. When our structure lands in
exposure B, consider two cases (Case 1 and Case 2). Use NSCP Table 207-
4.

Topographic Factor, Kzt

For simplicity purposes, Kzt is usually equals to 1.
NOTE: For more detailed computation of Kzt, read NSCP 207.5.7.2 and 207.5.7.1.

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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Gust Factor, G
For stiff buildings and structures, use G = 0.85. (used most of the time)
For rigid buildings, read NSCP 207.5.8.1.

Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient (Cp) are based on the enclosure category of the structure
and location on a structure for which a pressure is to be computed.
L = Horizontal dimension of building measured normal/perpendicular to wind
direction
B = Horizontal dimension of building measured parallel to wind direction
H = Mean Roof Height (Height from the ground to the middle part of the roof)
Note: If angle is less than or equals to 10 degrees, use eave height (excluding the
roof)

Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP

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 Windward, Leeward, Side Wall
Side Wall

Wind Ward
Wind

LeeWard
Direction Plan View

Side Wall

Sign Conventions
Positive – The pressure is towards the structure.
Negative – The pressure is pointing away from the structure (suction).

GCpi
Values of GCpi
shall be used
with either qz
or qh. Two
Source: NSCP (2010). Buildings, Towers, and other Vertical Structures, Vol.1, ASEP
values must
always be considered: positive and negative.

Positive and Negative Internal Pressures

In computing the wind load of a structure, two cases are considered:

Positive Negative
Wind Internal Internal
Wind
Direction Pressure Pressure
Direction

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 In the computation process, the working formulas include the following.

P = Wind pressure (Normally the final objective in wind load analysis)

P = qGCp – q(GCpi)
q = 47.3 x 10-6 Kz Kzt Kd V2 Iw
Eave height = height of wall (excluding the roof)
Mean roof height (h) = height of wall + (height of roof/2)
Consider the following wind directions:
1. Wind Normal/Perpendicular to Ridge
2. Wind Parallel to Ridge
Wind Normal/Perpendicular To Ridge
qhGCp qhGCp

qhGCp

qzGCp qhGCp
?
qzGCp qhGCp

Wind B Plan View Elevation h

z
L
L
qhGCp

Gable, Hip Roof

Windward Wall
P = qzGCp – qh(GCpi)
P = qzGCp – qh(-GCpi)

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 Sample 1.3
A 28-meter-high rectangular-plan seven-story building with flat roof
and 4m-high floors, located in
Davao City CBD, has width of 20
meters and length of 30m, and a
large open front door on the first
floor that is 2m x 2.1m in
dimension. Assuming that G =
0.85 and that torsion is negligible. Building
to be partially enclosed. Structural type of
MWFRS, and of standard occupancy. Determine the following
1. Determine the external pressure coefficients due to wind load.
2. Determine the external pressure due along walls and roof of the building.
Required:
1. Pressure coefficients normal to the rood and against the walls.
2. External pressure along the walls and roof of the building.

Data: From NSCP Table 207

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 I believe by this time, you can already perform the following;
✓ Define Structural Analysis;
✓ Identify the different types of structural
members;
✓ Classify the types of structural loads as per
NSCP 2010; and
✓ Analyze and solve load distribution on structural members.

EXERCISE 1. Answer the following problems. Write

your solution in a bond paper and submit it on or
before the end of the 2nd week.

INSTRUCTION: Add all the loads, to be

Problem 1.1
converted in N, N/m, N/m2
or Pa with your last 3 digit
INSTRUCTION: Add all the loads, to be converted in N, N/m, N/m2 or Pa with your last
3 digit USeP ID number
USeP ID number.
A portion of the floor plan of a certain building as shown is subjected to gravity loads in
each bay. Slab 1(S1) is used for retail stores
while slab 2(S2) is used for office occupancy. 5@2m=10m
The slab thickness is 100mm of reinforced Girder
concrete with a specific gravity of 2.4. The
girders consist of 350mm x 400mm reinforced
S1

6.0m
S1

S1

S1

S1

concrete below the slab, while the beams

have a dimension of 250mm x 300mm
A Girder H
reinforced concrete below the slab.
Open Area 2.0m
Reinforced concrete column dimension
350mm x 350mm. Roof ceiling is made of C D E F
S1

S1

4m
S2

S2

S2

acoustic fiber board. The floor finish is made

of ceramic tile of 13mm mortar bed. Frame
partition is made of movable steel partition. B Girder I

Determine the following:

1. Dead and live load combination of beams CF and AB
2. Shear and moment diagrams of beam AB.
Assume the beams and girders are simply supported.

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Problem 1.2
INSTRUCTION: Add the height of the column with your last 3 digit USeP ID number /100

Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of

the rigid gabled frame of a nonessential industrial 6m

building shown in the figure. The structure is

located in a Central Business District of Makati City, 4m

Philippines, where the terrain is representative of

12m
exposure B. The wind direction is normal to the
ridge of the frame as shown. Width of of the building is 25m.

CONGRATULATIONS!
You’re done with the Lesson 1.

Now, let us PROCEED TO LESSON 2:

Equilibrium and Support Reactions …

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