SUBJECT: THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Course Code: CETHOS30 and CETHOS1D

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
-a systematic study of relationship involving the structural material and members,
the manner in w/c the structure is constructed & supported, the loads acting on the
structure & resulting deflections and forces

The performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of structures are:

1. Stresses or stress resultant, such as axial force, shear forces, and bending moments
2. Deflection
3. Support reactions

ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROJECT

“Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing
safe and economical structures that will serve their intended purposes.”

Process of Structural Design

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

DESIGN FORCES

There are 3 major design force we need to know so that we could design our members
well.

Bending AXIAL: FY
MAJOR AXIS BENDING: MX SHEAR: Fx and Fz
MINOR AXIS BENDING: Mz
TORSION: MY

Types of Structures and Loads

Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers.

When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer
must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires several independent
studies of different solutions before final judgment can be made as to which structural
form is most appropriate. This design process is both creative and technical and requires
a fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of mechanics which
govern material response. Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the
structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

FACTORS: DESIGNING STRUCTURES

Safety
Esthetics
Serviceability
Economic and Environmental Constraints

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

Structure – refers to a system of connected part to support a load.
Examples:
o Buildings
o Bridges
o And Towers

Other Branches
o Ship and Aircraft frames,
o Tanks
o Pressure Vessel
o Mechanical Systems
o And electrical Supporting Structures

Classification of Structures

Structural Elements

Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a tensile force are

often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature
of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often
chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels, Fig. 1–1.

Beams. Beams are usually straight horizontal members used

primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are classified
according to the way they are supported, as indicated in Fig.
1–2. In particular, when the cross section varies, the beam is
referred to as tapered or haunched. Beam cross sections may
also be “built up” by adding plates to their top and bottom.

Columns – are generally vertical and resist axial

compressive loads. Columns are subjected to both an
axial load and a bending moment.

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

TYPES OF STRUCTURES
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are
composed is referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or
more of four basic types of structures.

1. Trusses – consist of slender elements, usually arranged in

triangular fashion. Due to the geometric arrangement of its
members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend are
converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members.

2. Cables – are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.

They are commonly used to support bridges and building
roofs. Because they are always in tension, cables will not
become unstable and collapse, as may happen with beams
or trusses.

3. Arches – achieve strength in compression since it has a

reverse curvature to that of the cable. Arches are frequently
used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and for openings in
masonry walls.

4. Frames – are often used in buildings and are composed of

beams and columns that are either pin or fixed connected. The
strength of such a frame is derived from the moment interactions
between the beams and the columns at the rigid joints.

5. Surface Structures– made from a material having a very small thickness compared to
its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a
tent or air- inflated structure.

Components of structural system

1. Structural members – the load bearing components of the system

2. Connections (joints)
3. Supports – this provides restraints that connect the structure to some stationary
body.

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Support for structures

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Loads imposed on a structure

1. Dead loads
- the weight of the structure itself with the material permanently attached to it
- regarded as fixed in magnitude and location

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2. Live loads
a. movable loads – loads that may be transported from one location to another
w/o dynamic impact.
b. moving loads – loads that move continuously over the structure.
Examples: train, wind on a roof or wall, dynamic forces due to earthquake.

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte
Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte
TRIBUTARY LOADINGS
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, of roofs are supported by a structural
frame, it is necessary to determine how the load on these surfaces is transmitted to the
various structural elements used for their support. There are generally two ways in
which this can be done. The choice depends on the geometry of the structural
system, the material from which it is made, and the method of its construction.

One-Way System
A slab or deck that is supported such that it delivers its load to the supporting members
by one-way action, is often referred to as a one-way slab
𝑠
< 0.5
𝑙
“s” is for shorter span and “l” is for longer span

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The floor beam in Fig. 1–8 is used to support the 6-ft width
of a lightweight plain concrete slab having a thickness of 4
in. The slab serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor
below, and therefore its bottom is coated with plaster.
Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12-in.-thick lightweight solid
concrete block wall is directly over the top flange of the
beam. Determine the loading on the beam measured per
foot of length of the beam.

2. The floor system of a building consists of a 15-

cm-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on
four steel floor beams, which in turn are
supported by two steel girders, as shown in Fig.
2.1(a). The cross-sectional areas of the floor
beams and the girders are 94.8 cm2 and 337.4
cm2, respectively. Determine the dead loads
acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder
AD.

3. The roof system of an office building consists of a 100 mm-thick reinforced concrete
slab resting on four steel beams (A = 10,450 mm^2), which are supported by two steel
girders (A = 27,700 mm^2). The girders, in turn, are supported by four columns, as shown
in Fig. P2.4. Determine the dead loads acting on the girder AG.
The roof of the office building considered in Problem is subjected to a live load of 1
kN/m2. Determine the live loads acting on the beam EF, the girder AG, and the column
A.

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

Determinacy and Stability of Structures

Degree of Determinacy – number of redundant forces in a Structure

Redundant Forces – forces that cannot be found by solving the equations of equilibrium.

Beams

1. r < c + 3 unstable
2. r = c + 3 stable and determinate
3. r > c + 3 indeterminate

Where c = no. of additional conditions

c = 1 for internal hinge
c = 2 for internal rollers
c = 0 for beams without internal conditions

FRAMES

Internally Determinacy

𝒊 = (𝟑𝒎 + 𝒓) – (𝟑𝒋 + 𝒆𝒄 )
𝑒𝑐 = conditional equation
- Release condition within the structure that provide extra equilibrium equations.

Internal hinge
𝒆𝒄 = 𝒏 − 𝟏

n = number of members that is attached to the internal pin/roller

For truss
𝒆𝒄 = 𝟐𝒎 − 𝒋

𝒊 = 𝒎 + 𝒓 − 𝟐𝒋

𝑖 = 0 (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝑖 > 0 (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝑖 < 0 (𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)

i = degree of indeterminacy
m = number of members
j = number of joints
r = number of reactions

Sample Problem

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TRUSSES
Figure Conditions Classifications

BEAMS

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FRAMES

Figure Conditions Classifications

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 By Area Method Shear and Moment Diagram

Properties of Shear and Moment Diagrams

The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the
moment at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point.
3. The slope o8f the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.
4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to
property number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is
zero, the tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.

Sign Convention for Load, Shear and moment:

a. Load (Force) + ↑ upward
- ↓ downward

b. Slope of inclined line

upward to the right +positive
downward to the left -negative

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 c. Shear (when the left segment tends to move upward relative to the right segment)

d. Moment (f the beam bends concave upward, the moment acting on the ends of
the beam are positive)

Analytical Relations among load, shear and moment

1. dV/dx = w
2. dM/dx = V
3. ΔV = VB-VA
4. ΔM = MB-MA
5. Max moment occur at a point where the shear is zero or where the shear diagram
crosses the x-axis.

Load Diagram Shear Diagram Moment Diagram

1. No Load Horizontal Line Inclined Line
2. Concentrated Load Vertical Line Dot or Point
3. UDL (0˚) Inclined Line Curve Line (2˚)
4. UVL (1˚) Curve Line (2˚) Curve Line (3˚)
5. Couple Dot or Point Vertical Line

Concavity of 2˚ and 3˚ curved Line

Load Shear Shear Moment

Decreasing Concave Downward Decreasing Concave Downward

Increasing Concave Upward

Increasing Concave Upward

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Draw the Shear and Moment Diagram by Area Method

Prepared By: Engr. Mike A. Villafuerte

1.

2.

Shear and Moment Diagram of Frames

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1.

2.

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