1

STEEL DESIGN
ECVL 466
Dr. Sana Amir
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering
American University in Dubai
Famous Steel Structure – Eiffel tower, Paris
 3

Syllabus
• Behavior of structural steel in tension and compression. Design
methods for tension and compression members and beams.
Design and analysis of welded and bolted connections. Design
project.
TEXTBOOKS AND ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Steel Design, (5th edition), by William T Segui, Publisher: CENGAGE
1.
Learning.
Steel Construction Manual, (14th edition), American Institute of Steel
2.
Construction (AISC).
 4

Lecture plan
WEEK TOPICS TO BE COVERED C H.

1 Discussion of course syllabus. 1

Introduction to structural steel design

2 Structural steel materials, basic structural steel shapes 1

3 Design loads, building codes and specifications, design 2

philosophies, ASD vs. LRFD

4 Tension members, typical shapes of tension members, 3

net and gross area, effective area

5 Staggered bolted connections, block shear, design of 3

tension members
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WEEK TOPICS TO BE COVERED C H.

8 Effective length, design of compression members 4

9 Flexural members, typical shapes of flexural members, 5

bending stress and the plastic moment

10 Classification of sections – compact vs. noncompact, 5

torsional and flexural-torsional buckling

11 Shear strength of beams, deflection, design of flexural 5

members
Midterm 2

12 Beam-columns, interaction formulas, moment 6

amplification

13 Braced vs. unbraced frames 6

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Evaluation

Homework Assignments and Quizzes 20%

Project 10%
Two Midterm Exams @ 20% each 40%
Final Exam 30%
Total 100%
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Please bring your calculators in class.

No programmable calculators are allowed.
A simple scientific calculator only!
 Week 1
Introduction to Steel Design
Creativity
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1.1 Introduction: Structural Design

The structural design of buildings, whether of structural steel or
reinforced concrete, requires the determination of the overall
proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the
selection of the cross sections of individual members.

In most cases the functional design, including the establishment

of the number of stories and the floor plan, is done by an
architect, and the structural engineer must work within the
constraints imposed by this design.

Ideally, the engineer and architect will collaborate throughout the

design process to complete the project in an efficient manner.
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Design Considerations
Safety
Adequate strength during and after construction, Resistance to progressive
collapse

Serviceability
Deflection control, Vibration control

Construction
Built as designed, Tolerance must be allowed

Economy
Check available resources (Materials and Sections).
Contact Suppliers and check different prices.
Study different structural systems and compare prices.
Use as many elements as needed. Try to take advantage of repetition
(floors, beams, columns, connections, and footings). Use the simplest
appropriate detail.
Creativity
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1.2 Loads
Applied loads are majorly classified as:
• Dead loads
• Live loads

Can also be classified into:

• Static (gravity type loads): Do not change magnitude or
position, direction
• Dynamic (earthquake type loads, due to inertia of the
mass of structure). Usually causes vibration: Change in
magnitude and direction with respect to time.
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• Dead Loads: static, structure weight, cladding, and fixed

equipment. Stationary loads of constant magnitude
(caused by the weight of the structure) and can generally
be estimated with reasonable certainty.

• Live Loads: moving loads and transient that include

weight of people, furniture, vehicles, etc. They depend on
type of structure and occupancy.

The magnitude of a live load is not as well defined as that of a dead

load. Must be estimated and Investigated for various positions of a live
load so that a potential failure condition is not overlooked.
 15

Sub-categories of live loads (can be categorised

separately)
1. Wind load (also a type of lateral load):
Wind exerts a pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of a building, and because
of its transient nature, it can be considered as a live load.

Because of the relative complexity of determining wind loads, however, wind is

usually considered a separate category of loading. Lateral loads are most detrimental
to tall structures, wind loads are usually not as important for low buildings, but uplift
on light roof systems can be critical.
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2. Snow load

3. Earthquake load: Earthquake loads are another special category and need
to be considered only in those geographic locations where there is a
reasonable probability of occurrence

It is usually lateral dynamic load.

It depends on many factors including the seismic zone, structure stiffness,
mass, period of vibration, etc.
Structural Dynamics approach.
Equivalent Static Force approach.
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4. Hydrostatic and soil pressure

5. Other natural Loads: Blast, temperature changes, and differential

settlement of the foundations

6. Moving loads (moving trucks on highway bridges)

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Live load as Static or Dynamic

If a live load is applied slowly and is not removed and

reapplied an excessive number of times, the structure can
be analysed as if the load were static. If the magnitude or
position of a load are constantly changing with respect to
time, it is considered as a Dynamic load.
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Impact and Fatigue

If the live load is applied suddenly, as would be the case when the
structure supports a moving crane, the effects of impact must be
accounted for. If the load is applied and removed many times over the
life of the structure, fatigue stress becomes a problem, and its effects
must be accounted for.

Impact loading occurs in relatively few buildings, notably industrial

buildings, and fatigue loading is rare, with thousands of load cycles
over the life of the structure required before fatigue becomes a
problem.

For these reasons, all loading conditions in this course will be treated
as static, and fatigue will not be considered.
No Limit of Architectural Design
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1.3 Building Codes

• Are legislative documents that make the model
specifications “legal” requirements, regulating building
construction

• Adopted by Government Legislative Authorities for

buildings within their jurisdiction

• Are minimum requirements intended to protect the public

• Applies to New Construction, rehabilitation or alteration

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Objective of Building Codes:

“To establish the minimum acceptable requirements for preserving

the public health, safety and welfare in a built environment”

Building codes do not give design procedures, but they do specify

the design requirements and constraints that must be satisfied.

Important: Minimum live loads to be considered are specified by

Building Codes!
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Model Building Codes by national code

organizations - USA
• UBC Uniform Building Code (International Conference of
Building Officials, ICBO 1999)
• SBC Standard Building Code (Southern Building Code
Congress International, SBCCI 1999)
• BOCA National Building Code (Building Officials and
Code Administrators, BOCA 1999)

IBC: International Building Code (International Code

Council, 2009). It incorporates much of ASCE 7 in its load
provisions. Replaced the previous regional codes (ICBO,
BOCA, and SBCCI).
Slender columns, more space
 25

1.4 Design specifications

• Developed by organizations such as AISC, ACI and AASHTO

• Give more specific guidance for the design of structural

members and their connections
•
• Describe the criteria and guidelines to enable a structural
engineer to achieve the objectives mandated by a building
code

• Recommendations of good practice based on the accepted

body of knowledge

• are NOT legally enforceable

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Steel design codes

• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC): This specification
provides for the design of structural steel buildings and their connections
(AISC, 2010).
• American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO): Covers the design of highway bridges and related
structures. It provides for all structural materials normally used in bridges,
including steel, reinforced concrete, and timber (AASHTO, 2010).
• American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association (AREMA): The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
covers the design of railway bridges and related structures (AREMA, 2010).
This organization was formerly known as the American Railway Engineering
Association (AREA).
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI): This specification deals with
cold-formed steel, which we discuss in Section 1.6 (AISI, 2007).
Weather Independent Construction
 28

Steel Design
The emphasis in this course will be on the design of
individual structural steel members and their connections.

WHY?

To produce an efficient and economical design but cannot do so

without a thorough understanding of the design of the components (the
“building blocks”) of the structure.

Thus component design is the focus of this course.

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Introduction to Steel Structures

• Steel structures are assembly of structural steel
shapes joined together by means of riveted /
bolted or welded connections.
• Selection of a section out of those available in
the market.
• Concrete members are easily joined together
by monolithic construction. But special
methods are required to join individual
members for steel structures.
• Steel construction is being used for almost every type
of structure including multi-storey buildings, bridges,
industrial buildings, towers, etc.

• There are two main categories of steel structures:-

- Framework or skeletal systems.

- Shell systems.
Framework Or Skeletal Systems
• The main load carrying elements in this type
are one-dimensional or line elements (such as
beams, columns, etc.) forming two-
dimensional or three-dimensional frames.

• Examples are:-
The frameworks of industrial buildings with
their internal members such as crane girders,
platforms, etc.
- Highway and railways large span bridges.
- Multi-storey buildings
- Towers, poles, structural components of hydraulic
works.
- All other trusses and rigidly connected frame
structures.
Shell Systems
• The main load carrying elements in this category of
structures are plates and sheets besides some skeletal
members.
• Examples are:-
- Gas tanks for the storage and distribution of gases.
- Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of liquids.
- Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose
material.
- Special structures such as blast furnaces,
air heaters, etc.
- Large diameter pipes.
- All other plate and shell structures.
Steel structures – Examples & Merits
Freedom of Expression
Creativity
Creativity
Easy Extension
Easy Fixing of Facade
Easy and Efficient Fabrication
Express Function
Large Span
Large Span
No Limit of Architectural Design
No Limits of Architectural Design
Recycling is possible
Slender columns, more space
Transparency
Visible Connections
Visible Connections
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Assignment 1 – Due on Sep, 8th 2015.

• Search two remarkable steel structures from

the web, attach photographs and brief
description of each.
• Explain why you find them interesting.
• Should be 2 to 3 pages long.
Week 2
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Types of Structural Steel Members

There are a large number of standard rolled shapes and
sizes from which a structural designer can select steel
members. The AISC-LRFD manual (Part 1) lists the sizes
and shapes of these sections.

The largest category of standard shapes includes those

produced by hot-rolling.
Hot rolled and cold worked steel
Hot rolling takes place in a mill.

Molten steel from electric arc furnace  continuous casting system where the
steel solidifies but is never allowed to cool completely.
The hot steel passes through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into
the desired cross-sectional shape. Rolling the steel while it is still hot allows it
to be deformed with no resulting loss in ductility, as would be the case with cold
working.

During the rolling process, the member increases in length and is cut to
standard lengths, usually a maximum of 65 to 75 feet, which are subsequently
cut (in a fabricating shop) to the lengths required for a particular structure.
Hot Rolled Sections
Common Rolled Sections
W - Wide flange
S - American Standard
L – Angles may have equal or unequal length legs
C – Channel sections
T – Tees are cut from W or S sections
Others (Z, HP, M, WT, ST, MC, HSS, etc.)
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Hot Rolled Sections
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Slope  16.7% Slope

0o

W Section S-Section Angle-Section

Equal to
flange
16.7% Slope

Channel Tee
Section Section HP-Section

Common Steel Structural Shapes.

W section: “W18 × 70,” W indicates the type of shape, 16 is the nominal
depth parallel to the web, and 40 is the weight in pounds per foot of
length.

The equivalent SI designation of a W-section has a nominal depth in

mm and a weight in kgf/m. This kilogram-force weight per unit length
may be converted in kN/m by multiplying it with the factor 9.81/1000.

The American Standard, or S-shape, S18 × 70, is similar to the W-

shape, except narrow flanges with insides sloping towards the web.
Formerly the I-section.
Angle section: “L6 × 6 × 3⁄4” The three numbers are the lengths of each of the two
legs and the thickness, which is the same for both legs. In the case of the unequal-
leg angle, the longer leg dimension is always given first.
If a = b, these are called equal angle sections. b

If a  b, these are called unequal angle sections. a

Double angle sections are combination of two angles with longer or shorter sides
close to each other. Double angle sections are denoted by 2Ls. Also called built-up
sections (definition later).

8x6x¾ 8x6x¾

2Ls 8 x 6 x ¾
The American Standard Channel, or C-shape, has two flanges and a web, with only
one axis of symmetry; it carries a designation such as “C9 × 20”. The first number
giving the total depth in inches parallel to the web and the second number the
weight in pounds per linear foot. The inside faces of the flanges are sloping.
Double channels sections 2Cs are also used.

Miscellaneous Channels—for example, the MC10 × 25—are similar to

American Standard Channels. Relatively lightweight
• The Structural Tee is produced by splitting an I-shaped member at mid-depth.
This shape is sometimes referred to as a split-tee. The prefix of the
designation is either WT, ST, or MT, depending on which shape is the parent.

• The “M” is for “miscellaneous.” The M-shape has two parallel flanges and a
web, but it does not fit exactly into either the W or S categories.
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PL1/2 x 6 x 1 ft 4 in. is a steel plate ½ in. thick, 6 in. wide, and 16 in long.

Steel pipe is available as standard, extra-strong, or double-extra-strong, with

designations such as Pipe 5 Std., Pipe 5 x-strong, or Pipe 5 xx-strong, where
5 is the nominal outer diameter in inches.

The designation HSS is for “Hollow Structural Sections.

 Cold formed steel
• Structural shapes of this type are created by bending thin
material such as sheet steel or plate into the desired shape
without heating.
• Only relatively thin material can be used, and the resulting
shapes are suitable only for light applications.
• Versatile: Almost any conceivable cross-sectional shape can
easily be formed.
• Cold-working will increase the yield point of the steel, and
under certain conditions it may be accounted for in design
(AISI, 2007).

• Reduction in ductility.
• Because of the thinness of the cross-sectional elements,
instability is a particularly important factor in the design of cold-
formed steel structures.
Cold Formed Sections
Cold Formed Sections
Built-up sections
Joining steel sections together gives a built-up section. A built-up shape must be
used because none of the standard rolled shapes are large enough; that is, the
cross section does not have enough area or moment of inertia.

Building up sections is an effective way of strengthening an existing structure that

is being rehabilitated or modified for some use other than the one for which it was
designed.
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4-Angle Box
Section

Some Examples of Built-Up Sections.

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1.5 Steel as a Structural Material

Steel, an alloy of primarily iron and carbon, with fewer
impurities and less carbon than cast iron, was first used in
heavy construction in the nineteenth century.

With the advent of the Bessemer converter in 1855, steel

began to displace wrought iron and cast iron in construction.

In the United States, the first structural steel railroad bridge

was the Eads bridge, constructed in 1874 in St. Louis,
Missouri (Tall, 1964). In 1884, the first building with a steel
frame was completed in Chicago.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel

as a material
Advantages:
Homogeneous, isotropic and elastic up to the yield point. It has high
compressive and tensile strengths and offers significant ductility past yield
point
Erection and fabrication procedures for steel structures are well developed
and are relatively easy
Properties do not change appreciably over time
High strength to weight ratios
Can be welded
Can be recycled
Good Fracture Toughness
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Disadvantages:
Corrosion (painting, maintenance costs).
Need for fire proofing
Buckling of slender members
Fatigue
 1/16/2020 78

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL based on %age

of carbon
Steels are divided into four categories depending on the
carbon percentages (C) as follows:

1- Low carbon steel C < 0.15%

2- Mild carbon steel C = 0.15 − 0.29%

3- Medium carbon steel C = 0.30 − 0.59%

4- High carbon steel C = 0.60 −1.70%

 1/16/2020 79

Most of the structural steel falls into the mild carbon steel or
simply mild steel (MS) category.

Hot rolled structural shapes may be made to conform to

A36M, A529M, A572M, A588M, A709M, A913M and A992M.

Bolts are made according to ASTM standards A307, A325M,

A449, A40M and F1852.
 80

Mechanical Properties of steel

The characteristics of steel can be examined by plotting the
results of a tensile test. If a test specimen is subjected to an
axial load P, as shown in Figure, the stress and strain can
be computed as follows:

σ=

σ=
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Stress-strain curve of mild steel under tension

 82

The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range, denoted E and called
Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the same for all structural steels and
has a value of 29,000,000 psi (pounds per square inch) or 29,000 ksi (kips per
square inch). Or 200 GPa in SI units.

Idealized stress-strain curve for mild steel High strength steel – less ductile
1/16/2020 83

E-value for steel = 185 GPa to 230 GPa

(Average 200 GPa)

Unit weight = 7850 kg/m3

= 77 kN/m3
1/16/2020 84

Most commonly used structural steel is A36M

having the following properties:
Fy = 36 ksi
Fu = 58 to 80 ksi (not as precise as yield)
E = 29000 ksi
Weld electrodes are classified as E60, E70, E80,
E100 and E110. The letter E denotes electrode.
The two digits indicate the ultimate tensile strength
in ksi. The corresponding SI equivalents are E425,
E495, E550, E690, E690 and E760.
Classification of structural steels based on grade
There is a number of structural steel types with ASTM designations listed
in the LRFD manual.

ASTM specifications cover:

• Chemical composition
• Material mechanical properties
• Form of element: plate, bar, rolled shape.

Steel types are generally referred to by ASTM number.

The most commonly used structural steels are:

• Structural carbon steel (ASTM A36 - Grade 36, and A529)
• High-strength low-alloy steel (ASTM A572 - Grade 50)
• High-strength low-alloy steel (ASTM A992 – Grade 50, and A441)
Quenched and Tempered Alloy:
A514 and A852
• Much Higher Yield Strength
• Higher cost due to heat treating
• Not well-defined yield plateau
• Lower ductility
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• The most commonly used steels for rolled shapes and

plate material are ASTM A36, A572, and A992.
• ASTM A36 is usually specified for angles, plates, S, M,
and channel shapes;
• A572 Grade 50 for HP shapes;
• A992 for W shapes.
The minimum properties of these steels and their
availability for various applications are given in the

• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Load and

Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) manual 14th Edition.
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Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi and Dr. Azhar Saleem
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Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, Charles Salmon, John Johnson and Faris Malhas, 5th
Edition, 2009
The End