OPTO-ELECTRONICS

1. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased. Light-
emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by using elements like
gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of these elements, it is possible to
produce light of different wavelengths with colours that include red, green, yellow and blue. For
example, when a LED is manufactured using gallium arsenide, it will produce a red light. If the
LED is made with gallium phosphide, it will produce a green light.
Theory.

When light-emitting diode (LED) is forward biased as shown in figure above, the electrons from
the n-type material cross the pn junction and recombine with holes in the p-type material. Recall
that these free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than the holes in
the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in
the form of heat and light. In germanium and silicon diodes, almost the entire energy is given up
in the form of heat and emitted light is insignificant. However, in materials like gallium arsenide,
the number of photons of light energy is sufficient to produce quite intense visible light.

The forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3V and forward current ratings range
from 20 mA to 100 mA. In order that current through the LED does not exceed the safe value, a
resistor RS is connected in series with it as shown in Figure below.
The input voltage is VS and the voltage across LED is VD is given as:

Example 1:

Calculate the current through the LED in the circuit shown in Figure above. Assume that voltage
drop across the LED is 2 V.
Soln

Advantages of LEDs
 i. Low voltage
ii. Longer life (more than 20 years)
iii. Fast on-off switching

Applications of LEDs
i. As a power indicator.
ii. Seven-segment display
2. Varactor diode/Voltage controlled capacitor
A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under changing reverse bias is known as a
varactor diode. When a pn junction is formed, depletion layer is created in the junction area.
Since there are no charge carriers within the depletion zone, the zone acts as an insulator. The p-
type material with holes (considered positive) as majority carriers and n-type material with
electrons (−ve charge) as majority carriers act as charged plates. Thus, the diode may be
considered as a capacitor with N-region and P-region forming oppositely charged plates and with
depletion zone between them acting as a dielectric. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.21 (i). A varactor
diode is specially constructed to have high capacitance under reverse bias. Fig. (ii) shows the
symbol of varactor diode. The values of capacitance of varactor diodes are in the picofarad (10−12
F) range.
Theory. For normal operation, a varactor diode is always *reverse biased. The capacitance of
varactor diode is found as:

where CT = Total capacitance of the junction ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor material A =

Cross-sectional area of the junction Wd = Width of the depletion layer When reverse voltage across
a varactor diode is increased, the width Wd of the depletion layer increases. Therefore, the total
junction capacitance CT of the junction decreases. On the other hand, if the reverse voltage across
the diode is lowered, the width Wd of the depletion layer decreases. Consequently, the total
junction capacitance CT increases.
Note that CT can be changed simply by changing the voltage VR. For this reason, a varactor diode
is sometimes called voltage-controlled capacitor.
Applications of Varactor diode
This makes a varactor diode ideal for use in circuits that require voltage-controlled tuning. Fig
above shows the use of varactor diode in a tuned circuit. Note that the capacitance of the varactor
is in parallel with the inductor. The varactor and the inductor form a parallel LC circuit. For
normal operation, a varactor diode is always operated under reverse bias. In fact, this condition is
met in the circuit shown in Fig. 7.23. The resistance RW in the circuit is the winding resistance
of the inductor. This winding resistance is in series with the potentiometer R1. Thus R1 and R w
form a voltage divider that is used to determine the amount of reverse bias across the varactor
diode D1 and therefore its capacitance. By adjusting the setting of R1, we can vary the diode
capacitance. This, in turn, varies the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. The resonant frequency
Fr of the LC circuit is given by:

If the amount of varactor reverse bias is decreased, the value of C of the varactor increases. The
increase in C will cause the resonant frequency of the circuit to decrease. Thus, a decrease in
reverse bias causes a decrease in resonant frequency and vice-versa.

Example 1:
The LC tank circuit shown in Figure below has a 1 mH inductor. The varactor has capacitance of
100 pF when reverse bias is 5V d.c. Determine the resonant frequency of the circuit for this reverse
bias.
Soln:

3. Shockley Diode

Working
(i) When Shockley diode is forward biased (i.e., anode is positive w.r.t. cathode), diodes
D1 and D3 would be forward-biased while diode D2 would be reverse-biased. Since
diode D2 offers very high resistance (being reverse biased) and the three diodes are in
series, the Shockley diode presents a very high resistance. As the *forward voltage
increases, the reverse bias across D2 is also increased. At some forward voltage (called
breakover voltage VBO), reverse breakdown of D2 occurs. Since this breakdown
results in reduced resistance, the Shockley diode presents a very low resistance. From
now onwards, the Shockley diode behaves as a conventional forward-biased diode; the
forward current being determined by the applied voltage and external load resistance.
This behaviour of Shockley diode is indicated on its V-I characteristic in Figure above.
(ii) When Shockley diode is reverse biased (i.e., anode is negative w.r.t. cathode), diodes
D1 and D3 would be reverse-biased while diode D2 would be forward-biased. If
reverse voltage is increased sufficiently, the reverse voltage breakdown (point A in Fig.
7.25) of Shockley diode is reached. At this point, diodes D1 and D3 would go into
reverse-voltage breakdown, the reverse current flowing through them would rise
rapidly and the heat produced by this current flow could ruin the entire device. For this
reason, Shockley diode should never be operated with a reverse voltage sufficient to
reach the reverse-voltage breakdown point.
It may be noted that Shockley diode is also known as PNPN diode or four layer diode
or reverseblocking diode thyristor.
Note. Once Shockley diode is turned ON (i.e., it starts conducting), the only way to
turn it OFF is to reduce the applied voltage to such a value so that current flowing
through Shockley diode drops below its holding current (IH) value. Diode D2 then
comes out of its reverse-breakdown state and its high-resistance value is restored. This,
in turn, causes the entire Shockley diode to revert to its high resistance (switch open)
state.

4. Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is a pn junction that exhibits negative resistance between two values of forward
voltage (i.e., between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage). A conventional diode
exhibits *positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse biased. However, if a
semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it exhibits negative resistance
(i.e. current decreases as the voltage is increased) in certain regions in the forward direction.
Such a diode is called tunnel diode. Theory. The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with
heavy doping of p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped
approximately 1000 times as heavily as a conventional diode. This heavy doping results in a
large number of majority carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, most are not used
during the initial recombination that produces the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion
layer is very narrow. In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel
diode is 100 times narrower. The operation of a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect
and hence the name. Tunneling effect. The heavy doping provides a large number of majority
carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n sections.
This causes many valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer to the conduction
region. Therefore, it takes only a very small applied forward voltage to cause conduction. The
movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the conduction band with little
or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling. Valence electrons seem to tunnel through
the forbidden energy band. As the forward voltage is first increased, the diode current rises
rapidly due to tunneling effect. Soon the tunneling effect is reduced and current flow starts to
decrease as the forward voltage across the diode is increased. The tunnel diode is said to have
entered the negative resistance region. As the voltage is further increased, the tunneling effect
plays less and less part until a valley-point is reached. From now onwards, the tunnel diode
behaves as ordinary diode i.e., diode current increases with the increase in forward voltage.
V-I Characteristic
(i) As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero, electrons from
the N-region “tunnel” through the potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward
voltage increases, the diode current also increases until the peak-point P is reached.
The diode current has now reached peak current Ip (= 2.2 mA) at about peak-point
voltage Vp (= 0.07 V). Until now the diode has exhibited positive resistance.
(ii) As the voltage is increased beyond VP, the tunneling action starts decreasing and the
diode current decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is
reached at valley-point voltage Vv (= 0.7V). In the region between peak-point and
valley-point (i.e., between points P and V), the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e.,
as the forward bias is increased, the current decreases. This suggests that tunnel
diode, when operated in the negative resistance region, can be used as an oscillator or
a switch.
(iii) When forward bias is increased beyond valley-point voltage VV (= 0.7 V), the tunnel
diode behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards, the diode
current increases with the increase in forward voltage i.e., the diode exhibits positive
resistance once again. Fig. 7.18. (ii) shows the symbol of tunnel diode. It may be
noted that a tunnel diode has a high reverse current but operation under this condition
is not generally used.
5. Photo-diode
A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium pn junction in which reverse
current increases when the junction is exposed to light. The reverse current in a photo-
diode is directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on its pn junction. This
means that greater the intensity of light falling on the pn junction of photo-diode, the
greater will be the reverse current.
Operation
When a rectifier diode is reverse biased, it has a very small reverse leakage current. The
same is true for a photo-diode. The reverse current is produced by thermally generated
electron hole pairs which are swept across the junction by the electric field created by the
reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse current increases with temperature due to
an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. A photo-diode differs from a rectifier
diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with
the increase in light intensity and vice-versa. This is explained as follows. When light
 (photons) falls on the **pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to the atoms
in the junction. This will create more free electrons (and more holes). These additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current. As the intensity of light incident on the
pn junction increases, the reverse current also increases. In other words, as the incident
light intensity increases, the resistance of the device (photo-diode) ***decreases.

Photo-diode Operation
Fig. 7.11 shows the basic photo-diode circuit.

The circuit has reverse biased photo-diode, resistor R and d.c. supply. The operation of the
photodiode is as under :
(i) When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is
extremely small. This is called dark current. The resistance of photo-diode with no
incident light is called dark resistance (RR).
(ii) When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of energy
from the incident light (photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create more free
electrons (and more holes). These additional free electrons will increase the reverse current.
(iii) As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it becomes
maximum. This is called saturation current.
Characteristics of Photo-diode
There are two important characteristics of photodiode.
(i) Reverse current-Illumination curve.
Fig. 7.12 shows the graph between reverse current (IR) and illumination (E) of a photo-diode.
The reverse current is shown on the vertical axis and is measured in µA. The illumination is
indicated on the horizontal axis and is measured in mW/cm2. Note that graph is a straight line
passing through the origin.

(ii) Reverse voltage-Reverse current curve.

Fig. 7.13 shows the graph between reverse current (IR) and reverse voltage (VR) for various
illumination levels. It is clear that for a given reverse-biased voltage VR, the reverse current
IR increases as the illumination (E) on the pn junction of photo-diode is increased.
Applications of Photo-diodes
(i) Alarm circuit using photo-diode.

(ii) Counter circuit using photo-diode

Example 1:
From the reverse current-Illumination curve for a photo-diode shown in Fig. 7.16, determine the
dark resistance. Assume a reverse-biased voltage of 10 V.
6. Laser Diode
7. Photovoltaic cells or Solar Cells
8. Phototransistor
9. Photoconductive cells
10.Schottky diode
10. Light Activated SCR (LASCR)