1A) Derive the expressions for Volt-ampere relation of PN diode and explain the V-I Characteristics.

1B) The resistivities of two sides of an abrupt Ge PN diode are 2ohm-cm in p-side and 1ohm-cm in n-
side at 300 K Calculate the junction barrier voltage For Ge, 𝜇 =3800 𝐶𝑚 /V-S and 𝜇 =1800 𝐶𝑚 /V-s

2A) Draw the V-I characteristics of Zener diode and explain break down mechanisms.
A Zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region. The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is carefully set by controlling the doping level during
manufacture. Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are widely used in
all kinds of electronic equipment’s. Zener diodes are mainly used to protect electronic circuits from
over voltage.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics (ii) Reverse Characteristics
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the graph, we
understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of any other P-N junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, initially a small reverse saturation current Io flows across
the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse voltage is increased, at a
certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that
the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz.
Breakdown in Zener diode
There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a Zener diode: avalanche breakdown and Zener
breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode
Avalanche breakdown occurs both in normal diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage. When a high value
of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free electrons gain sufficient energy and accelerate at high
velocities. These free electrons moving at high velocity collides other atoms and knocks off more electrons. Due
to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are generated as a result of electric current in the
diode rapidly increases. This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the normal diode,
however, a Zener diode is designed to operate under avalanche breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike of
current. Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode
When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion
region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence electrons that gain sufficient
energy from the strong electric field of the depletion region break free from the parent atom. At the Zener
breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric current.
Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
1) The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect takes over above that.
2) They are both similar effects, the difference being that the Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon and the
avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in the valence band like in any electric current.
3) Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than what a Zener breakdown would allow.
Advantages of Zener diode
Power dissipation capacity is very high
High accuracy
Small size
Low cost
Applications of Zener diode
It is normally used as voltage reference
Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
Zener diodes are used in switching operations
Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits
2B) Explain the V-I characteristics of Tunnel Diode.
A Tunnel Diode is a two-terminal electronic device, that exhibits negative resistance which means whenever the
voltage increases the current will be decreased.
Tunnel Diode is highly doped PN junction Diode with impurities, that is the reason it exhibits negative resistance
in the forward bias. The tunnel diode is a very helpful device because it provides very fast switching, hence it
can be used as amplifier, oscillators and in any switching circuits.
Symbol of Tunnel Diode: The tunnel diode is a two terminal device one terminal is Cathode and another one is
Anode. Its cathode is shaped like T letter.
V-I characteristic of tunnel diode

(1). As we can see in the plot shown, when the forward voltage across the tunnel diode increases from zero, the
electrons from the n region "tunnel" through the barrier to the p region. As the forward voltage increases the
diode current also increases until the peak point A. The diode current has now reached the peak current 𝐼 (=2.2
mA) at about peak point voltage 𝑉 (=0.07 V). Until now the diode exhibited positive resistance.
(ii). As the voltage is increased beyond 𝑉 , the tunnelling action starts decreasing and the diode current decreases
as the forward voltage is increased until valley point 𝑉 , is reached. In the region between peak point and valley
point, the diode exhibits negative resistance.
(iii). When the forward bias is increased beyond the valley point 𝑉 , (=0.07 V) or point B, the tunnel diode behaves
like a normal diode. In other words, from point B onwards, the diode current increases with the increase in
forward voltage. This means, the diode once again reached the positive resistance.
Advantages of Tunnel Diode
 It is a low-cost device.
 Tunnel Diode is immune to noise interference.
 It is simple, and it has high speed of operation.
Disadvantages of Tunnel Diode
 It does not provide isolation between input terminals of diode and output terminals of diode.
 It is a low power device. Thus, it is more prone to be damaged by heat and electricity.
Applications of Tunnel Diode
 Tunnel diode can be used as a switch, amplifier, and oscillator.
 Since it shows a fast response, it is used as high frequency component.
 Tunnel diode acts as logic memory storage device.
 They are used in oscillator circuits, and in FM receivers. Since it is a low current device, it is not used more.
9A) Describe with the help of relevant diagram, the construction of an LED and Explain its working.
The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes through it in the
forward direction. In the LED, the recombination of charge carrier takes place. The electron from the
N-side and the hole from the P-side are combined and gives the energy in the form of heat and light.
The LED is made of semiconductor material which is colourless, and the light is radiated through the
junction of the diode.
The LEDs are extensively used in segmental and dot matrix displays of numeric and alphanumeric
character. The several LEDs are used for making the single line segment while for making the decimal
point single LED is used.
Construction of LED
The recombination of the charge carrier occurs in the P-type material, and hence P-material is the
surface of the LED. For the maximum emission of light, the anode is deposited at the edge of the P-
type material. The cathode is made of gold film, and it is usually placed at the bottom of the N-region.
This gold layer of cathode helps in reflecting the light to the surface.

The gallium arsenide phosphide is used for the manufacturing of LED which emits red or yellow light
for emission. The LED are also available in green, yellow amber and red in colour.
The simple transistor can be used for off/on of a LED as shown in the figure above. The base current
IB conducts the transistor, and the transistor conducts heavily. The resistance RC limits the current of
the LED.
Working of LED
The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states that when the
energy of electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits energy in the form of
photons. The energy of the photons is equal to the gap between the higher and lower level.

The LED is connected in the forward biased, which allows the current to flows in the forward direction.
The flow of current is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite direction. The
recombination shows that the electrons move from the conduction band to valence band and they
emit electromagnetic energy in the form of photons. The energy of photons is equal to the gap
between the valence and the conduction band.
Advantages of LED’s
Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED. Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts. Current – 5 to
20 milliamperes. Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts. The response time is very less –
only about 10 nanoseconds. The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
Disadvantages: - A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device. The device is known to
have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser. The temperature depends on the radiant output
power and wavelength.
9B) Describe the principle of operation of an LCD.
The LCD is defined as the diode that uses small cells and the ionised gases for the production of images.
The LCD works on the modulating property of light. The light modulation is the technique of sending
and receiving the signal through the light. The liquid crystal consumes a small amount of energy
because they are the reflector and the transmitter of light. It is normally used for seven segmental
displays.
Construction of LCD
The liquid crystals are the organic compound which is in liquid form and shows the property of optical
crystals. The layer of liquid crystals is deposited on the inner surface of glass electrodes for the
scattering of light. The liquid crystal cell is of two types; they are Transmittive Type and the Reflective
Type.
Transmittive Type – In transmitter cell both the glass sheets are transparent so that the light is
scattered in the forward direction when the cell becomes active.
Reflective Type – The reflective type cell consists the reflecting surface of the glass sheet on one end.
The light incident on the front surface of the cell is scattered by the activated cell.
Both the reflective and transmittive type cells appear brights, even under small ambient light
conditions.
Working Principle of LCD
The working principle of the LCD is of two types. They are the dynamic scattering type and the field
effects type. Their details explanation is shown below.
Dynamic Scattering
When the potential carrier flows through the light, the molecular alignment of the liquid crystal
disrupts, and they produce disturbances. The liquid becomes transparent when they are not active.
But when they are active their molecules turbulence causes scattered of light in all directions, and
their cell appears bright. This type of scattering is known as the dynamic scattering. The construction
of the dynamic scattering of the liquid crystal cell is shown in the figure

Field Effect Type

The construction of liquid crystals is similar to that of the dynamic scattering types the only difference is that in
field effect type LCD the two thin polarising optical fibres are placed inside each glass sheet. The liquid crystals
used in field effect LCDs are of different scattering types that operated in the dynamic scattering cell.
The field affects type LCD uses the nematic material which twisted the unenergized light passing through the
cell. The nematic type material means the liquid crystals in which the molecules are arranged in parallel but not
in a well-defined plane. The light after passing through the nematic material passing through the optical filters
and appears bright. When the cell has energised no twisting of light occurs, and the cell appears dull.
Advantages of LCD
The power consumption of LCD is low.
The seven segmental display of LCD requires about 140μW which is the major advantages over LED which uses
approximately 40mW per numeral.
The cost of the LCD is low.
Disadvantages of LCD
Require additional light sources. Range of temperature is limited for operation. Low reliability. Speed
is very low. LCD’s need an AC drive
10A) Explain the principle and working of photodiode with V-I characteristics.
A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is known as
Photodiode. It is also known as photodetector or photosensor. It operates in reverse biased mode and
converts light energy into electrical energy.
The figure below shows the symbolic representation of a photodiode:
Principle of Photodiode
It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two-terminal
semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric current starts flowing through it. Only minority
current flows through the device when the certain reverse potential is applied to it.
Construction of Photodiode

The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material. This is done to order to allow the light
energy to pass through it. As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the other portion of the
glass material is painted black or is metallised.
The overall unit is of very small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm.
It is noteworthy that the current flowing through the device is in micro-ampere and is measured
through an ammeter.
Operational Modes of Photodiode
Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse potential is
provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is
exposed to light.
Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it behaves as a
photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the corresponding change
in reverse voltage.
Avalanche Diode Mode: This mode is used in high reverse biased condition and photodiode works in
avalanche breakdown region. In this mode the internal gain and responsivity of the device has
increased.
Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes
a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by
the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of
light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the
device.
V-I Characteristics of Photodiode: -
The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode:
Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the horizontal
line represents the reverse-biased potential. The first curve represents the dark current that generates
due to minority carriers in the absence of light.
As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in between them. This
is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.
The figure below shows the curve for current versus illumination:

Advantages of Photodiode
It shows a quick response when exposed to light. Photodiode offers high operational speed. It provides
a linear response. It is a low-cost device.
Disadvantages of Photodiode
It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability. When low illumination
is provided, then amplification is necessary.
Applications of Photodiode
Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits. Photodiodes are extensively used
in an optical communication system. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to radiation is not
interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the device, it sounds the alarm.
10B) Describe with neat diagrams the operation of a photo transistor and state its applications.
Phototransistors resemble normal transistor except the fact that the base terminal is not present in
case of the phototransistor. Phototransistors convert the incident light into photocurrent. Instead of
providing the base current for triggering the transistor, the light rays are used to illuminate the base
region.
The base terminal is made up of the material which shows sensitivity towards the light. The circuit
symbol of the phototransistor is similar to that of the conventional transistor but the base terminal
can be omitted. The two arrows point towards phototransistor indicates that the phototransistor is
triggered by the light incident on it.
Phototransistor
Phototransistors resemble normal transistor except the fact that the base terminal is not present in
case of the phototransistor. Phototransistors convert the incident light into photocurrent. Instead of
providing the base current for triggering the transistor, the light rays are used to illuminate the base
region.
The base terminal is made up of the material which shows sensitivity towards the light. The circuit
symbol of the phototransistor is similar to that of the conventional transistor but the base terminal
can be omitted. The two arrows point towards phototransistor indicates that the phototransistor is
triggered by the light incident on it.
The circuit symbol of the phototransistor is described in the diagram below.

Construction of the Photo transistor

The Phototransistors are manufactured in the similar way by which normal transistor is manufactured,
the only difference is the area of the base and collector region in case of phototransistors is quite large
as compared to the normal transistor. This is because the more the light falls on the phototransistor
the more current it will generate.

The collector and base region are formed by the techniques of ion-implantation and diffusion. The
transistor which was used earlier was made of semiconductor material such as Germanium and Silicon
and the resulting structure becomes a homogeneous material consist of either Silicon or Germanium.
On the contrary, contemporarily, phototransistors are made up of Group-III and Group-V materials
such as GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) in such a way that gallium and arsenide, each of these are used on
either side of the transistor. The resulting structure becomes heterogeneous in nature. This type of
structure is used widely because the conversion efficiency increases several times as compared to the
conversion efficiency of the homogenous transistor.
Working of the Photo transistor: - The output of the phototransistor is taken from the emitter terminal
and the light rays are allowed to enter the base region. The magnitude of the photocurrent generated
by the phototransistor depends on the light intensity of the light falling on the transistor. It can be of
three terminals or two terminals we can omit base as per our requirement. The phototransistor can
be operated in three regions that are the cut-off region, active region, and the saturation region. The
cut-off region and saturation region can be used to operate the transistor as the switch.
The active region is used for generating current. The current generated from phototransistor depends
on several factors apart from luminous intensity such as
1)DC current gain of the transistor: The higher the DC current gain of the transistor, the higher will be
the intensity of photocurrent generated.
2)Time constant: Response time of the transistor also effects the efficiency of phototransistor to
generate photocurrent.
3)Luminous Sensitivity: The luminous sensitivity can be determined by the ratio between the
photoelectric current and incident luminous flux.
4)Area of the collector-base junction: The area of the collector-base junction is crucial for the
generation of photocurrent, the higher the area of the collector-base junction the higher will be the
magnitude of photocurrent generated by the phototransistor.
5)Wavelength of the incident light: The wavelength of the light incident on phototransistor controls
the amount of photocurrent generated. The higher the wavelength the lower will be the frequency.
Output Characteristics of Phototransistor
The output characteristics of phototransistor can be understood with the help of the diagram below.
It shows the variation of collector current with respect to the variation in the emitter-collector voltage.
(fig above)
Advantages of Phototransistor
Phototransistors produce a higher current than photodiodes.
Phototransistors are relatively inexpensive, simple, and small enough to fit several of them onto a
single integrated computer chip.
Phototransistors are very fast and are capable of providing nearly instantaneous output.
Phototransistors produce a voltage, that photo-resistors cannot do so.
Disadvantages of Phototransistor
Phototransistors that are made of silicon are not capable of handling voltages over 1,000 Volts.
Phototransistors are also more vulnerable to surges and spikes of electricity as well as electromagnetic
energy.
Phototransistors also do not allow electrons to move as freely as other devices do, such as electron
tubes.
Applications of Phototransistors
1)Counting Systems: The phototransistors are commonly used in counting systems. As this device
works with the help of incident light, thus it is much easy to utilize such device in the computing
system, as we don’t need to worry about power supply.
2)Encoder sensing and object detection: The phototransistors can be used to detect the object or for
encoding.
3)Printers and Optical control remotes: Due to its high light to current conversion efficiency, it is
commonly used in optical devices such as remotes, printers etc.
4)Light detector: The most crucial application of phototransistor is to use it as the light detector. This
is because it can detect even a small amount of light because it is highly efficient.
5A) Sketch the family of Transistor CB output characteristics. Indicate the active, Saturation and cut-
off regions and explain the curves qualitatively.
5B) Two PN diodes are connected back-to-back. Write whether it works as transistor or not, Justify
your answer with relevant circuit Model and equations.
6A) Explain the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CB configuration.
Common base configuration
As we know transistor can be connected in a circuit in a different way as per their requirement. Each
transistor circuit configuration has some advantages and disadvantages. But in every configuration
emitter base junction is in forward bias and base collector junction is in reverse bias.
Common-base transistor circuit
In common base connection, we take base terminal as a common between input circuit of transistor
and output circuit of the transistor. a figure of common base connection is shown below

In this circuit connection, the input voltage is applied between the emitter and base terminal. An
output is taken between base and collector. Here base is common in both input and output circuit of
the transistor. Hence it names common base configuration. Fig 1 shows npn transistor whereas Fig 2
shows pnp transistor.
Common base configuration characteristics
The complete behaviour of transistor can only be described by their characteristics. These
characteristics are a graphical representation of transistor behaviour. We can easily understand what
happens with transistor when a voltage is applied across that transistor by their characteristics. Here
we take input characteristics of common base configuration and output characteristics of common
base configuration of transistor.
Input characteristics
Input characteristics is a curve of emitter base
voltage (Veb) with respect to emitter current (Ie) at
constant base collector voltage (Vbc). Emitter base
voltage is shown in X axis of characteristics. Emitter
current is shown on the y axis. This figure shows the
input characteristics of common base
configuration.
By figure you can note these following points:
1) You can see that the Emitter current (Ie)
increases rapidly with the small increase in emitter
base voltages (Veb). That means input resistance is
very small.
2) With the all collector-base voltage (Vbc) shape of
graph remain same that means emitter current is
totally independent of base-collector (Vbc) voltage.
This leads to the conclusion that the emitter current is independent of collector voltage.
Input resistance:
The input resistance of the transistor is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage (Veb) to change in
emitter current (Ie).
Input Resistance = (change in Vbc / change in Ie) at constant Veb
Output characteristics:
Output characteristics is a graphical representation
of transistor output. Output characteristics is curve
between collector current (Ic) and collector base
voltage ( Vcb ) at constant emitter current (Ie ). Here
collector current is shown on y-axis and collector
base voltage is shown on the x-axis. Characteristics
of the common base transistor shown in Fig
By the output characteristics we can note down the
following points:
1) collector current( Ic ) varies with Vcb only on the
starting or when the collector base voltage (Vcb) is
below 1v. Transistor never operated below this
voltage.
2) After voltage (Vcb) increase above 1-2 V, you can
see collector current (Ic ) becomes a straight horizontal line. That mean collector current becomes
constant above 1-2 V. It means collector current is independent of collector base voltages and depends
upon the emitter current only. This proves that the emitter current almost flows to collector current.
The transistor is always operated on this region.
3) The large change in collector base voltage there is a small change in collector current. That means
output resistance of the circuit is very high.
Output Resistance:
Output resistance is a ratio of change in collector base voltage (Vcb) to change in collector current (Ic).
Output resistance (Ro) = change in collector base voltage (Vcb ) / change in collector current (Ic )
At constant emitter current (Ie)
Output resistance is very high in terms of Megaohms. This is because of collector current not change
with the collector-base voltage.
Application of CB configuration
1. Transistor CB configuration used in current to voltage converter circuits.
2. This configuration used in very high-frequency applications.
3. This configuration is used to increase the impedance of the current source.
6B) Determine the h-parameters from the characteristics of CE configuration
CE configuration of Transistor
In this configuration, the emitter terminal of the transistor is taken as the common terminal. The input
voltage is applied between Base and Emitter terminal and the output voltage is taken across the
collector and emitter terminal. Here you can see the
diagram below.
Characteristics of CE configuration
1. This configuration provides medium input impedance
(500 ohm to 5000 ohm).
2. It provides very high output impedance (50 to 500 kilo
Ohm)
3. In this configuration, the current gain is denoted by
beta which varies between 35 to 500
4. In this configuration, the phase difference between
output and input signal is 180 degrees out of phase.
Application of CE configuration
1. CE configuration is used RF signal processing circuits.
2. This configuration is used for audio amplifier circuits.
3. This configuration is used in sensor controller circuits.
CC configuration of Transistor
This is the most usable and simple configuration of transistors. In this configuration, the collector
terminal of the transistor is used as a common terminal. The input voltage is applied between the Base
and Collector terminal and the output voltage is
taken across emitter and collector terminal. Here
you can see the diagram below.
Characteristics of CC Configuration
1. This configuration provides very high input
impedance (200 to 750 kilo Ohm).
2. It provides very low output impedance (up to 50
Ohm).
3. In this configuration, the current gain is denoted
by gamma which is very high.
4. In this configuration, the output signal always in
the same phase with the input signal.
Application of CC Configuration
1. Transistor CC configuration is used for switching
purposes.
2. This configuration is used for impedance matching.
3. This configuration is used in power amplifier circuits.
4. This configuration is used to make digital logic gates.
Comparison between CB, CE, and CC Configuration

Characteristics CB CE CC

Common Terminal Collector

for Input and Output Base Terminal Emitter Terminal Terminal
Base and
Input voltage applied Emitter and Base Base and Emitter Collector
between terminal Terminal Terminal
Emitter and
Output Voltage taken Collector and Base Collector and Collector
across Terminal Emitter Terminal Terminal

Very Low(only 50 Medium(500 to 5000 Very high(200 to

Input Impedance to 500 ohm) ohm) 750 kilo ohm)

Very High(1 to 10 Medium(50 to 500 Very Low( up to

Output Impedance Mega Ohm) kilo ohm) 50 ohm)

Emitter Current or Base Current or

Input Current IE Base Current or IB IB

Collector Current Collector Current or Emitter Current

Output Current or IC IC or IE

Same phase with 180 degree out of Same phase with

Output Signal Phase input phase input
Always less than
Unity Between 35 to 500 Very High
Current Gain α = IC/IE β = IC/IB γ = IE/IB

Voltage Gain About 150 About 500 Less Than Unity

Leakage Current Very Small Very Large Very Large

Power Gain Medium High Medium

High Frequency RF Signal Switching

Application Circuits Processing Circuits
7A) What are the sources of instability of 𝑰𝒄 in Transistor? Derive the expressions for
Stability factors S, S¹ and 𝑺𝟏𝟏 for self-bias circuit.
Stability Factor (S): The extent to which the collector current 𝐼 is stabilized with varying 𝐼 𝑂 is
measured by a stability factor S. It is defined as the rate of change of collector current 𝐼 with respect
to the collector base leakage current 𝐼 𝑂, keeping both the current 𝐼 and the current gain β constant.
∂𝐼 𝑑𝐼 Δ𝐼
𝑆= = =
∂𝐼 O d𝐼 O Δ𝐼 O
The collector current for a CE amplifier is given by
𝐼 =β𝐼 +(1+β) 𝐼 𝑂
Differentiating the above equation with respect to I𝐼 , we get
𝛽(𝑑𝐼 ) (1 + 𝛽)(𝑑𝐼 𝑂)
𝐼= +
(𝑑𝐼 ) (𝑑𝐼 )
( )
Therefore, ( ) =
(1 + 𝛽)
𝑆=
𝛽(𝑑𝐼 )
1−
(𝑑𝐼 )
From this equation it is clear that this factor S should be as small as possible to have better thermal
stability.
Stability factor S’ and S”:
The Stability factor S’ is defined as the rate of change of 𝐼 with 𝑉 𝐸, keeping 𝐼 𝑂 and β constant.
∂𝐼 Δ𝐼
S’ = =
∂𝑉 𝐸 Δ𝑉 𝐸
The stability factor S” is defined as the rate of change of 𝐼 with respect to β, keeping 𝐼 𝑂 and 𝑉 𝐸
constant.
∂𝐼 Δ𝐼
S′′ = =
∂𝛽 Δ𝛽
The small value of stability factor indicates good bias stability whereas large value of stability factor
indicates poor bias stability. Ideal value of stability factor is zero.
For fixed bias stability factor reduces to
S=1+β
Since β is large quantity, this is a very poor bias stable circuit.
For collector to base bias stability factor is
(1 + 𝛽)
𝑆=
𝑅
1 + 𝛽(𝑅 + 𝑅𝐵)
As can be seen, this value of the stability factor is smaller than the value obtained by fixed bias circuit.
For self-bias,
𝑅𝐵
(1 + 𝛽)(1 +
𝑆= 𝑅𝐸 )
𝑅𝐵
1 + 𝛽 + 𝑅𝐸
As can be seen, the value of S is equal to one if the ratio RB/RE is very small as compared to 1. As this
ratio becomes comparable to unity, and beyond towards infinity, the value of the stability factor goes
on increasing till S = 1 + β. This improvement is the stability up to a factor equal to 1 is achieved at the
cost of power dissipation.
8A) With the help of neat sketches and characteristic curves explain the operation of JFET
JFET is Junction gate field-effect transistor. Normal transistor is a current controlled device which
needs current for biasing, whereas JFET is a voltage-controlled device. JFET has three terminals Gate,
Drain, and Source.
JFET is an essential component for precision level voltage operated controls in analog electronics. We
can use JFET as voltage-controlled resistors or as a switch, or even make an amplifier using the JFET.
It is also an energy efficient version to replace the BJTs. JFET provides low power consumption and
fairly low power dissipations, thus improving the overall efficiency of the circuit. It also provides very
high input impedance which is a major advantage over a BJTs.
Types of JFET
It has two subtypes- N Channel JFET and P Channel JFET.

N channel JFET and P channel JFET schematic model are shown in the image above. The arrow denotes
the types of JFET. The arrow showing to the gate denotes that the JFET is N-channel and on the other
hand the arrow from the gate denotes P-channel JFET. This arrow also indicates the polarity of P-N
junction, which is formed between the channel and the gate. Interestingly, an English mnemonic is
this, that arrow of an N- Channel device indicates “Points in”.
The current flowing through the Drain and Source is dependable on the voltage applied to the Gate
terminal. For the N channel JFET, the Gate voltage is negative and for the P channel JFET the Gate
voltage is positive.
Construction of JFET

In the above image, we can see the basic construction of a JFET. The N-Channel JFET consists of P-type
material in N-type substrate whereas N-type materials are used in the p-type substrate to form a P
channel JFET.
JFET is constructed using the long channel of semiconductor material. Depending on the construction
process, if the JFET contains a great number of positive charge carriers (refers as holes) is a P-type
JFET, and if it has a large number of negative charge carriers (refers as electrons) is called N-type JFET.
In the long channel of semiconductor material, Ohmic contacts at each end are created to form the
Source and Drain connections. A P-N junction is formed in one or both side of the channel.
Working of JFET
One best example to understand the working of a JFET is to imagine the garden hose pipe. Suppose a
garden hose is providing a water flow through it. If we squeeze the hose the water flow will be less
and at a certain point if we squeeze it completely there will be zero water flow. JFET works exactly in
that way. If we interchange the hose with a JFET and the water flow with a current and then construct
the current-carrying channel, we could control the current flow.
When there is no voltage across gate and source, the channel becomes a smooth path which is wide
open for electrons to flow. But the reverse thing happens when a voltage is applied between gate and
source in reverse polarity, that makes the P-N junction reversed biased and makes the channel
narrower by increasing the depletion layer and could put the JFET in cut-off or pinch off region.
In the below image we can see the saturation mode and pinch off mode and we will be able to
understand the depletion layer became wider and the current flow becomes less.

If we want to switch off a JFET we need to provide a negative gate to source voltage denoted as VGS
for an N-type JFET. For a P-type JFET, we need to provide positive VGS.
JFET only works in the depletion mode, whereas MOSFETs have depletion mode and enhancement
mode.
JFET Characteristics Curve
The characteristic curve indicates the behaviour of the device by increasing or decreasing current and
voltages applied across their terminals. There are two types of static characteristics of JFET are:
(i) Output or Drain characteristics:

The curve drawn between drain current Id and drain-source voltage 𝑉 , along y-axis and x-axis with
gate to source voltage 𝑉 as the parameter is called the drain or output characteristic. As shown in
the figure below, the curves are very nearly horizontal at voltages greater than the pinch-off voltage.
(ii) Transfer characteristics: By keeping the drain-source voltage constant 𝑉 , and finding the drain
current𝐼 , for various values of gate-source voltage 𝑉 , the transfer characteristics can be
determined experimentally.
As shown in the figure above, we observe the following things from its curves are:
1)When𝑉 = 0 then Drain current Id = 𝐼
2) When 𝑉 = 𝑉 , then Drain current Id = 0
3)Drain current decreases with an increase in negative gate-source bias.
Applications
1)Voltage-controlled Resistor (2) Differential Amplifier (3) Constant current source
(4) Low noise Amplifier (5) High input impedance Amplifier (6) Analog Switch or gate
8B) Explain the operation of MOSFET with V-I characteristics.