Elements of Electronics Engineering (20EC110/210)

UNIT-1
Analog Electronics
Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a continuously variable signal.
It’s widely used in radio and audio equipment along with other applications where signals
are derived from analog sensors before being converted into digital signals for subsequent
storage and processing.

1.1 Diode
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in
one direction.

Symbol
A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal conditions, this PN
junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased and as an open circuit when it
is in the reverse biased. The name diode is derived from “di–ode” which means a device
that has two electrodes.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and
the cathode, which is the negative terminal, is represented with K. To know the anode and
cathode of a practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while
the other end represents anode.

Formation of a Diode
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to
form a junction, as shown in the figure below.

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A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material
has electrons as the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend
to go to n-side, whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with
each other to neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where
the positive and negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as
shown in the figure.

The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the
formation of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now
free from movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and
maintain a region of space between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called
as Barrier junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes
both the regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions,
across the junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes
and electrons through the junction.

Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse
biased condition.

1. Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and cathode
to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be forward
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more forward biased
and helps in more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased condition.

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Working under Forward Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and
electrons in N-type tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a
free flow of current with this, almost eliminating the barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative
terminal to electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage
should be such high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier
and to cross it to provide forward current.
Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward
biased condition and it is indicated by If.

2. Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and cathode
to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be Reverse
biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more reverse biased
and helps in minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot conduct in reverse
biased condition.

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Working under Reverse Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier
and restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted
towards the positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal.
Hence both will be away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance and
preventing any electron to cross the junction.
The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied
and when some external field is applied are also drawn.

With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the
junction. This current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when
the temperature is constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point
called reverse breakdown occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the
junction. This high reverse current damages the device.
Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse
biased condition and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in
reverse biased condition and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in
forward biased condition and conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way
device which conducts in forward bias and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This
behavior makes it work as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.

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Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly called as PIV. It states the maximum voltage applied in
reverse bias. The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as “The maximum reverse voltage
that a diode can withstand without being destroyed”. Hence, this voltage is considered
during reverse biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated in reverse
bias.

V - I Characteristics of a Diode
A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure.
An ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled
through a variable resistor.

During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular
voltage, the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off
Voltage or Knee Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward
current rises up exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to
overheating.
The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse
biased conditions.

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During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as
“Reverse current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it
suddenly breaks down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.

Creating a Load Line from a Diode I–V Curve

In the diode circuit shown above, we know that the diode’s voltage cannot be higher than
the supply voltage VS. We also know that the diode current cannot be higher than VS/REQ,
because the circuit’s current is limited to this value by the resistors; the diode can further
resist current flow and therefore create a value lower than VS/REQ, but it cannot increase
current above the level established by the resistors.

Thus, we have a constraint for both the voltage dropped across the diode and the
current flowing through the diode. All of the points lying on a straight line between these
two constraints represent possible combinations of current and voltage that are possible
within the limiting context of the linear elements in the circuit.

A graph showing the intersection of the load line and the diode’s I–V curve

This straight line is what we call the load line.

Only one of these points corresponds to a combination of current and voltage that is
possible given the electrical behavior of the diode, which is described by the “diode
equation.” We find that one point by marking the intersection of the load line and the
diode’s I–V curve, as shown below. The point of intersection corresponds to the
circuit’s operating point.

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1.2 Applications of Diode (Rectifiers, Clipper & Clamper)

1.2.1 Rectifiers
The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are
used to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier gives
an alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance with time. The filter smoothes the
pulsation in the voltage and to produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which removes the
ripples.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:
 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

In half-wave rectification, only one crystal diode is used. It is connected in the circuit as
shown below.

Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

The AC supply to be rectified is generally given through a transformer. The

transformer is used to step down or step up the main supply voltage as per the
requirement. It also isolates the rectifier from power lines and thus reduces the risk of
electric shock.

Operation of Half Wave Rectifier

When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage (Vin) shown in the figure below
appears across the terminal AB at the secondary winding.

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During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive with respect to B and the crystal
diode is forward biased. Therefore, it conducts and current flows through the load resistor
RL. This current varies in magnitude as shown in the wave diagram shown below.

Thus, a positive half cycle of the output voltage (Vout = iRL) appears across the load
resistor RL shown in the figure below.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅𝐿
Peak Inverse Voltage
During the negative half-cycle when the diode is reverse biased the maximum value
of the voltage coming across the diode is called the peak inverse voltage. As the current
flows through the load resistor RL, only in one direction, i.e., from M to L. Hence, a DC
output is obtained across RL, which is pulsating in nature.

Disadvantages of the Half Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of the half-wave rectifier are as follows:
 The output is low because the AC supply delivers power only half of the time.
 The output contains more alternating component (ripples). Therefore, it needs a heavy
filter circuit to smooth out the output.

Full Wave Rectifier

In Full Wave Rectification, when the AC supply is applied at the input, during both the half-
cycles (i.e., positive as well as negative) current flows through the load in the same
direction. This can be achieved by using two crystal diodes. The two diodes conduct the
current alternately.

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To obtain the same direction of flow of current in the load resistors R L during
positive as well as the negative half cycle of input, the two circuits are used. They are
named as follows:-
 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

The Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier employs a transformer with the secondary winding
AB tapped at the centre point C. It converts the AC input voltage into DC voltage. The two
diode D1, and D2 are connected in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram below.

Each diode uses a one-half cycle of the input AC voltage. The diode D1 utilizes the AC
voltage appearing across the upper half (AC) of the secondary winding for rectification. The
diode D2 uses the lower half (CB) of the secondary winding.

Operation of the Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage, Vin appears across the terminals AB
of the secondary winding of the transformer. During the positive half cycle of the secondary
voltage, end A becomes positive, and end B becomes negative. Thus, the diode
D1 becomes forward biased, and diode D2 becomes reverse biased.
The two diodes do not conduct simultaneously. Therefore, when the diode
D1 conducts, the diode D2 does not conduct and vice versa.
When the Diode D1 is conducting, the current (i) flows through the diode D 1 load
resistor RL (from M to L) and the upper half of the secondary winding as shown in the
circuit diagram marked by the red color arrowheads. During the negative half-cycle, the
end B becomes positive, and end A becomes negative. This makes the diode D 2 forward
biased, and diode D1 reverse biased.
When the diode D2 conducts while the diode D1 does not. The current (i) flows
through the diode D2 load resistor RL (from M to L) and the lower half of the secondary
winding as shown by the red dotted arrows.

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The current flowing through the load resistor R L is in the same direction (i.e., from
M to L) during both the positive as well as the negative half cycle of the input. Hence, the DC
output voltage (Vout = i RL) is obtained across the load resistor.
The wave diagram of the input voltage, the current flowing through the load, and the
output voltage developed across the load is shown in the figure below:

Peak Inverse Voltage of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

The circuit diagram given below shows the instant when the secondary voltage attains its
maximum positive value.

At this instant, Vm developed in the upper half of the secondary winding of the transformer
will forward bias the diode D1. This diode conducts, and the current flows through R L,
developing Vm voltage across it.
The diode D2 at this instant is reverse biased, and the voltage was coming across it is
the sum of the maximum value of voltage developed by the lower half of the secondary
winding and the voltage developed across the load. Hence, the peak inverse voltage across
the diode D2 is 2Vm.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

 The main advantage is that the output and efficiency are high because an AC supply
delivers power during both half cycles.

The Disadvantages of the Center tapped full wave rectifier are as follows:-
 Each diode utilizes only one-half of the voltage developed in the transformer secondary,
and thus the DC output obtained is small.
 It is difficult to locate the center on the secondary for the tapping.
 The diode used must be capable of bearing high peak inverse voltage. Because the peak
inverse voltage coming across each diode is twice the maximum voltage across the half of
the secondary winding.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

In Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, an ordinary transformer is used in place of a center-tapped

transformer. The circuit forms a bridge connecting the four diodes D 1, D2, D3, and D4. The
circuit diagram of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is shown below.

The AC supply which is to be rectified is applied diagonally to the opposite ends of the
bridge. Whereas, the load resistor RL is connected across the remaining two diagonals of
the opposite ends of the bridge.

Operation of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

When an AC supply is switched ON, the alternating voltage V in appears across the terminals
AB of the secondary winding of the transformer which needs rectification. During the
positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, end A becomes positive, and end B becomes
negative as shown in the figure below.

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The diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and the diodes D2 and D4 are reversed biased.
Therefore, diode D1 and D3 conduct, and diode D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current (i)
flows through diode D1, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D3, and the transformer
secondary. The waveform of the full-wave bridge rectifier is shown below.

During the negative half-cycle, end A becomes negative and end B positive as shown in the
figure below:

From the above diagram, it is seen that the diode D 2 and D4 are under forward bias and the
diodes D1 and D3 are reverse bias. Therefore, diode D2 and D4 conduct while diodes D1 and
D3 do not conduct. Thus, current (i) flows through the diode D 2, load resistor RL (from M to
L), diode D4, and the transformer secondary.

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The current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction (M to L) during
both the half cycles. Hence, a DC output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor.

Peak Inverse Voltage of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

When the secondary voltage attains its maximum positive value and the terminal A is
positive, and B is negative as shown in the circuit diagram below.

At this instant diode, D1 and D3 are forward biased and conducts current. Therefore,
terminal M attains the same voltage as that A’ or A, whereas the terminal L attains the same
voltage as that of B’ or B. Hence the diode D2 and D4 are reversed biased and the peak
inverse voltage across both of them is Vm.
Therefore,

Advantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 The center tap transformer is eliminated.
 The output is double that of the center-tapped full-wave rectifier for the same secondary
voltage.
 The peak inverse voltage across each diode is one-half of the center tap circuit of the diode.

Disadvantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 It needs four diodes.
 The circuit is not suitable when a small voltage is required to be rectified. It is because, in
this case, the two diodes are connected in series and offer double voltage drop due to their
internal resistance.

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Key Differences between Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier

1. The significant key difference between half wave and full wave rectifier is efficiency.
Half wave rectifier is a low-efficiency rectifier while the full wave is a high-
efficiency rectifier. Thus, it is always better to use full wave when we are working on
the highly efficient application.
2. The centre tapping also differs in half wave and full wave rectifier. Half wave rectifier
does not require centre tapping of the secondary winding of transformer while full
wave requires centre tapping of the secondary winding of the transformer.
3. The requirement of components varies in Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier. Full
wave requires more electronic components as compared to half wave. Thus, full
wave rectifier is costly as compared to half wave. Full wave requires double the
number of diodes.
4. The losses due to saturation of DC core in half wave and full wave rectifiers also
create the significant difference. The half wave possesses DC saturation of core, but
this problem can be overcome in the full wave circuit.
5. The full wave circuitry does not possess DC saturation of transformer core because
the current in the secondary winding flows in two halves of the secondary winding of
the transformer and in opposite directions.

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1.2.2 Clipper & Clamper

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1.3 Zener Diode

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in
reverse biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased
condition is not used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed,
highly doped PN junction diode.

Definition: A special type of PN junction diode that operates in reverse biased mode, more
specifically in breakdown region is known as Zener Diode. The doping level of the zener
diode is somewhat higher than the normal PN junction diode. So that it can give a sharp
breakdown voltage.
Zener breakdown was first noticed and explained by American Scientist C. Zener. It is
majorly used in voltage regulation in order to keep the voltage constant even when the load
shows variation.

Symbol of Zener diode

The figure given below represents the symbol of a Zener diode:

Its symbol is somewhat similar to the symbol of a normal diode. However, a small variation
is seen in the symbol of a zener diode which is shown by the bends at the two ends of the
vertical line.

Construction of Zener diode

The figure below, represents the diffused structure of a Zener diode:

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Here, N and P substrate are diffused together. The junction region is covered with a layer of
silicon dioxide (SiO2). At the same time during construction, the whole assembly is
metallised in order to generate anode and cathode connection. The layer of SiO 2 helps to
prevent contamination of the junctions. Thus, is used in the construction of zener diode.

Working of Zener diode

The operation of a zener diode is like a normal diode in forward biased mode. That means a
large majority current flows through the device when the forward potential is applied to it.
However, a zener shows variation from a normal diode in the aspect of its doping
concentration. Zener diode is highly doped thus its depletion width is very thin. Due to this,
more current flows through a zener diode as compared to a normal junction diode.

It specifically acts in the breakdown region in the reverse biased condition. A zener diode
shows two breakdown approach, zener breakdown, and avalanche breakdown.

 Avalanche breakdown mechanism

Avalanche breakdown is usually subjected to happen when the applied reverse bias voltage
is high. As we already know that in reverse biased condition, small minority current flows
through a normal diode. When a high reverse biased voltage is applied to the device, the
minority carriers experience acceleration and moves with high velocity. During its
movement, minority carriers collide with the atoms and generate more number of free
electrons. These free electrons further generate some more free electrons. Thus, a high
electric current is generated due to this multiplicative action.

Hence, we say high potential in reverse bias is required in case of avalanche breakdown.
This high current is responsible for the permanent destruction of a normal diode. But an
avalanche diode carefully manufactured to operate in breakdown region withstand the
high current flowing through it.

 Zener breakdown mechanism

This breakdown mechanism is noticed in diodes that are heavily doped. Due to the high
concentration of impurities, the width of the depletion width is narrow. With the increase
in reverse potential, a strong electric field is generated by the depletion region.

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As the reverse potential is supplied to the device and the voltage reaches near to zener
voltage. The electrons present in the depletion region utilize that energy and get separated
with the parent atom. Thereby generating free electrons. This action generates more free
electrons and hence their movement produces electric current through the device. Thus, a
small increase in reverse voltage will cause an immediate increase in current through the
device. The current flowing through the device shows its maximal increase up to circuit
permissible value. This reverse current will remain constant for a wide range of reverse
potential.

When a zener diode operates in the breakdown region, it does not burn rapidly. However,
the reason for this is some external circuit is required in order to protect the device from
the excess current.

Characteristic of Zener Diode

The V-I Characteristics of a Zener Diode can be divided into two parts
(i) Forward characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics
The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is shown in figure. It is almost identical to the
forward characteristics of a P-N junction diode.

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Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Reverse Characteristics
As we increase the reverse voltage, initially a small reverse saturation current Io. Which is
in A, will follow. This current flows due to the thermally generated minority carriers. At a
certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current will increase suddenly and sharply .
This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. This breakdown voltage is called as
Zener breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

The value of Vz can be precisely controlled by controlling the doping levels of P and
N regions at the time of manufacturing a Zener diode. After breakdown has occurred. The
voltage across Zener diode remains constant equal to Vz. Any increase in the source voltage
will result in the increase in reverse Zener current. The Zener current after the reverse
breakdown must be controlled by connecting a resistor R as shown in figure. This is
essential to avoid any damage to the device due to excessive heating.

Zener Region and its importance

Reverse breakdown of the zener diode operates in a region called zener region, as shown in
figure. In this region the voltage across zener diode remains constant but current changes
depending on the supply voltage. zener diode is operated in this region when it is being
used as a voltage regulator. The complete v-i characteristics of zener diode is as shown in
figure

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V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

Applications of Zener Diode

The Zener diode is mostly used in the commercial and industrial applications. The
following are the main application of the Zener diode.
As Voltage Stabilizer – The Zener diode is used for regulating the voltage. It provides the
constant voltage from the fluctuating voltage source to the load. The Zener diode is
connected in parallel across the load and maintain the constant voltage V Z and hence
stabilizes the voltage.
For Meter Protection – The Zener diode is generally used in multimeters for controlling
the movement of the meter against accidental overloads. It is connected in parallel with the
diode. When the overload occurs across the diode most of the current pass through the
diode. Thus, protects the meter from damage.
For Wave Shaping – The Zener diode is used for converting the sine wave into the square
wave. This can be done by placing the two Zener Diodes in series with the resistance. The
diode is connected back to back and in the opposite direction.

When the voltage applied across the terminal is less than the Zener voltage the
diodes offer a high resistive path to the current and the input voltage applied across a diode
appeared at the output terminal. When the voltage rises beyond the Zener voltage they
offer a low resistance path and large current flow through the diode. Due to which the
heavy voltage drop occurs across the resistance and the input wave cutoff at the peak.
Thus, the square wave appears across the output terminal.

1.4 Photodiode

A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is known
as Photodiode. It is also known as photodetector or photosensor. It operates in reverse
biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.

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The figure below shows the symbolic representation of a photodiode:

Principle of Photodiode
It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two-
terminal semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric current starts flowing
through it. Only minority current flows through the device when the certain reverse
potential is applied to it.

Construction of Photodiode
The figure below shows the constructional detail of a photodiode:

The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material. This is done to order to allow
the light energy to pass through it. As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the
other portion of the glass material is painted black or is metalized.

Operational Modes of Photodiode

Photodiode basically operates in two modes:

 Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse

potential is provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place
when the device is exposed to light.
 Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it
behaves as a photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the
corresponding change in reverse voltage.

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Working of Photodiode
In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed
as dark current. It is called so because this current is totally the result of the flow of
minority carriers and is thus flows when the device is not exposed to radiation.

The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority
carriers. When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from
n-side experiences repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the negative
potential of the battery. Due to this movement electron and hole recombine at the junction
resultantly generating depletion region at the junction.
Due to this movement, a very small reverse current flows through the device known
as dark current.
The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom at the
depletion. Due to which any further flow of current is restricted.
Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light falls on the
surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets increased. This causes the
electron and hole to get separated from each other.
At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards the
positive potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get attracted to the
negative potential of the battery.
This movement then generates high reverse current through the device.
With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and flow
through the device. Thereby, producing a large electric current through the device.
This current is then used to drive other circuits of the system.
So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the current
through the device.
Only positive biased potential can put the device in no current condition in case of
the photodiode.

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Characteristics of Photodiode

The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode:

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and
the horizontal line represents the reverse-biased potential.
The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority carriers
in the absence of light.
As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in
between them. This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.

Advantages of Photodiode
 It shows a quick response when exposed to light.
 Photodiode offers high operational speed.
 It provides a linear response.
 It is a low-cost device.

Disadvantages of Photodiode
 It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.
 When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.

Applications of Photodiode
1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.

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4. It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to
radiation is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the
device, it sounds the alarm.

In case of a typical photodiode, the normal reverse current is in tens of microampere range.

1.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal circuit or device that amplifies
flow of current. It is solid state device that flows current in two terminals, i.e., collector and
emitter and controlled by third device known as terminal or base terminal. Unlike a normal
p-n junction diode, this transistor has two p-n junctions. The basic symbols of BJT are n-
type and p-type. Electronic current is conducted by both free electrons and holes in bipolar
junction transistor.

Terminals of Bipolar Junction Transistors

There are three terminals in bipolar junction transistors are explained below.
 Emitter − It supplies charge carriers. It is highly doped so that it can inject a large
number of charge carriers into the base. Emitter is always greater than base.

 Base − Base is middle layer in BJT which is thin compared to emitter and collector.
Base is much lighted doped.

 Collector − It collects charge carriers. It’s doped between emitter and base means
moderately doped, but it is always greater than emitter and base in size.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors

Since a semiconductor has less resistance to flow current in one direction and high
resistance in another direction. The device mode of a semiconductor is transistor. There
are two types of transistors, i.e., point contact and junction transistor in bipolar junction
transistors. Junction transistor are used more than point type transistor. Junction
transistor are also types based on their construction. These are:

NPN Junction Transistors

In this transistor, a single p-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two n-
type semiconductor layers.

PNP Junction Transistors

In this transistor, a single n-type semiconductor layer is sandwiched between two p-
type semiconductor layers.

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Bipolar junction transistors are formed by sandwiching either n-type or p-type. The
electrodes for each junction transistor are: emitter, base, and collector.

BJT operation modes

There are three modes: Cut-off mode, saturated mode, and active mode in bipolar
transistor junction. We need supply dc voltage to npn or pnp transistors in order to operate
transistor in one of these regions. Transistor operates in any of these regions based on
polarity of dc voltage. Applying dc voltage means biasing of transistor.

Cutoff mode
In this mode, both junctions are reversed biased so no current flows through the
device. Hence, transistor is in off mode and acts like open switch. This mode is used for
switch OFF application.

Saturated mode
In this mode, both junctions are forward biased so current flows through the device.
Hence, transistor is in on mode and acts like closed switch. This mode is used for switch ON
application.

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Active mode
In this mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased and another junction
(collector to base) is reverse biased. This mode is used for amplification of current.

Configurations of BJT

BJT can be connected in three different configurations by keeping one terminal common
and using the other two terminals for the input and output. These three types of
configurations respond differently to the input signal applied to the circuit because of
the static characteristics of the BJT. The three different configurations of BJT are listed
below.

 Common Base (CB) configuration

 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

 Common Collector (CC) Configuration

Among these, the Common Base configurations will have voltage gain, but no current gain,
whereas the Common Collector Configuration has current gain, but no voltage gain and the
Common Emitter Configuration will have both current and voltage gain.

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Working Principle of Common Base (CB) Configuration

The below diagram shows the NPN transistor of the active mode region.

The BE junction is forward bias and the CB is a reverse bias junction. The width of the
depletion region of the CB junction is higher than the BE junction. The forward bias at the
BE junction decreases the barrier potential and produces electrons to flow from the emitter
to the base and the base is a thin and lightly doped it has very few holes and less amount of
electrons from the emitter about 2% it recombine in the base region with holes and from
the base terminal it will flow out. This initiates the base current flow due to the
combination of electrons and holes. The leftover large number of electrons will pass the
reverse bias collector junction to initiate the collector current. By using KCL we can
observe the mathematical equation

IE = IB + IC

The base current is very less as compared to emitter and collector current

IE ~ IC

Here the operation of PNP transistor is the same as the NPN transistor the only difference
is only holes instead of electrons.

V-I characteristics of Common Base (CB) Configuration

Input characteristics

The input Characteristic curve for the Common Base configurations is drawn between
the emitter current IE and the voltage between the base and emitter VEB. During the
Common base configuration, the Transistor gets forward biased hence it will show
characteristics similar to that of the forward characteristics of a p-n diode where
the IE increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.

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Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of the Common Base configuration are given between the
collector current IC and the voltage between the collector and base VCB, here the emitter
Current IE is the measuring parameter. Based on the operation, there are three different
regions in the curve, at first, the active region, here the BJT will be operating normally and
the emitter junction is reverse biased. Next comes the saturation region where both the
emitter and collector junctions are forward biased. Finally, the cutoff region where both
emitter and the collector junctions are reverse biased.

Advantages of BJT
These are advantages of bipolar junction transistors:
 It has high frequency operation,
 It has high driving capability,
 It can be used as digital switch.

Applications of BJT
A transistor is most commonly used as either electronic switches in digital circuits or as an
amplifier.

Transistors as Switches
Switches turn on and off, where for transistors, it acts as such by creating a binary on/off
effect of a switch, hence not requiring an actuator for it to flip, but instead voltages. Such an

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application is used to control the flow of power to another part of a circuit. In other words,
a small current flowing through one part of a transistor allows for a much bigger current
flow through another part of the transistor.

Transistors as switches can be seen in memory chips, where there are millions of
transistors present, switching on and off.

Transistors as Amplifier
Apart from working as switches, transistors work as an amplifier as well, taking tiny
electric currents, and producing a much higher current output at the other end. Such
transistors are commonly found in products such as hearing aids, radio, or anything from
the µV range.

1.6 Introduction of FET

The FET transistors are voltage controlled devices, where as the BJT transistors are current
controlled devices. The FET transistors have basically three terminals, such as Drain (D),
Source (S) and Gate (G) which are equivalent to the collector, emitter and base terminals in
the corresponding BJT transistor.

In BJT transistors the output current is controlled by the input current which is
applied to the base, but in the FET transistors the output current is controlled by the input
voltage applied to the gate terminal.

In the FET transistors the output current passes between the drain and source
terminals and this path is called channel and this channel may be made of either P-type or
N-type semiconductor materials. In BJT transistor a small input current operates the large
load, but in FET a small input voltage operates the large load at the output.
The BJT transistors are ‘bipolar’ devices because they operates with both types of
charge carriers, such as electrons and holes but the FET transistors are ‘unipolar’ devices
because they operate with the charge carriers of either electrons (for N-channel) or holes
(for P-channel).

The FET transistors can be made smaller in size compared to BJT transistor and also
they have less power dissipation. Due to this high efficiency the FET transistors are used in
many electronic circuit applications by replacing the corresponding BJT transistors. These
FET transistors are very useful in the chip designing due to their low power consumption
behavior. Like BJT the FET transistors are also available in both P-channel and N-channel.

The FET transistors have high input impedance where as BJT has relatively low. Due
to this high impedance values the FET transistors are very sensitive to small input voltages.

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The FET transistors are mainly classified into two types; they are Junction Field Effect
Transistor (JFET) and Insulated Gate FET (IG-FET) or Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET
(MOSFET).

FET Transistor Symbols

1.6.1 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

The Junction Field Effect transistor (JFET) is one of the types of FET transistors. JFET is a
simplest form of FET transistors and it has three terminals. The JFET transistors are used
as electronically controlled switches, Voltage controlled resistors and as amplifiers.

BJT transistors are constructed with the PN-junctions but the JFET transistors have
a channel instead of the PN-junctions. This channel is formed due to the either of P-type or
N-type semiconductor materials.

JFET symbols and channel construction

The JFET transistors are classified into two types; they are N-channel JFET and P-channel
JFET. In the N-channel JFET the channel is doped with the donor impurities due to this the
current passing through the channel is negative (i.e. due to electrons) but in the P-channel
JFETs the channel is doped with the acceptor impurities due to this the current flowing
through this channel is positive (i.e. due to holes).

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The N-channel JFET has more current conduction than P-channel JFET because the mobility
of electrons is greater than the mobility of holes. So the N-channel JFETs are widely used
than P-channel JFETs. The small voltage at the gate (G) terminal controls the current flow
in the channel (between drain and source) of the JFET.

The emitter and collector terminals are connected using PN-junctions in BJT but in
JFET the Drain and Source terminals are connected with the channel. The small voltage
applied at the gate terminal controls the current flow in the channel between the drain and
source of the JFET. This gate voltage is negative in N-channel JFET and it is positive in P-
channel JFET.

One of the main differences between the BJT and JFET transistors is that when the
JFET has reverse-biased junction, then the gate current may be zero, but in the BJT the base
current always must be greater than zero.

N-channel JFET Biasing

The internal diagram for N-channel JFET transistor is shown below. This is a transistor
with N-type of channel and with P-type materials of the region. If the gate is diffused into
the N-type channel, then a reverse biased PN-junction is formed which results a depletion
region around the gate terminal when no external supply is applied to the transistor.
Generally the JFETs are called as depletion mode devices.

Biasing circuit of N-channel JFET

This depletion region produces a potential gradient with the variation of thickness around
the PN-junction. This PN-junction opposes the current flow through the channel by
reducing the channel width and by increasing the channel resistance.
Now the channel of JFET conducts with zero bias voltage applied as input. Because
of the large portion of the depletion region formed between the gate-drain and the small
portion of the depletion region between gate and source.
If small voltage (VDS) applied between the drain-source with zero gate voltage (VG)
then current (IDS) will flow through this channel. Now if we apply a small amount of

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negative voltage (-VGS) (i.e. reverse biased condition) then the depletion region width
increases, which results in decreasing the portion of the channel length and reduces the
conduction of the channel.
This process is called “squeezing effect”. If we will increase more negative voltage at
the gate terminal then it reduces the channel width until no current flows through the
channel. Now at this condition the JFET is said to be “pinched-off”. The applied voltage at
which the channel of FET closes is called as “pinched-off voltage (VP)”.

Pinch-off Effect

N-channel JFET Biasing Circuit for Pinched-off Condition

The JFET with N-channel structure is shown above. At primarily if the gate voltage is zero,
then the channel resistance is also zero and the conduction of the channel is high. If the
gate voltage (i.e. negative voltage) increases to above zero, then the resistance of the
channel also increases and the small amount of current will flows through the channel.
If we apply a large amount of negative voltage at the gate terminal, then the channel
totally blocks the flow of current through it. In this condition, there is no current flow
through the channel and now the JFET acts as a perfect resistor.
The state of JFET in which the channel closes is called “pinched-off” and the voltage applied
at gate in that situation is called “pinched-off voltage (VP)”. At the pinched-off condition the
gate voltage (VGS) controls the channel current. The P-channel JFET operation is same as
the N-channel JFET with some variations, such as the channel current is positive because of
the conduction due to holes and it is needed the reverse polarity to apply gate voltage.

JFET V-I Characteristics

The V-I characteristics of N-channel JFET are shown below. In this N-channel JFET
structure the gate voltage (VGS) controls the current flow between the source drain. The
JFET is a voltage controlled device so no current flows through the gate, then the source
current (IS) is equal to the drain current (ID) i.e. ID = IS.

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In this V-I characteristic the voltage VGS represents the voltage applied between the
gate and the source and the voltage VDS represents the voltage applied between the drain
and source.

V-I characteristics of JFET transistor

The JFET has different characteristics at different stages of operation depending on

the input voltages and the characteristics of JFET at different regions are explained below.
Mainly the JFET operates in ohmic, saturation, cut-off and break-down regions.
Ohmic Region: If VGS = 0 then the depletion region of the channel is very small and in this
region the JFET acts as a voltage controlled resistor.
Pinched-off Region: This is also called as cut-off region. The JFET enters into this region
when the gate voltage is large negative, then the channel closes i.e.no current flows through
the channel.
Saturation or Active Region: In this region the channel acts as a good conductor which is
controlled by the gate voltage (VGS).
Breakdown Region: If the drain to source voltage (VDS) is high enough, then the channel of
the JFET breaks down and in this region uncontrolled maximum current passes through
the device.

JFET Applications

 JFET is used as a switch.

 JFET is used as a chopper.
 Used as an amplifier.
 Used as a buffer.
 Used in the oscillatory circuits because of its low frequency drift.

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 Used in digital circuits, such as computers, LCD and memory circuits because of their
small size.
 Used in communication equipments, such as FM and TV receivers because of their
low modulation distortion.
 Used as voltage controlled resistors in operational amplifiers.
 JFETs are used in cascade amplifiers and in RF amplifiers.

1.6.2 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is one type of FET
transistor. In these transistors the gate terminal is electrically insulated from the current
carrying channel so that it is also called as Insulated Gate FET (IG-FET). Due to the
insulation between gate and source terminals the input resistance of MOSFET may be very
high such as in mega ohms (MΩ).
Like JFET the MOSFET also acts as a voltage controlled resistor when no current
flows into the gate terminal. The small voltage at the gate terminal controls the current
flow through the channel between the source and drain terminals. In present days, the
MOSFET transistors are mostly used in the electronic circuit applications instead of the
JFET.
Like JFET, the MOSFET transistors also have three terminals, such as Drain (D),
Source (S) and Gate (G) and also one more terminal called substrate or Body (B) is used in
the circuit connections. The MOSFETs are also available in both types, N-channel (NMOS)
and P-channel (PMOS). The MOSFETs are basically classified in to two forms they are
Depletion type and Enhancement type transistors.

Channel Construction of MOSFET

1. Depletion Type
The depletion type MOSFET transistor is equivalent to a “normally closed” switch. The
depletion type of transistors requires gate – source voltage (VGS) to switch OFF the device.

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Symbols of Depletion Mode MOSFET

The symbols for depletion mode of MOSFETs in both N-channel and P-channel types
are shown above. In the above symbols we can observe that the fourth terminal substrate is
connected to the ground, but in discrete MOSFETs it is connected to source terminal. The
continuous thick line connected between the drain and source terminal represents the
depletion type. The arrow symbol indicates the type of channel, such as N-channel or P-
channel. In this type of MOSFETs a thin layer of silicon is deposited below the gate terminal.
The depletion mode MOSFET transistors are generally ON at zero gate-source voltage (VGS).
The conductivity of the channel in depletion MOSFETs is less compared to the
enhancement type of MOSFETs.

2. Enhancement Type
The Enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to “Normally Open” switch and these types
of transistors require gate-source voltage to switch ON the device. The symbols of both N-
channel and P-channel enhancement mode MOSFET transistors are shown below.

Symbols of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Here we can observe that the broken line is connected between the source and drain
which represents the enhancement mode type. In enhancement mode MOSFETs the
conductivity increases by increasing the oxide layer which adds the carriers to the channel.

Generally, this oxide layer is called as ‘Inversion layer’. The channel is formed
between the drain and source in the opposite type to the substrate, such as N-channel is
made with a P-type substrate and P-channel is made with an N-type substrate. The
conductivity of the channel due to electrons or holes depends on N-type or P-type channel
respectively.

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Structure of MOSFET

The basic structure of the MOSFET is shown in the below figure. The construction of the
MOSFET is very different as compared to the construction of the JFET. In both
enhancement and depletion modes of MOSFETs an electric field is produced by gate voltage
which changes the flow charge carriers, such as electrons for N-channel and holes for P-
channel.

Internal Structure of MOSFET

Here we observed that the gate terminal is injected into the thin metal oxide
insulated layer at the top and two N-type regions are used below the drain and source
terminals.
In the above MOSFET structure the channel between drain and source is an N-type
which is formed opposite to the P-type substrate. It is easy to bias the MOSFET gate
terminal for the polarities of either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
If there is no bias at the gate terminal, then the MOSFET is generally in non-
conducting state so that these MOSFETs are used to make switches and logic gates. Both
the depletion and enhancement modes of MOSFETs are available in N-channel and P-
channel types.

Depletion Mode

The depletion mode MOSFETs are generally known as ‘Switched ON’ devices, because these
transistors are generally closed when there is no bias voltage at the gate terminal. If the
gate voltage increases in positive, then the channel width increases in depletion mode.

As a result the drain current ID through the channel increases. If the applied gate
voltage more negative, then the channel width is very less and MOSFET may enter into the
cutoff region. The depletion mode MOSFET is rarely used type of transistor in the electronic
circuits.

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(a) Characteristics Curve of Depletion Mode MOSFET

(b) Circuit symbols of Depletion Mode MOSFET

The V-I characteristics of the depletion mode MOSFET transistor are given above. This
characteristic mainly gives the relationship between drain- source voltage (VDS) and drain
current (ID). The small voltage at the gate controls the current flow through the channel.
The channel between drain and source acts as a good conductor with zero bias
voltage at gate terminal. The channel width and drain current increases if the gate voltage
is positive and these two (channel width and drain current) decreases if the gate voltage is
negative.

Enhancement Mode

The Enhancement mode MOSFET is commonly used type of transistor. This type of
MOSFET is equivalent to normally-open switch because it does not conduct when the gate
voltage is zero. If the positive voltage (+VGS) is applied to the N-channel gate terminal, then
the channel conducts and the drain current flows through the channel.

If this bias voltage increases to more positive then channel width and drain current
through the channel increases to some more. But if the bias voltage is zero or negative (-
VGS) then the transistor may switch OFF and the channel is in non-conductive state. So now
we can say that the gate voltage of enhancement mode MOSFET enhances the channel.

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(c) Characteristics Curve of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

(d) Circuit symbols of Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Enhancement mode MOSFET transistors are mostly used as switches in electronic circuits
because of their low ON resistance and high OFF resistance and also because of their high
gate resistance. These transistors are used to make logic gates and in power switching
circuits, such as CMOS gates, which have both NMOS and PMOS Transistors.

The V-I characteristics of enhancement mode MOSFET are shown above which gives
the relationship between the drain current (ID) and the drain-source voltage (VDS). From
the above figure we observed the behavior of an enhancement MOSFET in different
regions, such as ohmic, saturation and cut-off regions.

MOSFET transistors are made with different semiconductor materials. These

MOSFETs have the ability to operate in both conductive and non-conductive modes
depending on the bias voltage at the input. This ability of MOSFET makes it to use in
switching and amplification.

The different regions in which the MOSFET operates in their total operation are
discussed below.

Cut-off Region: If the gate-source voltage is less than the threshold voltage then we say
that the transistor is operating in the cut-off region (i.e. fully OFF). In this region drain
current is zero and the transistor acts as an open circuit.
VGS < VTH => IDS = 0
Ohmic (Linear) Region: If the gate voltage is greater than threshold voltage and the drain-
source voltage lies between VTH and (VGS – VTH) then we say that the transistor is in linear
region and at this state the transistor acts as a variable resistor.
VGS > VTH and VTH < VDS < (VGS – VTH) => MOSFET acts as a variable resistor

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Saturation Region: In this region the gate voltage is much greater than threshold voltage
and the drain current is at its maximum value and the transistor is in fully ON state. In this
region the transistor acts as a closed circuit.
VGS >> VTH and (VGS – VTH) < VDS < 2(VGS – VTH) => IDS = Maximum
The gate voltage at which the transistor ON and starts the current flow through the
channel is called threshold voltage. This threshold voltage value range for N-channel
devices is in between 0.5V to 0.7V and for P-channel devices is in between -0.5V to -0.8V.

The behavior of a MOSFET transistor in depletion and enhancement modes depending on

the gate voltage is summarized as follows.

MOSFET TYPE VGS = +VE VGS = 0 VGS = -VE

N-Channel Depletion ON ON OFF

N-Channel Enhancement ON OFF OFF

P-Channel Depletion OFF ON ON

P-Channel Enhancement OFF OFF ON

Applications

 MOSFETs are used in digital integrated circuits, such as microprocessors.

 Used in calculators.
 Used in memories and in logic CMOS gates.
 Used as analog switches.
 Used as amplifiers.
 Used in the applications of power electronics and switch mode power supplies.
 MOSFETs are used as oscillators in radio systems.
 Used in automobile sound systems and in sound reinforcement systems.

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