EXPERIMENT NO.

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT: V-I Characteristics of P-N junction Diode

OBJECTIVE: To study and plot the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a normal diode and to
determine the threshold voltage, static and dynamic resistance.

APPARATUS/ COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.N Device Range Quantity

o /Rating (in No.s)
1. Semiconductor diode trainer
Board Containing
DC Power Supply (0-15) V 1
Diode (Silicon) 1N 4007 1
Diode (Germanium) OA79 1
Carbon Film Resistor 1 KΩ, 1/2 W 1
2. DC Voltmeter (0-1) V 1
DC Voltmeter (0-20) V 1
3. DC Ammeter (0-200) μA 1
DC Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
4. Connecting wires 5A 10
 THEORY: A diode is a nonlinear circuit element. The symbol of a diode and a real commercial diode is shown
in Fig. 1. Generally there is a band marked at its cathode for its identification. There exists another type of diode
known as zener diode, which has a heavily doped PN junction.

where VD is the diode voltage drop, IS is the saturation current, n is the emission coefficient, and V T =
kT/q (≈ 0.026V at T=300K) is the thermal voltage. The emission coefficient accounts for recombination’s
of electrons and holes in the depletion region, which tend to decrease the current. For discrete diodes, it has
the value n is 2. The I~V characteristic of an ideal diode is shown in Fig. 2-a. Under forward biased
condition of a real PN junction diode, the P-side is connected to the positive and Nside is connected to the
negative terminal of the power supply. This reduces the potential barrier. As a result current flows from P
to N-type in forward direction. When the applied voltage is more than the barrier potential, the resistance is
small (ideally 0) and the current increases rapidly. This point is called the Knee-point or turn-on voltage or
threshold voltage (Fig. 2-b). This voltage is about 0.3 volts for Ge diodes and 0.7 volts for Si diodes.

Under reverse biased condition, the P-side of the junction diode is connected to the
negative and N-side is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. This increases the potential
barrier due to which no current should flow ideally. But in practice, the minority carriers can travel down
the potential barrier to give very small current. This is called as the reverse saturation current. This current
is about 2- 20 µA for Ge diodes and 2-20 nA for Si diodes (the values might differ for diodes of different
makes). However, if the reverse bias is made too high, the current through the PN junction increases
abruptly. The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is known as the break-down or reverse voltage and
the mechanism involved depends on the construction of the diode. In conventional diodes with a lightly
doped junction, application of higher reverse voltage leads to large number of carriers produced by
collision of thermally generated electrons and the phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown. When the
reverse bias exceeds this breakdown voltage, a conventional diode is subject to high current. Unless this
current is limited by external circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. If the junction is heavily
doped with narrow depletion layers, break-down occurs when the reverse voltage is strong enough to
rupture the covalent bonds generating large number of electron-hole pairs. This phenomenon is called
zener breakdown.
 PROCEDURE:
A) FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. for forward bias, the RPS (Regulated Power Supply) +ve is connected to the anode of
the diode and RPS (Regulated Power Supply) –ve is connected to the cathode of the
diode
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps
of 0.1V
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across
the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (Vf) on X-axis and current (If) on Y-axis.

B) REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps
of 1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (VR) on X-axis and current (IR) on Y-axis

PRECAUTIONS: 1. Ensure that the polarities of the power supply and the meters as per the
circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage knob of the regulated power supply in minimum position both
when switching ON or switching OFF the power supply.
3. No loose contacts at the junctions.
4. Ensure that the ratings of the meters are as per the circuit design for precision

CALCULATIONS:
Forward Bias Static Resistance at 8mA= Ef / If =
Static resistance at 2mA= Ef / If =
Dynamic resistance at 8mA=Δ Ef / Δ If =
Dynamic resistance at 8mA=Δ Ef / Δ If =
Reverse Bias Static Resistance at (10V) = Er / Ir =
Dynamic resistance at (10V)=Δ Er / Δ Ir =
 How to calculate Static and Dynamic Resistance:

At a given operating point, the static and dynamic resistance of a diode can be determined from its
characteristics as shown in Fig. 4. The static or dc resistance, RD, of the diode at the operating point
(the point where the load line intersects the diode characteristics), Q, is simply the quotient of the
corresponding levels of VD and ID. The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than
the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics.
RD = VD/ID
The diode circuits generally operate with varying inputs, which will move the instantaneous
operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and defines a specific change in current
and voltage. Dynamic or ac Resistance, rd, is defined as the quotient of this change in voltage and
change in current around the dc operating point.
rd = ∆VD/ ∆ID

Conclusions:
 EXPERIMENT NO.3

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

OBJECTIVE: To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

APPARATUS/ COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Theory: A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in
the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage", "zener
voltage" or "avalanche point". A conventional solid-state diode will allow significant current if it is
reversebiased above its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is
exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this
current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. A zener
diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a
reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device,
a reverse-biased zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the
voltage across the zener diode close to the zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a
zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide
range of reverse currents. The zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation
of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for lowcurrent
applications.
Avalanche Break down: If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion
region at the junction widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the
kinetic energy of the charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge
carriers by breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge
carriers, this process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in
Avalanche Breakdown.
Zener Break down: If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion
region at the junction reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of
even a small voltage at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of
charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener
breakdown.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Forward Bias
Reverse Bias

Zener Doide As Voltage Regulator

Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.
2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to
0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.2. Vary the voltage across the
diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is reached. In
each step note the current flowing through the diode
 2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener
diode. From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
TABULAR COLUMN
Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

Conclusions: