Fluid Mechanics

ChE 3111

Chapter 6: Conserva/on of Energy:

Control-Volume Approach
 Learning Objec/ves
Ø Explain the terms in Bernoulli’s equa/on

Ø Explain how Bernoulli’s equa/on is related to the

conserva/on of energy

Ø Describe how to derive Bernoulli’s principle from

Bernoulli’s equa/on

Ø Perform calcula/ons using Bernoulli’s principle

Ø Describe some applica/ons of Bernoulli’s principle

 The Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of
steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are
negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful
tool in fluid mechanics.

37
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Assumptions
Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
Steady flow
Along a streamline
Constant density (incompressible flow)
No shaft work or heat transfer
Care must be exercised when applying the Bernoulli
equation since it is an approximation that applies only to
inviscid regions of flow.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow
regions outside of boundary layers and wakes, where the
fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of
pressure and gravity forces.
38
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
A streamline (a line which follows the direction of the fluid
velocity) is chosen with the coordinates shown in Fig below.
Around this line, a cylindrical element of fluid having the
cross-sectional area dA and length ds is considered.

Let p be the pressure

acting on the lower face,
and pressure p + dp acts
on the upper face a
distance ds away.
The gravitational force
acting on this element is
its weight, ρgdAds.
39
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Applying Newton’s second in the s-direction on a particle
moving along a streamline gives

The velocity may change with both position and time. In

one-dimensional flow it therefore becomes a function of
distance and time, v = v(s, t). The change in velocity dv
over time dt may be written as

40
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Summing forces in the direction of motion, the s-direction

results

Where and
On substitutingDerivation
and dividing the Bernoulli
of the equation by ρgdA, we can
Equation
obtain Euler's equation:

Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressibleSteady flow:

flow.
Bernoulli
Steady, incompressible flow:
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Now if we further assume that the flow is incompressible
so that the density is constant, we may integrate Euler's
equation to get

The terms of in the equation represent energy per unit

weight, and they have the units of length (m) so they are
commonly termed heads.

42
 The Bernoulli eq

The incompressible Bernoulli equation is

derived assuming incompressible flow,
and thus it should not be used for flows
with significant compressibility effects.
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and
has dimensions of length.
Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head,
which is the level registered by a piezometer connected to
that point in a pipeline.
Total head = piezometric head + velocity head.
It follows that for ideal steady flow the total energy head is
constant along a streamline, but the constant may differ in
different streamlines .
Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the
same streamline, we have

43
 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
Various problems on the one-dimensional flow of an ideal
fluid can be solved by jointly using Bernoulli’s theorem and
the continuity equation.
Venturi, nozzle and orifice meters
The Venturi, nozzle, and orifice-meters are three similar
types of devices for measuring discharge in a pipe.
The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly converging section,
which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the
pressure.
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging 'diffuser' section.
By measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be
calculated.
44
 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
We assume the flow is
horizontal
steady, inviscid, and
incompressible
between points (1) and
(2). The Bernoulli
equation becomes

45
 Application of Bernoulli’s equation

If we assume the velocity profiles are uniform at sections

(1) and (2), the continuity equation can be written as

Where is the small flow area at section (2).

Combination of these two equations results in the following
theoretical flowrate

Thus for a given flow geometry and the

flowrate can be determined if the pressure difference,
is measured.

46
 1 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
Example 2.

Air flows through a pipe at a rate of 200 L/s. The pipe

consists of two sections of diameters 20 cm and 10 cm with
a smooth reducing section that connects them. The pressure
difference between the two pipe sections is measured by a
water manometer. Neglecting frictional effects, determine
the differential height of water between the two pipe
sections. Take the air density to be 1.20 kg/m3.

47
 1 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
Example 2.
Assumptions .1The flow through the pipe is steady,
incompressible, and with negligible friction (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The losses in the
reducing section are negligible. 3 The pressure difference
across an air column is negligible because of the low
density of air, and thus the air column in the manometer can
be ignored.
Analysis. We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the
pipe over the two tubes of the manometer. Noting that z1 =
z2 (or, the elevation effects are negligible for gases), the
Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

48
 Example 12. Application of Bernoulli’s equation
We let the differential height of the water manometer be h.
Then the pressure difference P2 – P1 can also be expressed
as

49
Example 2.
1 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
 Example 4
Example 2

Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in Fig.

For the given 0.2-m difference in the manometer level,
determine the flowrate as a function of the diameter of
the small pipe, D.

56
57
 Example 53
Example
Water flows steadily through the variable area pipe
shown in the Fig. with negligible viscous effects.
Determine the manometer reading, H, if the flowrate is
0.5 m3/s and the density of the manometer fluid is 600
kg/m3.

58
59
60
 20.252
hAssessment
= Ques/on
2.8294 1
2 = 50.97 ft
(2)(32.2)

Example 3.6-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Water (density = 1000 kg/m3) is flowing inside a 0.12 m diameter pipe with a flow rate of
0.14 m3/s. Determine the velocity head in the pipe.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.14
Velocity in the pipe is V = = 12.38 m/s
π × 0.06 2

V2 12.382
The velocity head is then: = = 7.81 m
2g 2 × 9.81

3-24
 20.252
hAssessment
= Ques/on
2.8294 1
2 = 50.97 ft
(2)(32.2)

Example 3.6-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Water (density = 1000 kg/m3) is flowing inside a 0.12 m diameter pipe with a flow rate of
0.14 m3/s. Determine the velocity head in the pipe.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.14
Velocity in the pipe is V = = 12.38 m/s
π × 0.06 2

V2 12.382
The velocity head is then: = = 7.81 m
2g 2 × 9.81

3-24
 Example 4
Example 3.6-1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water is flowing into the top of a tank at a rate of 5.0 ft3/s. The tank is 18 in. in diameter and
has a 4 in. diameter hole in the bottom, through which the water flows out. If the inflow rate
is adjusted to match the outflow rate, what will the height of the water be in the tank if
friction is negligible?

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(1)

(2)

Applying Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

1
gz1 + 0.5u12 = gz2 + 0.5u22 ⇒ h = z1 − z2 = ( u22 − u12)
2g
From the mass balance we have
2
⎛D ⎞ 5
u2 = u1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 20.25u1 u1 = = 2.8294 ft/s
⎝ D2 ⎠ π (9 /12) 2
Example 3.6-1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water is flowing into the top of a tank at a rate of 5.0 ft3/s. The tank is 18 in. in diameter and
has a 4 in. diameter hole in the bottom, through which the water flows out. If the inflow rate
is adjusted to match the outflow rate, what will the height of the water be in the tank if
friction is negligible?

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(1)

(2)

Applying Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

1
gz1 + 0.5u12 = gz2 + 0.5u22 ⇒ h = z1 − z2 = ( u22 − u12)
2g
From the mass balance we have
2
⎛D ⎞ 5
u2 = u1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 20.25u1 u1 = = 2.8294 ft/s
⎝ D2 ⎠ π (9 /12) 2

The height of the water in the tank is

20.252 − 1
h= 2.82942 = 50.85 ft
(2)(32.2)

If we neglect u12 compared to u22, the height of the water in the tank is

20.252
h= 2.82942 = 50.97 ft
(2)(32.2)

Example 3.6-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Example 6
Water, considered an inviscid, incompressible fluid,
flows steadily as shown in Fig. below. Determine h.

61
62
 • The Bernoulli
The Bernoulliequation
equation can
can bebe viewed
viewed as the
as the
“conservationofofmechanical
“conservation mechanicalenergy principle.”
energy principle.”
•• This
This isisequivalent
equivalenttotothe general
the generalconservation
conservation
of
of energy
energyprinciple
principleforfor
systems
systems that do do
that not not
involve
involveanyanyconversion
conversion of of
mechanical
mechanical energy
energy
and
and thermal
thermalenergy
energytoto each
each other,
other,andand
thusthus
the mechanical energy and thermal energy are
the mechanical energy and thermal energy are
conserved separately.
conserved separately.
• The Bernoulli equation states that during
• The Bernoulli
steady, equation
incompressible states
flow with that during
negligible
steady, the
friction, incompressible
various formsflow with negligible
of mechanical
The Bernoulli equation
The Bernoulli
states that theequation
sum of the
friction,are
energy theconverted
various forms
to each ofother,
mechanical
but their
states thatpotential,
kinetic, the sumand of the
flow energy
sum are converted
remains constant. to each other, but their
kinetic, potential,
energies and
of a fluid flow is
particle • sum remains
There constant.
is no dissipation of mechanical energy
constant
energies ofalong a streamline
a fluid particle is • during
There such
is noflows since there
dissipation is no frictionenergy
of mechanical that
during steady
constant along aflow.
streamline converts
during suchmechanical energy
flows since to sensible
there is no friction that
during steady flow. thermal
converts (internal) energy.
mechanical energy to sensible
• thermal
The (internal)
Bernoulli energy.
equation is commonly used in
• practice since aequation
The Bernoulli variety ofispractical
commonly fluid used
flow in
problems can be analyzed to reasonable
practice since a variety of practical fluid flow
accuracy with it.
problems can be analyzed to reasonable
Conserva/on of Energy: Control-Volume Approach
Work/power due to normal stress
 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 + 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 + 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔ℎ
𝑃𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 − 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔ℎ
Example – Venturi Meter
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2
1 1 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣12 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣22 𝑙𝑙
2 2
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑣𝑣1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑣𝑣2 𝐴𝐴2 (constant density) ℎ

2 2
1 𝑄𝑄 1 𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝜕𝜕 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝜕𝜕 𝑙𝑙
2 𝐴𝐴1 2 𝐴𝐴2
or
2 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 2𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃
𝑄𝑄 = 2 2
= 2 2 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 + 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔 ℎ + 𝑙𝑙
1 1 1 1 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 + 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙
𝜕𝜕 − 𝜕𝜕 −
𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔ℎ
2(𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 − 𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 )𝑔𝑔∆h
= 2 2
1 1 Color figure: ∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔ℎ
𝜕𝜕 − Gray figure: ∆𝑃𝑃 = (𝜕𝜕𝑓𝑓 −𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 )𝑔𝑔ℎ
𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1

https://www.astro.rug.nl/~weygaert/tim1publication/astrohydro2014/astrohydro2014.III.2.pdf
 0 𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑇𝑇 𝐴𝐴 0 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 1 h
∫𝐻𝐻 − ℎ = ∫0 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 2𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 −2 ℎ| = 2𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 h+dh
𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 h

Example – Torricelli’s Law 2 0

Calculate time required to empty the water
1 2 1 2 from height h1 to h2 in a container. A and a
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 + 𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦2 are the cross sections of container and hole
2 2
If 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃2 , 𝑣𝑣1 ≪ 𝑣𝑣2 , and ℎ = 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 at the bottom.

𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torricelli%27s_law
Example

Example 3.6-5. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The flanged joint shown in Figure E3.6-5 bolts a nozzle onto a pipe. The flowing fluid is
water. The cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow at point 1 is 12 in2 and at point 2 is
4 in2. At point 2 the flow is open to the atmosphere1. The pressure at point 1 is 36 psig.

2
Water

Pipe Nozzle
1
Figure E3.6-5. Nozzle, bolted to pipe.

Neglecting friction loss, determine the velocity of water leaving the nozzle

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Applying Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 we have

V12 p1 V22 p
+ gz1 + = + gz2 + 2 (E-1)
2 ρ 2 ρ
Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Applying Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 we have

V12 p1 V22 p
+ gz1 + = + gz2 + 2 (E-1)
2 ρ 2 ρ

Since p2 = patm = 0 psig, z1 = z2 = 0, Eq. (E-1) becomes

p1 V12 V22
+ = (E-2)
ρ 2 2

From the steady mass balance for incompressible fluid we have

A2 V
A1V1 = A2V2 ⇒ V1 = V2 = 2
A1 3

2V22
Substituting V1 = into Eq. (E-2) and solving for V2 we have
9

p1
= 0.5(V2)2 (1 − 1/9) = (4/9)(V2)2
ρ

0.5
⎛ 36 × 144 × 32.2 × 9 ⎞
V2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 77.58 ft/s
⎝ 62.4 × 4 ⎠