TOPIC 4 :

FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUIDS
FLOWS
Dr. Mazlina Bt Alang Othman
Department of Civil Engineering
Politeknik Ungku Omar

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.1 Concept of continuity equation

4.2 Energy Equation
4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation
4.4 Flow measurement
4.5 Energy Losses (major and minor energy losses)
4.6 Hardy Cross method
4.7 Experiment related to flow in pipeline
Introduction
• General flows are three dimensional, but many of them may be studied as if they are one dimensional.

• For example, whenever a flow in a tube is considered, if it is studied in terms of mean velocity, it is a one
dimensional flow, which is studied very simple.

• Three significant concepts in fluid flow are:

1. the principle of conservation of mass, from which the equation of continuity is developed,
2. the principle of kinetic energy, from which certain flow equations are derived, and
3. the principle of momentum, from which equations evaluating dynamic forces exerted by flowing fluids
maybe established (see Topic 5).

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Continuity Equation
• In steady flow, the mass flow per unit time passing through each section does not change, even if the pipe
diameter changes. This is the law of conservation of mass.
• the net mass flow of fluid entering the segment must be equal to that leaving the segment

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Continuity Equation
• The continuity equation states that in the steady flow of any liquid in a limited space, where the parameters
if state do not change in time, the rate of flow in any section of flow is the same.
Q1 = Q2
A1V1 = A2V2
Note: mass density remain constant throughout the segment

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Example 1
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipe of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm
respectively. If the average velocity in 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in the pipe. Also
determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s.

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Example 2
Water flows through a pipeline in which the diameter reduces from 500mm at A to 300 mm at B. The pipe than
forks, one branch has diameter of 150 mm discharging at C, while the other branch with diameter of 200 mm
discharge at D. Given that the velocity at A is 2.0 m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6 m/s, find discharge at C and D
and the velocities at B and C

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Conservation of Energy
• Fluid in motion posses energy
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Work is the result of the application of a force through a distance
and is generally defined mathematically as the product of a force and the distance traversed in the direction
of application.
• Three forms of energy must be considered :
1. Potential energy - Energy possessed by an element of fluid due to its position or elevation above a
reference datum
2. Kinetic energy- Energy possessed by an element of fluid due to its velocity
3. Pressure energy - known as the flow energy is the amount of work needed to move the element of fluid
across a certain distance,

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Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy principle
appropriate for flowing fluids.
• Total energy within a moving fluid must remain constant
• For a steady flow of non viscous in compressible fluid sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy per unit volume remains constant at all point
• In deriving Bernoulli equation, the following assumptions have been adopted:
1. Velocity on the flow cross section is uniform (use average velocity)
2. Effect of viscous forces are very small
3. Energy of flow is not converted into any other form apart from kinetic, potential and pressure energy

𝑃 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

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Bernoulli Equation

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Bernoulli Equation

P1 V12 P2 V2 2
 z1    z2   H L12
g 2g g 2g
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Energy Grade Line (EGD) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGD)

• The energy line is a graphical representation of the energy at each section. With respect to a chosen
datum, the total energy (as a linear value in feet or meters of fluid) can be plotted at each representative
• The hydraulic grade line lies below the energy line by an amount equal to the velocity head at the section.
• The two lines are parallel for all sections of equal cross-sectional area.
• The ordinate between the center of the stream and the hydraulic gradeline is the pressure head at the
section.

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Example 3
A pipe conveying water tapers from a cross sectional area of 0.5 m2 at A to 0.2 m2 at B. the pressure at A is
120 kN/m2 and the velocity is 2.0 m/s. Assuming no energy losses, determine the pressure at B,
which is 4.0 m above the level of A.

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Example 4
A horizontal 100 m long pipe uniformly tapers from 30 cm diameter to 20 cm diameter. Find the pressure at
the smaller end, if the pressure at the larger end is 98.1 kN/m2. The pipe is discharging 50 liter of water per
second. (97.08 kN/m2)

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Application of Bernoulli Equation
• Application of Bernoulli equation is its use in deriving expression to evaluate velocity in various flow
measuring instruments
• Flow measuring instruments include:

Pipe (closed conduit) Open channel (rivers, canals etc)

1. The Venturi meter 1. Notches

2. Orifice meter 2. Weir
3. The pitot tube

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Application of Bernoulli Equation
Venturi meter orifice

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Application of Bernoulli Equation

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Flow in Pipes
• Two types of flows, namely laminar flows and turbulent flows
• In a laminar flow , all the molecules in the fluid move in the same direction and at the same speed
• In a turbulent flow , however, the molecules in the fluid move in different directions and at different speeds

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Reynolds Number

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Reynolds Number

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Energy Loss in pipe flow
• Whenever a fluid flows through a pipelines, there is a loss of energy of the flow
• Loss due to fluids friction also known as Major Loss.
• Minor Loss in pipes-occur due to a change in magnitude of velocity.

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Major Loss/ Frictional losses

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Darcy-Weisbach equation
• Darcy-Weisbach equation valid for any fully developed, steady, incompressible pipe flow, whether the pipe
is horizontal or on hill

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Moody Chart

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Colebrook–White Equation
• Colebrook equation is a relationship between the friction factor and the Reynolds number, pipe roughness,
and inside diameter of pipe.
• Colebrook equation is used to calculate the friction factor in gas pipelines in turbulent flow.

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Hagen Poiseulle Equation
• Another equation to compute friction loss under lamina condition

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Example 5
Determine the loss head due to friction in a new cast iron pipe 360 m long and 150 mm diameter which
carries 0.042 m3/s. Use Darcy formula , f = 0.005
( Answer : 13.93 m)

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Example 6
Water flow through a pipe of 1000 m length with diameter of 0.25 m connecting 2 reservoirs with flow rate of
0.051 m3/s and kinematic viscosity,1.306 x 10-6 m2/s. Find head loss due to fluids friction. Given relative
roughness is 0.0005.

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Minor Loss
• Piping system include fittings, valves, bends, elbow, tees, inlets, exits, enlargement and contractions.
• This components interrupt the smooth flow of fluid and cause additional losses
• Minor energy loss in pipes – occur due to a change in magnitude of velocity.
1. loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe
2. loss of head due to sudden contraction in pipe
3. loss of head at the entrance of pipe in a pipe
4. loss of head at the exit of a pipe
5. loss of head due to bend and pipe fittings.

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Total Head Loss
The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to
the sum of total head loss in the pipe

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Example 7

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Example 8

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Pipe System/Pipe network

Pipe network
Pipe system

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Pipe System
• Most piping systems encountered in practice such as the water distribution systems in cities or
commercial or residential establishments involve numerous parallel and series connections as well as
several sources (supply of fluid into the system) and loads (discharges of fluid from the system)
• Piping systems typically involve several pipes connected to each other in series and/or in parallel

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Pipes in series connection

• Every fluid particle that passes through the system passes through each of the pipes.
• Thus, the flowrate (but not the velocity) is the same in each pipe, and the head loss from point A to point B
is the sum of the head losses in each of the pipes.
• The governing equations can be written as follows:

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Pipes in parallel connection

• In this system a fluid particle traveling from A to B may take any of the paths available, with the total
flowrate equal to the sum of the flowrates in each pipe.
• However, by writing the energy equation between points A and B it is found that the head loss
experienced by any fluid particle traveling between these locations is the same.
• Thus, the governing equations for parallel pipes are :

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Example 9
Water flow at a rate 0.020 m3/s from reservoir A to reservoir B through three concrete pipes (f = 0.035)
connected in series, as shown in figure below. The length and diameter for each pipes given below. Find the
difference between water surfaces elevations in the reservoirs. Consider all minor losses.

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 Example 10
Two pipes are connected in parallel between two reservoirs that have difference in levels of 3.5 m. The length,
the diameter, and friction factor are 2400 m, 1.2 m, and 0.026 for the first pipe and 2400m, 1m, and 0.019 for
the second pipe. Calculate the total discharge between the two reservoirs?

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Example 11
Two tanks are connected to 2 parallel pipes with same length. Diameter pipes are 10 cm and 30 cm. If
discharge in 10 cm pipe is 0.01m3/s, calculate discharge in pipe 30 cm. Take f1 = f2 and L1 = L2 (neglect all
minor head losses) ( Answer = 0.0156 m3/s)

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Example 12

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Example 13

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Multiple-pipe loop system
• Combination of series and parallel connection

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Three-Reservoir Problem

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Pipe Network Analysis
• A multiple pipe systems is a network of pipes such as that shown in figure.
• Networks like these often occur in city water distribution systems and other systems that may have multiple
“inlets” and “outlets.”
• The solution for pipe network problems is often carried out by use of node and loop equations
• A trial-and-error solutions are usually required because the direction of flow and the friction factors may
not be known.
• Such a solution procedure using matrix techniques is ideally suited for computer use.

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Pipe Network Analysis

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Hardy Cross Method

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Hardy Cross Method

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Hardy Cross Method

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Hardy Cross Method

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Hardy Cross Method

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Hardy Cross Method

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Example 13
A water supply pipe network system is shown in Figure 1. The pipe properties is shown in table 1. The
pressure head at node A is 33m. Using Darcy Weisbach formula with f = 0.0025 , calculate the flowrate in
each pipe and the pressure head at each node.

Pipe Diameter Length (m)

(mm)

1 200 180
2 150 75
3 150 88
4 150 160
5 150 85
6 200 150
7 200 70
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