Lab session no.

2
To demonstrate the validity of
Bernoulli's equation when applied
` 1. Introduction

1.1 Background
Bernoulli’s equation is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics, derived from the
conservation of energy for an incompressible and non-viscous fluid in steady flow.
The equation relates the pressure, velocity, and elevation of fluid particles in a
streamline and is widely used in the analysis of various fluid flow systems.

A convergent-divergent duct is often used to accelerate fluid flow to supersonic

speeds in nozzles, such as those used in jet engines, rockets, and other aerospace
applications. The flow through these ducts experiences changes in pressure,
velocity, and cross-sectional area, making it crucial to understand whether
Bernoulli's equation holds valid under these conditions.

PARTS
1.2 Nomenclature

 P = Pressure (Pa)
 ρ= Density of the fluid (kg/m³)
 = Flow velocity (m/s)
 A = Cross-sectional area of the duct (m²)
 g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)
 z = Elevation (m)
 h = Head (m)
 QQQ = Volumetric flow rate (m³/s)
 μ = Viscosity (Pa.s)
 Re = Reynolds number
 M = Mach number
 T = Temperature (K)
 Cd = Discharge coefficient
 ΔP = Pressure difference (Pa)

1.3 Applications
Bernoulli's equation finds applications in:

 Aerospace engineering: Analysis of flow through nozzles and diffusers in

jet engines and rockets.
 Hydraulics: Predicting the behavior of fluid in pipes, reservoirs, and open
channels.
 Mechanical engineering: Designing flow measurement devices like Venturi
meters and orifice plates.
  Biomedical engineering: Understanding blood flow through arteries,
especially at constricted or divergent sections.

2. Literature Review and Analytical Methods

2.1 Literature Review

Several studies have analyzed the application of Bernoulli’s equation to steady and
unsteady flows through nozzles, diffusers, and other varying cross-section ducts. A
key focus in such research has been its validity when assumptions such as
incompressibility, inviscidity, and steady flow are challenged.

For example, Ackeret (1952) explored the impact of compressibility on flow

through convergent-divergent nozzles, finding deviations from Bernoulli’s
equation at high Mach numbers. Prandtl (1950) extended this to include viscous
effects. Modern computational fluid dynamics (CFD) studies have since validated
these findings by comparing experimental results with simulations using Navier-
Stokes equations.

2.2 Analytical Method

In classical fluid mechanics, Bernoulli’s equation is derived from the Euler
equations under the assumption of steady, incompressible, and inviscid flow:

P1+12ρv12+ρgh1=P2+12ρv22+ρgh2P_1 + \frac{1}{2} \rho v_1^2 + \rho gh_1 =

P_2 + \frac{1}{2} \rho v_2^2 + \rho gh_2P1+21ρv12+ρgh1=P2+21ρv22+ρgh2

where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two points along a streamline. The equation
suggests that an increase in flow speed leads to a decrease in pressure. However,
the application to compressible flow, as seen in convergent-divergent ducts,
requires modifications, especially considering the relationship between pressure
and velocity becomes non-linear.

For compressible flows, a modified version of Bernoulli’s equation accounting for

density changes is used, particularly when Mach number M>0.3M > 0.3M>0.3,
since compressibility effects are significant:

Pρ+v22=constant\frac{P}{\rho} + \frac{v^2}{2} = \text{constant}ρP+2v2

=constant

2.3 Modeling and Simulation Method

CFD modeling is widely used to simulate flow through convergent-divergent
ducts, allowing researchers to analyze pressure, velocity, and temperature
distributions under varying conditions. CFD solves the Navier-Stokes equations
numerically to predict the behavior of real fluids, including compressibility and
viscosity effects.

Several studies use commercial CFD software like ANSYS Fluent or OpenFOAM
to model flow fields in such ducts. The results of these simulations help compare
the predictions of Bernoulli's equation with real-world observations and assess the
range of validity for the equation in compressible and viscous flows.

2.4 Experimental Method

Experimental validation is often carried out using wind tunnels or specialized test
rigs. In these setups, flow through convergent-divergent nozzles is measured using
pressure taps, pitot tubes, and high-speed cameras. Data from these tests help
verify analytical predictions and CFD simulations. In practice, deviations from
Bernoulli’s assumptions, such as energy losses due to friction or heat transfer, are
also observed.
3. Methodology, Observations, and Procedure

3.1 Methodology
The experiment designed to evaluate Bernoulli's equation's validity in a
convergent-divergent duct involves the following steps:

 Designing the duct: A convergent-divergent nozzle with varying cross-

sectional areas is fabricated.
 Instrumentation: Pressure sensors and velocity probes (e.g., Pitot tubes) are
installed at different sections along the duct to measure local pressure and
velocity changes.
 Flow setup: Air or water is chosen as the working fluid. The experiment can
be conducted under different flow regimes: subsonic, sonic, and supersonic.
 Data collection: The flow rate, pressure, and velocity are recorded at
different points along the duct.

3.2 Observations
For subsonic flows, Bernoulli's equation is expected to hold reasonably well, with
a notable decrease in pressure as velocity increases at the throat (narrowest part of
the duct). However, as the flow transitions to supersonic speeds in the divergent
section, compressibility effects become significant. The following observations are
likely:

 At the throat: Maximum velocity and minimum pressure.

 In the divergent section: For supersonic flow, a decrease in velocity with
an increase in pressure, violating the assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation.
 

Mea
Flow Rate n Velocit Sta
Time Q= V/t Diameter Area
(m^3/sec) Head y Hea
(m)
Volume
G1 = V
207 (m^3) (sec) (m^3/sec) (mm) (m^2) v =Q/A (m)
0.0000357

G2=
210 (m/sec)
0.00007130

G3=
220 0.001 28.05 0.0000357 25 0.00049 0.0728 2
0.00010695

G4=
225 0.001 28.05 0.0000357 13.9 0.000151 0.2364 2
0.00014602

G5=
227 0.001 28.05 0.0000357 11.8 0.000109 0.3275 2
0.00017825

0.001 28.05 0.0000357 10.7 0.000089 0.4011 2

0.001 28.05 0.0000357 10.8 0.000092 0.388 1

 Energy losses: Viscosity causes friction losses that are not accounted for in
Bernoulli's equation, resulting in discrepancies between theoretical and
experimental data.
3.3 Procedure

1. Setup Preparation:
o Mount the convergent-divergent nozzle in the experimental apparatus.
Ensure that all sensors are calibrated to measure pressure and velocity
accurately.
o Set the flow conditions (e.g., subsonic or supersonic flow) by
adjusting the inlet pressure or using a blower/compressor.
2. Starting the Flow:
o Begin the steady flow of the fluid through the nozzle and allow the
system to stabilize.
o

MOTOR ON/OFF SWITCH

3. Data Acquisition:
 o Record pressure and velocity readings at several points along the
nozzle (inlet, throat, and outlet).
o Measure the mass flow rate using an appropriate flowmeter.
o Note any temperature changes, especially for compressible flows, as
this may affect the density of the fluid.
4. Analysis:
o Compare the measured pressure and velocity distributions with the
predictions made by Bernoulli's equation.
o Evaluate the deviations at different points along the duct and assess
whether the assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation (incompressibility,
inviscidity) hold.
5. Validation and Conclusion:
o Based on the experimental data, validate whether Bernoulli's equation
is accurate for predicting flow through the convergent-divergent duct.
Discuss the conditions under which it can be applied and where
alternative models may be more appropriate.

Conclusion

Bernoulli's equation is a powerful tool in fluid dynamics, particularly for analyzing

incompressible and non-viscous flows. However, when applied to compressible
flows through convergent-divergent ducts, its validity becomes limited. Factors
such as compressibility, viscous losses, and shockwaves in supersonic flows
introduce deviations that require more sophisticated models like the compressible
flow version of Bernoulli’s equation or full numerical solutions using CFD.
References

 Ackeret, J. (1952). "Compressibility Effects in Nozzles and Convergent-

Divergent Ducts."
 Prandtl, L. (1950). "Boundary-Layer Theory."
 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab8f3d