Animal Physiology Theory Lec1

University of Duhok
College of Basic Education

Sciences department
Animal physiology - stage 4 lecturer 1
(2022-2023)
M. Veman abobaker khalid
2023/10/5
1
Animal physiology :is the scientific study of the life-supporting properties, functions and
processes of animals or their parts. The discipline covers key homeostatic processes, such as the
regulation of temperature, blood flow and hormones.
Cell: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life.
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
Over time, cells began to form groups that functioned together. Some cells retained the
ability to live outside a group. Others became dependent on each other for survival.
A group of similar cells and their products that carry out a specific function is called a
tissue.
Groups of tissues that perform a particular job in an organism are called organs.
An organ system is a group of organs that accomplish related tasks. The stomach and
liver are organs that are part of the digestive system.
Finally, several organ systems combine to make up an organism. This hierarchical
organization found in multicellular organisms.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF CELL:
The cell contains cytoplasm which is an active fluid medium that helps
carry out its life activities.
The cytoplasm is a colloidal solution mostly containing water. About 30
per cent of the total mass of this solution consists of various
substances. Of these substances, about 60 per cent are proteins, and
the remainder consists of carbohydrates, lipids, other organic
substances, and inorganic materials.
The cytoplasm is enveloped by a membrane known as plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane is often termed as cytoplasmic
membrane , and contain endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria,
the Golgi complex or apparatus, the ribosomes, the lysosomes, the
centrioles and the nucleus.
Function of cell membrane
 help regulate the passage of substances through them and such a
passage may be by passive diffusion, or by active transport involving
the aid of enzymes, which are located in the membranes.
 *Another important function of the membrane is to provide a
surface for harbouring the enzymes.
1.2 PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) has several functions :
it allows only certain molecules to enter or leave the cell.
It separates internal metabolic reactions from the external environment.
 In addition, the plasma membrane allows the cell to excrete wastes and to
interact with its environment.
Cell membrane consist of two layer
1.Membrane Lipids
The plasma membrane, as well as the membranes of cell organelles, is made
primarily of phospholipids. Phospholipids have a polar, hydrophilic (“water-
loving”) phosphate head and two nonpolar, hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) fatty
acid tails. Water molecules sur- round the plasma membrane.
The phospholipids line up so that their heads point outward toward the
water and their tails point inward, away from water. The result is a double
layer called a phospholipid bilayer, as shown in Figure
The cell membranes of eukaryotes also contain lipids, called sterols,

between the tails of the phospho-lipids. The major membrane sterol in
animal cells is cholesterol.
Sterols in the plasma membrane make the membrane more firm and
prevent the membrane from freezing at low temperatures
2.Membrane Proteins
 Plasma membranes often contain specific proteins embedded within the lipid bilayer. These proteins
are called integral proteins. As show in Figure, that some integral proteins, such as cell surface
markers, emerge from only one side of the membrane.
 Others, such as receptor proteins and transport proteins, extend across the plasma membrane and are
exposed to both the cell’s interior and exterior environments. Proteins that extend across the plasma
membrane are able to detect environmental signals and transmit them to the inside of the cell.
 Peripheral proteins, such as the enzyme ,lie on only one side of the membrane and are not embedded
in it.
 integral proteins exposed to the cell’s external environment often have carbohydrates attached. These
carbohydrates can act as labels on cell surfaces. Some labels help cells recognize each other and stick
together.
 Integral proteins play important roles in actively transporting molecules into the cell. Some act as
channels or pores that allow certain substances to pass. Other integral proteins bind to a molecule on
the outside of the cell and then transport it through the membrane.
 Still others act as sites where chemical messengers such as hormones can attach
1.3 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum is a membranous system of canals extending

from plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane.
 These canals have the same environment that exists around the cell
because they are in direct connection with extracellular medium. In
other words, the network of canals provide extracellular environment
deep inside the cell and surrounding the nucleus.
In a three dimensional view (Fig. 1.5) the endoplasmic reticulum
exhibits cavities of varying sizes and shapes. These appear as vesicles
and tubules or as flattened sacs.
The endoplasmic reticulum is subdivided into two areas with specialized
functions.
A)Granular or Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Growing cells as well as those engaged in protein synthesis are rich in
granular or rough endosplasmic reticulum. The membrane of this reticulum,
all along its outer surface facing the cytoplasmic matrix, is studded with
uniform size of particles called ribosomes. High density of ribosomes would
mean greater protein synthetic activity
B)Agranular or Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The outer membrane of this reticulum is devoid of the ribosomes and hence
it is termed agranular or smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is continuous
with rough endoplasmic reticulum and with Golgi apparatus. It is present in
cells synthesizing steroids, in voluntary muscle cells and in liver cells
• Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
• Endoplasmic reticulum carries out specialized functions. These functions are
localized in various substructures:
(i) One of the important functions, viz. the transport, is carried out by the
channels.
(ii) Protein synthesis is associated with the ribosomes of the granular
endoplasmic reticulum.
(iii) Concentrating and packaging of enzymes is localized in the Golgi apparatus.

(iv) Steroid synthesis takes place in the smooth reticulum.
(v) The intracellular stability, movement and the activation of amino acids for
protein synthesis, and finally the glycolysis, are localized in the cytoplasmic
matrix
1.4 GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus, is another system of flattened, membranous
sacs. The sacs nearest the nucleus receive vesicles from the ER
containing newly made proteins or lipids.
Vesicles travel from one part of the Golgi apparatus to the next and
transport substances as they go.
The stacked membranes modify the vesicle contents as they move
along. The proteins get “address labels” that direct them to various
other parts of the cell. During this modification, the Golgi apparatus
can add carbohydrate labels to proteins or alter new lipids in various
ways.
1.5 THE LYSOSOME
LYSOSOME: Present in the cytoplasm are small membrane-bound vesicles containing a group
of hydrolytic enzymes that bud from the Golgi appa-ratus and that contain digestive enzymes.
Function of lysosome
These enzymes can break down large molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and phospholipids.
In the liver, lysosomes break down glycogen in order to release glucose into the
bloodstream. Certain white blood cells use lysosomes to break down bacteria.
Within a cell, lysosomes digest worn-out organelles in a process called autophagy ().
Lysosomes are also responsible for breaking down cells when it is time for the cells to die.
The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes of their own lysosomes is called
autolysis.
Lysosomes play a very important role in maintaining an organism’s health by destroying
cells that are no longer functioning properly.
1.6 NUCLEUS
Most of the functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the nucleus.
The nucleus is filled with a jellylike liquid called the nucleoplasm, which holds
the contents of the nucleus and is similar in function to a cell’s cytoplasm.
The nucleus houses and protects the cell’s genetic information. The
hereditary information that contains the instructions for the structure and
function of the organism is coded in the organism’s DNA, which is contained
in the nucleus.
 When a cell is not dividing, the DNA is in the form of a threadlike material
called chromatin. When a cell is about to divide, the chromatin condenses to
form chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures in the nucleus made of
DNA and protein.
The nucleus is the site where DNA is transcribed into ribonucleic acid (RNA).
RNA moves through nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where, depending on the
type of RNA, it carries out its function.
Nuclear Envelope
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear
envelope. The nuclear envelope is made up of two phospholipid
bilayers.
Covering the surface of the nuclear envelope are tiny, protein-lined
holes, which are called nuclear pores. The nuclear pores provide
passageways for RNA and other materials to enter and leave the
nucleus.
Nucleolus
Most nuclei contain at least one denser area, called the nucleolus. The
nucleolus, is the site where DNA is concentrated when it is in the
process of making ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes ) are organelles made of
protein and RNA that direct protein synthesis in the cytopla
1.7 MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria : are tiny organelles that transfer energy from organic
molecules to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP ultimately powers most of
the cell’s chemical reactions.
Highly active cells, such as muscle cells, can have hundreds of mitochondria.
 Cells that are not very active, such as fat-storage cells, have few
mitochondria.
• Like a nucleus, a mitochondrion has an inner and an outer phospholipid
membrane, as shown in Figure.
The outer membrane separates the mitochondrion from the cytosol. The
inner membrane has many folds, called cristae.
Cristae contain proteins that carry out energy-harvesting chemical
reactions.

Animal Physiology Theory Lec1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Animal Physiology Theory Lec1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Animal Physiology Theory Lec1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Duhok

College of Basic Education

The cell membranes of eukaryotes also contain lipids, called sterols,

Endoplasmic reticulum is a membranous system of canals extending

(iii) Concentrating and packaging of enzymes is localized in the Golgi apparatus.

You might also like