Notes

Chapter – 5 Fundamental unit Of Life

The bodies of living organisms are made up of microscopic units called cells.
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
Differences between unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Prokaryotes :-
These organisms have primitive and incomplete cells. Thus, they contain
prokaryotic cells in their body structure. Prokaryotic cells have all three basic
structures of a typical cell but lack nuclear membranes around their genetic
substances (DNA). Nuclear material of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single
chromosome which is in direct contact with cytoplasm. Here the undefined
nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called nucleoid, i.e., there is no nuclear
membrane. In a prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotes:-
These have advanced and complete cells. These cells contain membrane bound
nuclei and other cellular organelles and are called eukaryotic cells. Such cells
are found in multicellular plants and animals and contain plasma membrane,
nucleus, DNA and cytoplasm with ribosomes and cellular organelles such as
mitochondria.
Differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Differences between nucleus and nucleoid.

STRUCTURE OF CELL :-
Though their shape, size and activities vary, all cells have following three major
functional regions
1. The cell membrane or plasma membrane, and cell wall
2. The nucleus
3. The cytoplasm
PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL MEMBRANE:-
This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell
from its external environment.
permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell.
The cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane.
Diffusion:-
Some substances (molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2),
water, etc., can move across the plasma membrane through a process called
diffusion.
diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of high
concentration to one of lower concentration, until uniform concentration is
finally achieved. Diffusion is faster in the gaseous phase than in liquids and
solids.

Osmosis:-
Water also follows the law of diffusion. The spontaneous movement of water
molecules through a selective permeable membrane (e.g., plasma membrane)
is called osmosis.
If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the
cell, i.e., if solution is a very dilute solution, the cell will gain water by osmosis.
Such a dilute solution is called hypotonic solution.
If the medium surrounding the cell is of exactly the same water concentration
as the cell, there will be no net movement of water across the plasma
membrane Such a solution is called isotonic solution
If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, i.e., if it is very
concentrated solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a concentrated
solution is called hypertonic solution.
The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules called
lipids and proteins.
The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and
other material from its external environment. Such processes are known as
endocytosis. Amoeba acquires its food through such processes.
CELL WALL :-
Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer
covering called the cell wall.
The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex
substance and provides structural strength to plants.
When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or
contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This
phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
Differences between cell wall and plasma membrane.

NUCLEUS :-
The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane.
The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from
inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm.
Within nucleoplasm two types of nuclear structures are embedded—the
nucleolus and chromatin material.
The nucleolus may be one or more in number and is not bounded by any
membrane.
It is rich in protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules and acts as the site for
ribosome formation.
The chromatin material is a thin, thread-like intertwined mass of chromosome
material and composed of the genetic substance DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and proteins.
DNA stores all the information necessary for the cell to function to grow and to
reproduce further cells of the next generation.
Differences between nucleus and nucleolus

The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures

only when the cell is about to divide.
Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from parents
to next generation in the form of DNA.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material.
Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organized
into chromosomes
The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a
single cell divides and forms two new cells.
CYTOPLASM :-
The part of the cell which occurs between the plasma membrane and nuclear
envelope is called the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane, It also
contains many specialised cell organelles.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) :-

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes
and sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles).
There are two types of ER– rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. They are the sites of
protein manufacture.
The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell
function.
one function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials
(especially proteins) between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus.
In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial
role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

Detoxification is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances

from a living organism, including the human body, which is mainly carried out
by the liver.
Enzymes are proteins. Digestive enzymes of lysosomes are produced by rough
ER.
Rough ER is concerned with the transport of proteins which are synthesized by
ribosomes on their surface.
Differences Between RER & SER

ribosomes are the ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Ribosomes are dense,
spherical and granular particles.

GOLGI APPARATUS:-
The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of
membrane-bound vesicles (flattened sacs) arranged approximately parallel to
each other in stacks called cisterns.
The material synthesized near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various
targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in
vesicles.
Golgi apparatus is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane
and lysosomes.

LYSOSOMES :-
Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the
cytoplasm.
Each lysosome is a small vesicle surrounded by a single membrane and
contains powerful enzymes.
These enzymes are made by RER, Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal
system of the cell.
These help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as
worn-out cell organelles.
Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old
organelles end up in the lysosomes.
when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their
own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

MITOCHONDRIA :-

Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer membrane is porous
while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
These folds increase surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions. The
energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP.
ATP stands for the organic compound adenosine triphosphate. ATP is generally
known as energy carrier or energy currency of the cell.
Mitochondria are sites of cellular respiration. They use molecular oxygen from
air to oxidise the carbohydrates and fats (lipids) present in the cell to carbon
dioxide and water vapour, Oxidation releases energy.
Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA
and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own
proteins.

PLASTIDS :-
Plastids are present only in plant cells.
Plastids are of following three types:-
1. Chromoplasts. Coloured plastids (except green colour).
2. Chloroplasts. Green-coloured plastids.
3. Leucoplasts. The colourless plastids.
Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also
contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and
protein granules are stored.
Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Differences between leucoplasts and chromoplasts (nongreen plastids).

Differences between chloroplasts and chromoplasts.

VACUOLES :-
Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are small sized
in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.
Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in
vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins.
In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food
items that the Amoeba has consumed.
In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in
expelling excess water and some wastes from the cell.
Vacuoles help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell. They store toxic
metabolic by-products or end products of plant cells.
Cell Division :-
The process by which new cells are made is called cell division.
There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for growth is called
mitosis.
In this process, each cell called mother cell divides to form two identical
daughter cells, The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as
mother cell, It helps in growth and repair of tissues in organisms.
Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and plants divide to
form gametes, which after fertilization give rise to offspring.They divide by a
different process called meiosis.
When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of just two.
The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than that of the
mother cells.