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Cell Theory

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Cell Theory

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lifenoras19
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Lec 1 : Introduction to biology and its definition

Biology :Is the science of living things


Biology com from the Greek bios means life and Logos means word or
knowledge ,Biology includes the study of evolutionary relationships
among organisms and the diversity of life on earth , Cells the basic
structural functional and biological unit of all living organisms
* Term cell com from Latin cella meaning ‗‘small room ‗‘
Cell Theory
Credit for the formation of this theory to Theodor
Schwann ,Matthias Schleiden , and Rudolph Virchow
The cell Theory states
 All form of life contain one or more cells
 All cells come from pre-existing cells
 All functions that make life possible occure within the cells
 All cells have genetic material required to regulate cell
functions and replicate ,passing this genetic information to
new cell

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic


Prokaryotic : are organisms without a cell nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelles, such as Archaea and Bacteria
Eukaryotic :Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and
organelles, and are enclosed by a plasma membrane. Organisms that
have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.
These organisms are grouped into the biological domain Eukaryota.
Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells

1
prokaryotic have a larger surface area to volume ratio giving them a
higher metabolic rate a higher growth rate and consequently a shorter
generation time compared to Eukaryotes .
Unicellular organisms : organisms that have only one cell such as
Amoeba
Multicellular organisms : organisms that have many cells this cell form
the tissue and organs

Cell are typically composed of

1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)


2. Cytoplasm and its organelles such as ( mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum , Ribosome's, Golgi complex
etc,.
3. True nucleus

Cell shape:
There is no typical shape ,but generally the cells are rounded or spherical
, oval, cuboidal ,cylindrical ,flat etc,.
the shape of cells depending mainly on functional adaptation and partly
on the surface tension and viscosity of cytoplasim,the mechanical action
of adjoining cells and rigidity of the cell membrane .

2
Cell Number
— Some organisms like protozoans are single cell and others are
multicellular The body of human being is composed of about
26 trillions of cells in human blood the number of erythrocytes
is about five million per cubic ml of blood .and about 10 billion
neurons constitute the nerves system in human being

Cell size
The size of different cells ranges within broad limits ,some plant and
animals cells are visible to the naked eye , such as eggs ,but the majority
of cells are visible only under microscope .the size of human RBC is 7-8
µ in diameter

3
Lec 2 Organelles and their function

Cell structure
Cells are typically composed of

1- cell membrane (Plasma membrane)


2- Cytoplasm and its organelles
3- True nucleus

Cell Membrane Function and Structure


The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-
permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell
by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping
other substances out.
It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton
in some organisms and the cell wall in others.
Thus the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell
and help maintain its shape. Another function of the
membrane is to regulate cell growth through the balance of
endocytosis and exocytosis.
In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell
membrane as substances are internalized. In exocytosis,
vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell
membrane increasing cell size.
Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells
have plasma membranes. Internal organelles are also
encased by membranes.

4
Cell Membrane Structure

The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and


lipids. Depending on the membrane’s location and role in the body,
lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the
membrane, with the remainder being proteins. While lipids help to
give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the
cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules
across the membrane.

Cell Membrane Structure

5
Organelles and their function
1- Nucleus:
Nucleus is a large organelle that store the cell's DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) .

The nucleus control all of the cells activities such as growth


and metabolism ,using the DNAs genetic information .

Structure of Nucleus :
a)Nuclear membrane
b)Nucleoplasm.
c) Chromatin network.
d) Nucleolus.

NUCLEUS STRUCTURE

Function of Nucleus:
1)Nucleus plays a major role in the general metabolism of
the cell .
2) it is helpful in the synthesis of the Ribosomes .
3) it is helpful in the synthesis of RNA .
4) it controls the synthesis of protein.
5) it is the seat of heredity.

6
Within the nucleus is a smaller structure called the nucleolus
,which house the RNA (ribonucleic acid ) . RNA help convey
the DNAs orders to the rest of the cell and serves as
template for protein synthesis ,this space forms near the
part of DNA with instructions for making ribosomes ,the
molecules responsible for making proteins . Ribosomes are
assembled in the nucleolus ,and exit the nucleus with
nuclear pores .

2- Ribosomes:
Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell. Composed of
two subunits , they can be found floating freely in the cells
cytoplasm or embedded within endoplasmic reticulum .

A ribosomes formed from two subunits locking together


,functions to :
(1) Translate encoded information from the cell nucleus
provided by messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
(2) Link together amino acid selected and collected from the
cytoplasm by transfer ribonucleic acid (t RNA)
(3) Export the polypeptide produced to the cytoplasm where
it will form a functional protein .

7
3- Endoplasmic reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous
organelle that shares part of its membrane with that of
nucleus .some portion of ER ,known as the rouge ER ,are
studded with ribosomes and are involved with protein
manufacture .the rest of the organelle is referred to as the
smooth ER and serves to produce vital lipids (fats).

Booth the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum help in


the production and storage of protein.
The main difference is that one contains ribosomes on it and
the others does not .
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes
on its surface .this is what give the RER rough appearance
.rough ER synthesizes (makes) and package proteins. The
RER is attached to the nuclear membrane .the Golgi
apparatus tend to be on the other side of the RER .

ROUGY ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

8
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not
contain ribosomes .The SER helps in the storage of protein
and lipids .Cells that produce oils have a higher rate of
SERs than do other cells .The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
can be found dispersed throughout the cytoplasmic of the
cell.

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

4- Golgi apparatus :
If the protein from the rough ER require further modification ,
They are transported to the Golgi apparatus (or Golgi
complex ) .Like the ER ,the Golgi apparatus is composed of
folded membranes . it searches the proteins amino acid
sequences for specialized ''codes'' and modifies them
accordingly .these processed protein are then stored in the
Golgi or packed in vesicles to be shaped elsewhere in the
cell.

9
GOLGI APPARATUS
5- Chloroplast:
Plant and some algae , organelles know as chloroplast serve
as the site of photosynthesis .chloroplast contain a pigment
known as chlorophyll, which capture the suns energy to
transform water and carbon dioxide into glucose for food
.Chloroplasts allow autotrophic organisms to meet their
energy needs without consuming other organisms .

6- Mitochondria :
Mitochondria are oval –shaped organelles found in most
eukaryotic cells. As the site of cellular respiration
,mitochondria serve to transform molecules such as glucose
into an energy molecule known as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) .ATP fuels cellular process by breaking its
high-energy chemical bonds. Mitochondria are most plentiful
in cells that require significant amounts of energy to
function. Such as Liver muscle cells .

11
MITOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE

7- Lysosomes:
The lysosome is the cells recycling center .there organelles
are spheres full of enzymes ready to hydrolyze whatever
substance crosses the membrane .so the cell can reuse the
raw material .these disposal enzymes only function properly
in environments with a PH of 5 ,two orders of magnitude
more acidic than the cells internal PH of 7 . Lysosomal
protein only being active in an acidic environment acts as
safety mechanism for the rest of the cell ,if the lysosome
were to somehow leak or burst , the degradative enzymes
would in activate before they chopped up proteins the cell
still needed .

11
DIGESTION BY LYSOSOMES

8- Peroxisome:
Like the lysosome .the peroxisome is a spherical organelle
responsible for destroying its contents. Un like the lysosome
.which mostly degrades proteins ,the peroxisome is the site
of fatty acid breakdown .it also protect the cell from reactive
oxygen species (ROS)molecules which could seriously
damage the cell.

ROSs are molecules like oxygen ions or peroxides that


are created as a byproduct or normal cellular metabolism
.but also by radiation ,tobacco ,and drugs . they cause what
is known as oxidative stress in the cell by reacting with and
damaging DNA and lipid-based molecules like cell
membranes .these ROSs are the reason we need
antioxidants in our diet.

9- Cytoskeleton :
Within the cytoplasm there is network of protein fibers known
as the cytoskeleton .this structure is responsible for both cell
movement and stability . The major components of the
cytoskeleton are microtubules ,intermediate filaments ,and
microfilaments.

12
1- Microtubules:

Microtubules are small tubes made from the protein tubulin .these
tubules are found in cilia and flagella ,structures involved in cell
movement .they also help provide pathways for secretory vesicles
to move through the cell ,and are even involved in cell division as
they are a part of the mitotic spindle ,which pulls homologous
chromosomes apart.

2-Intermediate filaments:

Smaller than the microtubules. But larger than the microfilaments


.the intermediate filaments are made of a variety of proteins such
as keratin and /or neurofilament .they are very stable .and help
provide structure to the nuclear envelope and another organelles.

3- Microfilaments:

Microfilaments are the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton ,and are


made of actin (a highly-conserved protein that is actually the most
abundant protein in most eukaryotic cells ) . Actin is both flexible
and strong .making it a useful protein in cell movement.

CYTOSKELETON STRUCTURE

13
Lec 3 the cell cycle and mitosis

the cell cycle


The cell cycle can be thought of as the life cycle of a cell. In other words,
it is the series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes between
its ―birth‖—formation by the division of a mother cell—and
reproduction—division to make two new daughter cells.

Stages of the cell cycle


To divide, a cell must complete several important tasks: it must grow,
copy its genetic material (DNA), and physically split into two daughter
cells. Cells perform these tasks in an organized, predictable series of steps
that make up the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a cycle, rather than a linear
pathway, because at the end of each go-round, the two daughter cells can
start the exact same process over again from the beginning.
In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a nucleus, the stages of the cell cycle are
divided into two major phases: interphase and the cell division (mitosis
and meiosis)

Interphase
Before a dividing cell enters mitosis, it undergoes a period of growth
called interphase. Some 90 percent of a cell's time in the normal cellular
cycle may be spent in interphase.

 G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase,


the cell increases in mass in preparation for cell division. Note that
the G in G1 represents gap and the 1 represents first, so the G1
phase is the first gap phase.
 S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most
cells, there is a narrow window of time during which DNA is
synthesized. Note that the S represents synthesis.
 G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior
to the start of prophase. The cell synthesizes proteins and continues
to increase in size. Note that the G in G2 represents gap and the 2
represents second, so the G2 phase is the second gap phase.
 In the latter part of interphase, the cell still has nucleoli present.
 The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope and the cell's
chromosomes have duplicated but are in the form of chromatin.

14
 In animal cells, two pair of centrioles formed from the replication
of one pair are located outside of the nucleus.

Cell division
Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis
and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division has special
characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single cell
divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same
number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic
growth, repair, and maintenance. In meiosis a cell divides into two cells
that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the number of
chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides
for genetic diversity

Stages of the cell cycle


The stages of the cell cycle are divided into two major phases:

1- Interphase include (two gap phases G1 , G2 ; and S for synthesis


phase)
2- cell division include
 nuclear division (mitosis and meiosis)
 cytoplasm division (cytokinesis)

15
The Stage of the cell cycle

1- Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides
to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to
itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division
process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets
of chromosomes.
The great majority of the cell divisions that happen in your body involve
mitosis. During development and growth, mitosis populates an
organism‘s body with cells, and throughout an organism‘s life, it replaces
old, worn-out cells with new ones. For single-celled eukaryotes like
yeast, mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction, adding new
individuals to the population.

16
In all of these cases, the ―goal‖ of mitosis is to make sure that each
daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few
or too many chromosomes usually don‘t function well: they may not
survive, or they may even cause cancer. So, when cells undergo mitosis,
they don‘t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into piles for the
two daughter cells. Instead, they split up their duplicated chromosomes in
a carefully organized series of steps.

Phases of mitosis
Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking prophase into an early
phase (called prophase) and a late phase (called prometaphase). These
phases occur in strict sequential order, and cytokinesis - the process of
dividing the cell contents to make two new cells - starts in anaphase or
telophase.

1-1 Prophase
In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures
and build others up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.

 The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull


apart later on).
 The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure
made of microtubules, strong fibers that are part of the cell‘s
―skeleton.‖ Its job is to organize the chromosomes and move them
around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes
as they move apart.
 The nucleolus (or nucleoli, plural), a part of the nucleus where
ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is
getting ready to break down.

17
In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic
spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.

 The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very compact.


 The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start
to ―capture‖ chromosomes.

Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at the kinetochore, a patch of


protein found on the centromere of each sister chromatid. (Centromeres
are the regions of DNA where the sister chromatids are most tightly
connected.)

18
Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore
microtubules. Microtubules that don‘t bind to kinetochores can grab on
to microtubules from the opposite pole, stabilizing the spindle. More
microtubules extend from each centrosome towards the edge of the cell,
forming a structure called the aster.

1-2 Metaphase
In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined
them up at the middle of the cell, ready to divide.

 All the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (not a physical


structure, just a term for the plane where the chromosomes line up).
 At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome should be
attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles.

Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all
the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores
correctly attached to microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint
and helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the
two daughter cells when they separate in the next step. If a chromosome
is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division until the
problem is fixed

19
1-3 Anaphase
In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.

 The protein ―glue‖ that holds the sister chromatids together is


broken down, allowing them to separate. Each is now its own
chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
 Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push
apart, separating the poles and making the cell longer.

All of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines


that can ―walk‖ along microtubule tracks and carry a cargo. In mitosis,
motor proteins carry chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.

21
1-4 Telophase,
In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish
its normal structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes
place.

 The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.


 Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear
membranes and nucleoli reappear.
 The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their
―stringy‖ form.

21
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the
final stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase,
depending on the cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.

* In animals, cell division occurs when a band of cytoskeletal fibers


called the contractile ring contracts inward and pinches the cell in two, a
process called contractile cytokinesis. The indentation produced as the
ring contracts inward is called the cleavage furrow. Animal cells can be
pinched in two because they‘re relatively soft and squishy.

* Plant cells are much stiffer than animal cells; they‘re surrounded by a
rigid cell wall and have high internal pressure. Because of this, plant cells
divide in two by building a new structure down the middle of the cell.
This structure, known as the cell plate, is made up of plasma membrane
and cell wall components delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in
two.

22
Cell cycle exit and G0
What happens to the two daughter cells produced in one round of the cell
cycle? This depends on what type of cells they are. Some types of cells
divide rapidly, and in these cases, the daughter cells may immediately
undergo another round of cell division. For instance, many cell types in
an early embryo divide rapidly, and so do cells in a tumor.
Other types of cells divide slowly or not at all. These cells may exit the
G1 phase and enter a resting state called G0 phase. In G0 , a cell is not
actively preparing to divide, it‘s just doing its job. For instance, it might
conduct signals as a neuron (like the one in the drawing below) or store
carbohydrates as a liver cell. G0 is a permanent state for some cells,
while others may re-start division if they get the right signals.

23
Lec 4 meiosis

The concept of meiosis


The purpose of meiosis is to make haploid gametes. In order to explain
the difference between mitosis and meiosis quickly and easily, consider
the following analogy: You own a restaurant, and you keep 46 cookbooks
on hand, to store all the recipes you need to make the food you sell. If you
opened a new restaurant that you wanted to make the same food as the
one that already exists, what would you do? Copy all 46 cookbooks, and
take them to the new restaurant. That's like what happens in mitosis.
Consider that the cookbooks are chromosomes, each containing lots of
recipes that cells use to make ―dishes,‖ called proteins. When cell
division occurs, each cell wants to ensure that each new cell can make the
same proteins as the original. So each of the chromosomes are copied and
evenly distributed to both new cells—both cells get a copy of each
―cookbook.‖
Meiosis is different. Whereas as mitosis makes a new cell with the same
number of chromosomes, meiosis is a reductive type of cell division: it
results in cells with fewer chromosomes.

Phases of meiosis
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar
stages and uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes.
In meiosis, however, the cell has a more complex task. It still needs to
separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome),
as in mitosis. But it must also separate homologous chromosomes, the
similar but non identical chromosome pairs an organism receives from its
two parents.
These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division
process. Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division,
called meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate during a second round, called
meiosis II.
Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can
produce four gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go
through four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis

24
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex
cells or gametes (which contain a single copy of each chromosome) from
diploid cells (which contain two copies of each chromosome). The
process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two
successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As in
mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids.

Meiosis I
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in
mitosis, the cell grows during G1 phase, copies all of its chromosomes
during S phase, and prepares for division during G2 phase

In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the cell from diploid to


haploid.

Prophase I

The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA to form


recombinant chromosomes. For instance, in the image below, the letters
A, B, and C represent genes found at particular spots on the chromosome,
with capital and lowercase letters for different forms, or alleles, of each
gene. The DNA is broken at the same spot on each homologue—here,

25
between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross pattern so that
the homologues exchange part of their DNA.

Image of crossing over

This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called


crossing over. It's helped along by a protein structure called the
synaptonemal complex that holds the homologues together. The
chromosomes would actually be positioned one on top of the other—as in
the image below—throughout crossing over; they're only shown side-by-
side in the image above so that it's easier to see the exchange of genetic
material.

26
Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and
held together by the synaptonemal complex

Prophase I is divided into five phases:

 Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.


 Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely associated
(synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of
four chromatids (tetrads).
 Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous
chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
 Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain
attached by chiasmata.
 Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate,
Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle
fibres by kinetochores.

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double row


along the metaphase plate. The arrangement of the paired chromosomes
with respect to the poles of the spindle apparatus is random along the
metaphase plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through random
assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes in a homologous
pair are similar but not identical. The number of possible arrangements is
2n, where n is the number of chromosomes in a haploid set. Human
beings have 23 different chromosomes, so the number of possible
combinations is 223, which is over 8 million.)

Anaphase I

The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and move


to the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase I

The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.

Cytokinesis

The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II.
Meiosis I is a reduction division: the original diploid cell had two copies

27
of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid cells have one copy of
each chromosome.

Meiosis II

Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA.


Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may
find it helpful to think of meiosis II as ―mitosis for haploid cells."

The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells
are haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but
their chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the
sister chromatids separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated
chromosomes.

Phases of meiosis II
28
Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I.
Chromosomes condense.
Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome
now has just one chromatid.
During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope
breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms
between them, and the spindle microtubules begin to capture
chromosomes.
In some organisms, the centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II,
even though DNA is not copied during this period. For instance, the
centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II during spermatogenesis,
sperm production, in humans

The diagram above, which shows two


centrosomes at the start of meiosis II, assumes that the centrosomes were
duplicated between meiosis I and II.
In other organisms, however, the centrosomes do not duplicate at all
between meiosis I and II. Instead, the two centrioles that make up a single
centrosome separate, and each acts as a separate spindle pole during
meiosis II. This pattern of centriole separation is seen in insect
spermatogenesis .
The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by
microtubules from opposite spindle poles. In metaphase II, the
chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate. In
anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell.
In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of
chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the
chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis:
four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one chromatid. In
humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.
. In some cases, meiosis does produce four functional gametes: for
instance, meiosis during spermatogenesis, or sperm production, in human
males yields four sperm cells.

However, when meiosis takes place during oogenesis, egg cell


production, in human females, only one functional egg cell is made. At
the end of meiosis I, only one of the two daughter cells continues down
the egg cell pathway, while the other becomes a non-egg cell called a
polar body. Similarly, of the two products of meiosis II, one will become
a functional egg cell, while the other will become a second polar body.

29
The polar bodies are not normally fertilized by sperm cells, and they
typically undergo programmed cell death, or apoptosis, within 24 hours
of being produced .

The events of Meiosis II are analogous to those of a mitotic division,


although the number of chromosomes involved has been halved

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:

 the exchange of genetic material between homologous


chromosomes during Meiosis I
 the random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in
Meiosis I
 the random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II

31
Lec 5 cell differentiation

Cell Differentiation
What is Cell Differentiation?
Living organisms can be made of a single cell, such as bacteria and
protists, or they can be multicellular, like plants, animals, and fungi.
Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are able to perform all life functions
within one single cell. They can transport molecules, metabolize
nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell.

Multicellular organisms need many different types of cells to carry out


the same life processes. Each of these special types of cells has a different
structure that helps it perform a specific function. Humans have many
different types of cells with different jobs, such as blood cells that carry
oxygen and nerve cells that transmit signals to all parts of the body. Cell
differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in order
to perform different functions

Multicellular organisms begin as just one single cell—a fertilized egg.


Growing from one single cell to trillions of specialized cells that perform
different functions is a process that happens with the regulation of DNA
and RNA.

Stem Cells
A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can divide without limit as
needed and can, under specific conditions, differentiate into specialized
cells. Stem cells are divided into several categories according to their
potential to differentiate.

The first embryonic cells that arise from the division of the zygote are the
ultimate stem cells; these stems cells are described as totipotent because
they have the potential to differentiate into any of the cells needed to
enable an organism to grow and develop.

The embryonic cells that develop from totipotent stem cells and are
precursors to the fundamental tissue layers of the embryo are classified as
pluripotent. A pluripotent stem cell is one that has the potential to
differentiate into any type of human tissue but cannot support the full
development of an organism. These cells then become slightly more
specialized, and are referred to as multipotent cells.

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A multipotent stem cell has the potential to differentiate into different
types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages,
such as a red blood cell or white blood cell.

Finally, multipotent cells can become further specialized oligopotent


cells. An oligopotent stem cell is limited to becoming one of a few
different cell types. In contrast, a unipotent cell is fully specialized and
can only reproduce to generate more of its own specific cell type.

Stem cells are unique in that they can also continually divide and
regenerate new stem cells instead of further specializing. There are
different stem cells present at different stages of a human‘s life. They
include the embryonic stem cells of the embryo, fetal stem cells of the
fetus, and adult stem cells in the adult

. One type of adult stem cell is the

epithelial stem cell: which gives rise to the keratinocytes in the multiple
layers of epithelial cells in the epidermis of skin.

hematopoietic stem cells, which give rise to red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets

endothelial stem cells: which give rise to the endothelial cell types that
line blood and lymph vessels

mesenchymal stem cells : which give rise to the different types of


muscle cells.

Roles of DNA and RNA in Cell Differentiation


DNA controls the way cells function. It also determines what type of
specialized cells will be made. Stem cells are cells that have the ability to
become any type of specialized cell in the body. After an egg cell and
sperm cell unite to begin forming a new organism, all of the DNA in each
cell of that organism will be virtually identical. If every part of the DNA
in each cell is the same, then how do cells become different types of
cells? Let‘s look more closely at DNA to find out.

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Figure (1) gene expression

DNA is wound tightly into chromosomes. Different regions of the


chromosome code for every different function and cell type. Not all
sections of a chromosome are turned on, or expressed, at the same time.
Only the regions that are needed to perform a specific function are
expressed in each cell. These regions are often depicted as bands or
stripes on a drawing of a chromosome. These bands are called genes, and
whether or not a gene is expressed determines what type of cell will be
created. For example, genes that are expressed (turned on) in a nerve cell
are different from the genes that are expressed in a muscle cell. Both cells
have the same DNA, but expressing different genes generates different
cell types.

This process by which information from a gene is used to make the


structures of a cell is called gene expression. Since RNA translates and
transcribes the DNA code into proteins (the structures of a cell), it also
plays a role in cell differentiation.

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Figure (2) Images of chromosomes

Images of chromosomes, like the one to the left, usually look a bit like an ‗X‘. That is
because chromosomes come in pairs—one from each of our parents. Chromosomes in
a pair contain the same genes (like genes for hair color, body height, and lipoma
formation). The genes we receive from each parent might be the same (as shown for
body height), or or they might be different (as shown for hair color). The alternative
forms of a gene that are found at the same place on a chromosome are called alleles.

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Lec 6 Animals Tissue ( Epithelia and Glandular Tissue)

Animals Tissue
The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found together in the
body. The cells within a tissue share a common embryonic origin.
Microscopic observation reveals that the cells in a tissue share
morphological features and are arranged in an orderly pattern that
achieves the tissue‘s functions.

Although there are many types of cells in the human body, they are
organized into four broad categories of tissues: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous. Each of these categories is characterized by specific
functions that contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the
body. A disruption of the structure is a sign of injury or disease. Such
changes can be detected through histology, the microscopic study of
tissue appearance, organization, and function.

Embryonic Origin of Tissues


The zygote, or fertilized egg, is a single cell formed by the fusion of an
egg and sperm. After fertilization the zygote gives rise to rapid mitotic
cycles, generating many cells to form the embryo. The first embryonic
cells generated have the ability to differentiate into any type of cell in the
body and, as such, are called totipotent, meaning each has the capacity to
divide, differentiate, and develop into a new organism. As cell
proliferation progresses, three major cell lineages are established within
the embryo. Each of these lineages of embryonic cells forms the distinct
germ layers from which all the tissues and organs of the human body
eventually form. Each germ layer is identified by its relative position:
ectoderm (ecto- = ―outer‖), mesoderm (meso- = ―middle‖), and
endoderm (endo- = ―inner‖) Epithelial cells derive from all three major
embryonic layers. The epithelia lining the skin, parts of the mouth and
nose, and the anus develop from the ectoderm. Cells lining the airways
and most of the digestive system originate in the endoderm. The
epithelium that lines vessels in the lymphatic and cardiovascular system
derives from the mesoderm and is called an endothelium, whereas
nervous tissue derives primarily from the ectoderm and muscle tissue
from mesoderm.

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Epithelial tissues
Most epithelial tissues are essentially large sheets of cells covering all the
surfaces of the body exposed to the outside world and lining the outside
of organs. Epithelium also forms much of the glandular tissue of the body

Functions of the Epithelium


Epithelia tissue forms boundaries between different environments, and
nearly all substances must pass through the epithelium. In its role as an
interface tissue, epithelium accomplishes many functions, including:

1. Protection for the underlying tissues from radiation, toxins, and


physical trauma.
2. Absorption of substances in the digestive tract lining with distinct
modifications.
3. Regulation and excretion of chemicals between the underlying
tissues and the body cavity.
4. The secretion of hormones into the blood vascular system. The
secretion of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are
delivered by ducts come from the glandular epithelium.
5. The detection of sensation.

Characteristics of Epithelial Layers


Epithelial tissue is composed of cells laid out in sheets with strong cell-
to-cell attachments. These protein connections hold the cells together to
form a tightly connected layer that is avascular but innervated in
nature.The epithelial cells are nourished by substances diffusing from
blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue. One side of the
epithelial cell is oriented towards the surface of the tissue, body cavity, or
external environment and the other surface is joined to a basement
membrane. The basement layer is non-cellular in nature and helps to
cement the epithelial tissue to the underlying structures.

Types of Epithelial Tissue


Epithelium has two names. The first name indicates the number of cell
layers, the second describes the shape of its cell. Based on the number of
cell layers, epithelia can either be simple or stratified.

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 Simple epithelia– consist of a single cell layer (found where
absorption, secretion, and filtration occur).
 Stratified epithelia– are composed of two or more cell layers
stacked on top of each other (typically found in high abrasion areas
where protection is needed).

Simple Epithelia

Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells. They are typically


where absorption, secretion and filtration occur. The thinness of the
epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.

Simple epithelial tissues are generally classified by the shape of their


cells. The four major classes of simple epithelium are: 1) simple
squamous; 2) simple cuboidal; 3) simple columnar; and 4)
pseudostratified.

Simple Squamous

Simple squamous epithelium cells are flat in shape and arranged in a


single layer. This single layer is thin enough to form a membrane that
compounds can move through via passive diffusion . Two simple
squamous epithelium in the body have special names reflecting their
location.

1. Endothelium– provides a friction-reducing lining in lymphatic


vessels and all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system (heart,
blood vessels, capillaries).
2. Mesothelium– is the epithelium found in serous membranes
(membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering the organs
within it).

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Simple Cuboidal

Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall
as they are wide. The important functions of the simple cuboidal
epithelium are secretion and absorption. This epithelial type is found in
the small collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.

Simple Columnar

Simple columnar epithelium is a single row of tall, closely packed cells,


aligned in a row. These cells are found in areas with high secretory
function (such as the wall of the stomach), or absorptive areas (as in small
intestine ). They possess cellular extensions (e.g., microvilli in the small
intestine, or the cilia found almost exclusively in the female reproductive
tract).

Pseudostratified

These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at


different heights, giving the misleading (hence pseudo) impression that
the epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross section.

Pseudostratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like extensions of


their apical (luminal) membrane called cilia. In this case, the epithelium
is described as ciliated pseudostratified epithelium. Ciliated epithelium is
found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and
fallopian tubes of females, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Stratified Epithelium

Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium by being


multilayered. It is therefore found where body linings have to withstand
mechanical or chemical insults.

Stratified epithelia are more durable and protection is one their major
functions. Since stratified epithelium consists of two or more layers, the
basal cells divide and push towards the apex, and in the process flatten
the apical cells.

Stratified squamous epithelium– is the most widespread stratified


epithelia. It‘s composed of several layers and is perfect for its protective
role. Its apical surface cells are squamous and cells of the deeper layer are
either cuboidal or columnar. Stratified squamous forms the external part
of the skin and extends into every body opening that‘s continuous with

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the skin. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis) is keratinized (contains
keratin, a protective protein). Other stratified squamous in the body is
nonkeratinized.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium– is somewhat rare in the human body.


It‘s mainly found in the ducts of glands (sweat glands, mammary glands)
and is typically has two layers of cuboidal cells.

Stratified columnar epithelium– is also rare in the human body. Small


amounts are found in the pharynx, male urethra, and lining of some
glandular ducts. Stratified columnar epithelium occurs in transition areas
(junctions) between other epithial types.

Transitional epithelium– forms the lining of hollow urinary organs,


which stretch as they fill with urine. Cells in the basal layer are cuboidal
or columnar. Cells by the apical surface vary in appearance depending if
the organ is stretched at the time. Transitional cells have the ability to
change their shape which allows more urine to flow through.

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41
Glandular Epithelium
A gland is one or more cells that produce and secrete a specific product.
The product is always a water-based fluid (aqueous) and usually contains
proteins (the product is referred to as a secretion). Secretion is considered
an active process. Glandular cells obtain substances needed from blood
and transform them (chemically) into a product that‘s discharged from the
cell.

Glands are classified into two groups based on characteristics:

1. Where they release their product- glands can be endocrine (secrete


internally) or exocrine (secrete externally),or mixed gland (secrete
internally and externally)
2. The number of cells they contain- glands can be unicellular (one-
celled) or multicellular (more than one cell).

Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because eventually,
they lose their ducts. They produce hormones (chemical messengers )
and secrete them by exocytosis into the extracellular space. After entering
the extracellular space, they enter the blood or lymphatic fluid and travel
to specific organs. Each hormone makes its target organ respond in a
specific way. For instance, hormones produced by intestinal cells cause
the pancreas to release enzymes that aid in digestion.

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Hormones secreted by endocrine glands vary. For instance, one gland
might secrete an amino acid while another secretes glycoproteins or
steroids.

Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glands secrete their products onto the skin or into body
cavities. Unicellular exocrine glands do this directly by exocytosis, while
multicellular glands transport their product through a duct on the
epithelial surface. Products secreted by exocrine glands include sweat,
oil, mucous, bile, and more.

Unicellular exocrine glands

Important examples of unicellular glands include goblet cells (looks like


a goblet) and mucous cells. Unicellular glands can be found within the
epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts.

In humans, unicellular exocrine glands produce mucin, a complex


glycoprotein that dissolves in water. When the mucin is dissolved, it
forms mucous (which protects and lubricates surfaces).

Multicellular exocrine glands

Structurally, multicellular exocrine glands are more complex than their


unicellular neighbors. They have two main parts: an epithelium-derived
duct and a secretory unit (made of secretory cells). In almost all cases, the
secretory unit is surrounded by connective tissue. The connective tissue
supplies the secretory unit with blood vessels and nerve fibers . It also
forms a fibrous capsule that extends into the gland and divides it into
lobes. Multicellular exocrine glands are classified by structure and
secretion (type).

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Image of a unicellular exocrine gland (goblet cell).

Structural classification
Multicellular exocrine glands are structurally classified depending on the
structure of their duct.

 Simple glands– have an unbranched duct


 Compound glands– have a branched duct

The glands can be further categorized by their secretory units as:

 Tubular– if the secretory cells form tubes


 Alveolar– if the secretory cells form small sacs
 Tubuloalveolar– if they have both tubular and alveolar secretory
units

Methods and Types of Secretion


Exocrine glands can be classified by their mode of secretion and the
nature of the substances released, as well as by the structure of the glands
and shape of ducts Merocrine secretion is the most common type of
exocrine secretion. The secretions are enclosed in vesicles that move to
the apical surface of the cell where the contents are released by
exocytosis. For example, watery mucous containing the glycoprotein
mucin, a lubricant that offers some pathogen protection is a merocrine
secretion.

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Apocrine secretion accumulates near the apical portion of the cell. That
portion of the cell and its secretory contents pinch off from the cell and
are released. The sweat glands of the armpit are classified as apocrine
glands. Both merocrine and apocrine glands continue to produce and
secrete their contents with little damage caused to the cell because the
nucleus and golgi regions remain intact after secretion.

In contrast, the process of holocrine secretion involves the rupture and


destruction of the entire gland cell. The cell accumulates its secretory
products and releases them only when it bursts. New gland cells
differentiate from cells in the surrounding tissue to replace those lost by
secretion. The sebaceous glands that produce the oils on the skin and hair
are holocrine glands/cells

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Lec 7 Connective tissue

Connective tissue
connective tissue serves a connecting function. It supports and binds
other tissues in the body. Unlike epithelial tissue, which has cells that are
closely packed together, connective tissue typically has cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins
attached to a basement membrane. The primary elements of connective
tissue include a ground substance, fibers, and cells.

Function of Connective Tissue


The major functions of connective tissue include:

1) establishing a structural framwork for the body.


2) transporting fluids and dissolved materials from in body.
3) provides protection for delicate organs.
4) supports, surrounds, and interconnects other tissue types.
5) stores energy reserves (especially lipids).
6) defends the body from invasion.

Structure of Connective Tissue


Connective tissue has three main components:

1. Ground substance
2. Fibers
3. Cells

Together the ground substance and fibers make up the extracellular


matrix. The composition of these three elements vary tremendously from
one organ to the other. This offers great diversity in the types of
connective tissue.

Ground substance is a clear, colorless, viscous fluid that fills the space
between the cells and fibers. It is composed of proteoglycans and cell
adhesion proteins that allow the connective tissue to act as glue for the
cells to attach to the matrix. The ground substance functions as a
molecular sieve for substances to travel between blood capillaries and
cells.

Connective tissue fibers provide support. Three types of fibers are found
in connective tissue:
45
1. Collagen fibers
2. Elastic fibers
3. Reticular fibers

Collagen Fibers are the strongest and most abundant of all the
connective tissue fibers.Collagen fibers are fibrous proteins and are
secreted into the extracellular space . White fiber is soft, flexible and
inelastic that gives the tissue strength. We can see in dermis.

Elastic Fibers are long, thin fibers that form branching network in the
extracellular matrix. They help the connective tissue to stretch and recoil.

Reticular Fibers are short, fine collagenous fibers that can branch
extensively to form a delicate network.

Connective tissue cells

Types of connective tissue


1-proper connective tissue
2-Special connective tissue
Connective tissue proper has two subclasses: loose and dense.
Loose connective tissue is divided into
1) areolar connective tissue
2) adipose connective tissue

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3)reticular connective tissue

Dense connective tissue is divided into


1) dense regular connective tissue
2) dense irregular connective tissue
3) elastic connective tissue

proper connective tissue


Areolar Connective Tissue

These tissues are widely distributed and serve as a universal packing


material between other tissues. The ground substance is semisolid which
contain yellow and white fibers and little of reticular fibers. The cells
which the most common in this tissue are: fibroblast, mast cell,
macrophage, and plasma cell.The functions of areolar connective tissue
include the support and binding of other tissues.

It also helps in defending against infection. When a body region is


inflamed, the areolar tissue in the area soaks up the excess fluid as a
sponge and the affected area swells and becomes puffy, a condition called
edema.

Adipose Tissue

This is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is technically


composed of roughly only 80% fat. Its main role is to store energy in the
form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body.

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The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT) and
brown adipose tissue (BAT). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations
,referred to as adipose depots.

Adipose Tissue

Reticular Connective Tissue

This tissue resembles areolar connective tissue, but the only fibers in its
matrix are the reticular fibers, which form a delicate network. The
reticular tissue is limited to certain sites in the body, such as internal
frameworks that can support lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

This consists of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the


same direction. These collagen fibers are slightly wavy and can stretch a
little bit.

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With the tensile strength of collagen, this tissue forms tendons, and
ligaments. This tissue forms the fascia, which is a fibrous membrane that
wraps around the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.

Dense Irregular Tissue

This has the same structural elements as dense regular tissue, but the
bundles of collagen fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly. This
tissue is found in areas where tension is exerted from many different
directions. It is part of the skin dermis area and in the joint capsules of the
limbs.

Elastic Connective Tissue

The main fibers that form this tissue are elastic in nature. These fibers
allow the tissues to recoil after stretching. This is especially seen in the
arterial blood vessels and walls of the bronchial tubes.

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51
Lec 8 Special connective tissue

Special connective tissue


Specialized connective tissues include a number of different tissues
with specialized cells and unique ground substances. Some of these
tissues are solid and strong, while others are fluid and flexible .
1- Cartilage
Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that differs from bone in several
ways. For one, the primary cell types are chondrocytes as opposed to
osteocytes. Chondrocytes are first chondroblast cells that produce the
collagen extracellular matrix (ECM) and then get caught in the matrix.
They lie in spaces called lacunae with up to eight chondrocytes located in
each.

Chondrocytes rely on diffusion to obtain nutrients as, unlike bone,


cartilage is avascular, meaning there are no vessels to carry blood to
cartilage tissue. This lack of blood supply causes cartilage to heal very
slowly compared with bone.

The base substance of cartilage is chondroitin sulfate, and the


microarchitecture is substantially less organized than in bone. The
cartilage fibrous sheath is called the perichondrium.

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Articular cartilage function is dependent on the molecular composition of
its ECM, which consists mainly of proteoglycans and collagens. This
connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other
animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the
nose, the knee, the bronchial tubes, and the intervertebral discs.

Types of Cartilage
There are three major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage,
and elastic cartilage.

Hyaline Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage is the most widespread cartilage type and, in adults, it


forms the articular surfaces of long bones, the rib tips, the rings of the
trachea, and parts of the skull. This type of cartilage is predominately
collagen (yet with few collagen fibers), and its name refers to its glassy
appearance.

In the embryo, bones form first as hyaline cartilage before ossifying as


development progresses. Hyaline cartilage is covered externally by a
fibrous membrane, called the perichondrium, except at the articular ends
of bones; it also occurs under the skin (for instance, ears and nose).

Hyaline cartilage is found on many joint surfaces. It contains no nerves or


blood vessels, and its structure is relatively simple.

Fibrocartilage

Fibrous cartilage has lots of collagen fibers (Type I and Type II), and it
tends to grade into dense tendon and ligament tissue. White fibrocartilage
consists of a mixture of white fibrous tissue and cartilaginous tissue in
various proportions.

It owes its flexibility and toughness to the fibrous tissue, and its elasticity
to the cartilaginous tissue. It is the only type of cartilage that contains
type I collagen in addition to the normal type II.

Fibrocartilage is found in vertebral discs, discs of knee joint

Elastic Cartilage

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Elastic or yellow cartilage contains elastic fiber networks and collagen
fibers. The principal protein is elastin.

Elastic cartilage is histologically similar to hyaline cartilage but contains


many yellow elastic fibers lying in a solid matrix. These fibers form
bundles that appear dark under a microscope. They give elastic cartilage
great flexibility so it can withstand repeated bending.

Chondrocytes lie between the fibers. Elastic cartilage is found in the


epiglottis (part of the larynx) and the pinnae (the external ear flaps of
many mammals, including humans).

2-Bone
Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue that contains lots of calcium and
phosphorous salts. About 25% of bone tissue is water, another 25% is
made up of protein fibers like collagen. The other 50% of bone tissue is a
mixture of mineral salts, primarily calcium and phosphorous.

Function of Bone Tissue


1-Support ,The skeleton serves as a structural framework to support the
organs of the body.
2- Protection ,Critically important organs need protection from everyday
bumps and bruises.
The brain is particularly sensitive and is completely encased in an
armored container known as the skull.
The heart and lungs also require protection. They are surrounded by a
cage of bone known as the rib cage.
3-Movement ,Muscles work with the bones of the skeletal system to
move body parts around.

4-Energy storage ,Energy is stored in fat cells or adipose tissue in the


yellow bone marrow. This tissue is found inside the hollow core of bones,
particularly long bones.

5-Blood cell production ,Blood cells are produced in the red marrow.
The production of blood cells is called hemopoesis.

6-Mineral "Bank" Bone tissue contains a large amount of certain ions,


(calcium, phosphorous) which help make the tissue so strong and durable.

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This large deposit of ions can also be used to maintain blood levels of
these ions by either adding or removing them from the bloodstream and
storing them in bone tissue.

Structure of Bone Tissue


There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names
imply that the two types differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is
packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone
homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or
break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium
between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

A-Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems.
The osteon consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian)
canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix.
Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in
spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the
lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through
the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed
tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic
canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone.
These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with
vessels on the surface of the bone.

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B- Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone.
Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to
small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi
connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to
receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged
in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum
strength similar to braces that are used to support a building.

3- Blood and Lymph

Blood
This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue. Blood is a
bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances, such as
nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and transports metabolic waste products
away from those same cells. The matrix consists of the plasma with
erythrocytes or red blood cells, leukocytes or white blood cells, and
platelets suspended in the plasma . Blood has three main functions:
transport, protection and regulation.

Composition of blood
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main
components:

1. Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluid


2. Formed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and
platelets

The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma
membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed elements
are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone
marrow cells. Formed elements are:

 Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)


 Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)
 Platelets

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Red blood cells
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two main
functions:

1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues


elsewhere
2. To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the
lungs

An erythrocyte is a disc-shaped cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken


centre. . Red blood cells contain a protein called Haemoglobin. This
combines with oxygen to form Oxyhaemoglobin. Each red blood cell has
a lifespan of approximately 120 days before it gets broken down by the
spleen. New cells are manufactured in the bone marrow of most bones.
There are approximately 4.5-5 million red cells per micro-litre of blood

White blood cells


White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as leukocytes. They can be
divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. The former have cytoplasms
that contain organelles that appear as coloured granules through light
microscopy,

Granulocytes

1. Neutrophils: These contain very fine cytoplasmic granules that


can be seen under a light microscope. Neutrophils are also called
polymorphonuclear (PMN) because they have a variety of nuclear
shapes. They play roles in the destruction of bacteria and the
release of chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
2. Eosinophils: These have large granules and a prominent nucleus
that is divided into two lobes. They function in the destruction of
allergens and inflammatory chemicals, and release enzymes that
disable parasites.
3. Basophils: They have a pale nucleus that is usually hidden by
granules. They secrete histamine which increases tissue blood flow
via dilating the blood vessels, and also secrete heparin which is an
anticoagulant that promotes mobility of other WBCs by preventing
clotting.

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Agranulocytes

1. Lymphocytes: These are usually classified as small, medium or


large. Medium and large lymphocytes are generally seen mainly in
fibrous connective tissue and only occasionally in the circulation
bloodstream. Lymphocytes function in destroying cancer cells,
cells infected by viruses, and foreign invading cells. In addition,
they present antigens to activate other cells of the immune system.
They also coordinate the actions of other immune cells, secrete
antibodies .
2. Monocytes: They are the largest of the formed elements. Their
cytoplasm tends to be abundant and relatively clear. They function
in differentiating into macrophages, which are large phagocytic
cells, and digest pathogens, dead neutrophils, and the debris of
dead cells. Like lymphocytes, they also present antigens to activate
other immune cells.

Platelets : are fragments of cytoplasm detached from Megakaryocytes in


the bone marrow. They aggregate together during the process of blood
coagulation and clotting. Platelets are small (2-5 um), have no nucleus
and are ovoid shaped.

Blood plasma ,Blood plasma is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients,


wastes, hormones and gases.

Proteins ,These are the most abundant substance in plasma by weight and
play a part in a variety of roles including clotting, defense and transport
There are three major categories of plasma proteins

1. Albumins
2. Globulins
3. Fibrinogen

Lymph
Lymph ,pale fluid that bathes the tissues of an organism, maintaining
fluid balance, and removes bacteria from tissues; it enters the blood
system by way of lymphatic channels and ducts.Prominent among the
constituents of lymph are lymphocytes and macrophages, the primary
cells of the immune system with which the body defends itself from
invasion by foreign microorganisms. Lymph is conveyed from the tissues
to the venous bloodstream via the lymphatic vessels. On the way, it is

57
filtered through the lymphatic organs (spleen and thymus) and lymph
nodes.

Bacteria and other particles that find their way into body tissues are
taken up by the lymph and carried into the lymph nodes ,Lymphocytes
proliferate in response to the foreign invader, some cells remaining in the
node and others migrating to other nodes elsewhere in the body. Some of
these cells produce antibodies against the invading bacteria, while others
take part in a direct attack on the foreign material, surrounding and
engulfing it. Although the primary function of the lymphatic system is to
return proteins and fluids to the blood.

4-Hematopoietic tissue
Hematopoietic tissue is where new blood cells are formed in the body,
and where hematopoietic stem cells are located. Hematopoietic stem cells
are found in larger quantities within the bones located in the pelvis, femur
and sternum. The hematopoietic stem cell appearance is small in size
compared to other blood cells and round in shape .

Hemopoiesis: is the continual production of new blood cells. There are


two kinds of hemopoietic tissue: (1) myeloid tissue or bone marrow
where RBCs, granular WBCs, platelets, monocytes are produced and
(2) lymphatic tissue - thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, where lymphocytes
are made.

Myeloid tissue
Myeloid tissue generally refers to the red bone marrow, especially in the
formation of red blood cells (erythropoiesis).

In the adult, red bone marrow is found in portions of the vertebrae,


sternum, ribs, skull, scapulae, pelvis, and proximal limb bones,
collectively known as flat and irregular bones.

Other marrow areas contain a fatty tissue known as yellow marrow.


Yellow marrow is found in the hollow center of the diaphysis (the long
shaft of the bone) known as the medullary cavity. Normally, yellow
marrow does not have any blood-producing function. However, under
certain conditions, as a hemorrhage, yellow marrow can be converted to
red marrow and assume the responsibility of producing blood cells.

During infancy and early childhood, all bone marrow is red; but as one
grows older and less blood cell production is needed, the fat content of
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the marrow increases, forming more yellow and less red. This means that
the elderly are more prone to infections and cancers because there are
fewer lymphocytes being produced since the red bone marrow is
decreasing.

The hematopoietic elements are present between the bone spicules. The
marrow has a rich vascular supply, as well as sinusoids. The primordial
cell that gives rise to all hematopoietic elements, as well as lymphoid
cells, is the pluripotential stem cell. A few of these cells circulate, but
their job is to home in on marrow and establish cell lines for blood cell
production. This pleuripotential stem cell gives rise to two cell lines:

 Uncommitted lymphoid stem cell: this in turn give rise to the B


stem cells and the T stem cells that establish populations of B
lymphocytes and T lymphocytes.
 Hematopoietic stem cell: from this line arise three additional
subpopulations: the granulocyte-monocyte line, the
megakaryocytic line, and the erythroid line. The granulocyte-
monocyte line further differentiates into cell lines producing
monocytes and granulocytes.

(2) Lymphatic tissue: A part of the body's immune system that helps
protect it from bacteria and other foreign entities.

Lymphatic tissue is rich in lymphocytes (and accessory cells such as


macrophages and reticular cells). The lymphatic tissue includes the lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus (an organ in the chest that is particularly large
during infancy).

Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are small, oval, or bean‐shaped bodies that occur along
lymphatic vessels. They are abundant where lymphatic vessels merge to
form trunks, especially in the inguinal (groin), axillary (armpit), and
mammary gland areas. Lymph flows into a node through afferent
lymphatic vessels that enter the convex side of a node. It exits the node at
the hilus, the indented region on the opposite, concave side of the node,
through efferent lymphatic vessels. Efferent vessels contain valves that
restrict lymph to movement in one direction out of the lymph node. The
number of efferent vessels leaving the lymph node is fewer than the
number of afferent vessels entering, slowing the flow of lymph through
the node.

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Lymph nodes perform three functions:

 They filter the lymph, preventing the spread of microorganisms


and toxins that enter interstitial fluids.
 They destroy bacteria, toxins, and particulate matter through the
phagocytic action of macrophages.
 They produce antibodies through the activity of B cells.

Thymus

The thymus is a bilobed organ located in the upper chest region between
the lungs, posterior to the sternum. It grows during childhood and reaches
its maximum size of 40 g at puberty. It then slowly decreases in size as it
is replaced by adipose and areolar connective tissue. By age 65, it weighs
about 6 g.

Each lobe of the thymus is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue.


Lobules produced by trabeculae (inward extensions of the capsule) are
characterized by an outer cortex and inner medulla. The following cells
are present:

 Lymphocytes consist almost entirely of T cells.


 Epithelial‐reticular cells resemble reticular cells, but do not form
reticular fibers. Instead, these star‐shaped cells form a reticular
network by interlocking their slender cellular processes
(extensions). These processes are held together by desmosomes,
cell junctions formed by protein fibers. Epithelial‐reticular cells
produce thymosin and other hormones believed to promote the
maturation of T cells.

Spleen

Measuring about 12 cm (5 inches) in length, the spleen is the largest


lymphatic organ. It is located on the left side of the body, inferior to the
diaphragm and at the left edge of the stomach. Like other lymphatic
organs, the spleen is surrounded by a capsule whose extensions into the
spleen form trabeculae. The splenic artery, splenic vein, nerves, and
efferent lymphatic vessels pass through the hilus of the spleen located on
its slightly concave, upper surface. There are two distinct areas within the
spleen:

 White pulp consists of reticular fibers and lymphocytes in nodules


that resemble the nodules of lymph nodes.

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 Red pulp consists of venous sinuses filled with blood. Splenic
cords consisting of reticular connective tissue, macrophages, and
lymphocytes form a mesh between the venous sinuses and act as a
filter as blood passes between arterial vessels and the sinuses.

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Lec 9 Muscular Tissue

Muscle tissue
Muscle is a soft tissue that is highly specialized for the production of
tension which results in the generation of force. Muscle tissue consists of
fibers of muscle cells connected together in sheets and fibers. Together
these sheets and fibers and known as muscles, and control the movements
of an organisms as well as many other contractile functions. There are
three different types of muscle found in animals, depending on their use.
While these muscles differ slightly, they function in a similar way.

Functions of muscle tissue


1. Movement: Our body's skeleton gives enough rigidity to our body
that skeletal muscles can yank and pull on it, resulting in body
movements such as walking, chewing, running, lifting,
manipulating objects with our hands .
2. Maintenance of posture: Without much conscious control, our
muscles generate a constant contractile force that allows us to
maintain an erect or seated position, or posture.
3. Respiration: Our muscular system automatically drives movement
of air into and out of our body.
4. Heat generation: Contraction of muscle tissue generates heat,
which is essential for maintenance of temperature homeostasis. For
instance, if our core body temperature falls, we shiver to generate
more heat.
5. Communication: Muscle tissue allows us to talk, gesture, write,
and convey our emotional state by doing such things as smiling or
frowning.
6. Constriction of organs and blood vessels: Nutrients move
through our digestive tract, urine is passed out of the body, and
secretions are propelled out of glands by contraction of smooth
muscle. Constriction or relaxation of blood vessels regulates blood
pressure and blood distribution throughout the body.
7. Pumping blood: Blood moves through the blood vessels because
our heart tirelessly receives blood and delivers it to all body tissues
and organs.

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Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Although skeletal muscle cells come in different shapes and sizes the
main structure of a skeletal muscle cell remains the same. If you were to
take one whole muscle and cut through it, you would find the muscle is
covered in a layer of connective muscle tissue known as the Epimysium.

The Epimysium protects the muscle from friction against other muscles
and bones. It also continues at the end of the muscle to form (along with
other connective tissues) the muscles tendon. Looking at the cross section
of the muscle you can see bundles of fibers, known as Fasciculi, which
are surrounded by another connective tissue, called the Perimysium. Each
Fasciculi contains anywhere between 10 and 100 muscle fibres,
depending on the muscle in question.

A large strong muscle, such as thoses forming your Quadriceps would


have a large number of fibers within each bundle. A smaller muscle used
for precision movement, such as those in the hand would contain far
fewer fibres per Fasciculi.

Looking at each muscle fiber in detail, you can see they too are covered
in a fibrous connective tissue, known as Endomysium which insulates
each muscle fiber. Muscle fibers can range from 10 to 80 micrometers in
diameter and may be up to 35cm long.

Beneath the Endomysium and surrounding the muscle fibre is the


Sarcolemma which is the fibers cell membrane and beneath this is the

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Sarcoplasm, which is the cells cytoplasm, a gelatinous fluid which fills
most cells.

This contains Glycogen and Fats for energy and also Mitochondria which
are the cells powerhouses, inside which the cells energy is produced.

Each muscle fiber itself contains cylindrical organelles known as


Myofibrils. Each muscle fiber contains hundreds to thousands of
Myofibrils. These are bundles of Actin and Myosin proteins which run
the length of the muscle fiber and are important in muscle contraction.

Surrounding the Myofibril there is a network of tubules and channels


called the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in which Calcium is stored which is
important in muscle contraction. Transverse tubules pass inwards from
the Sacrolemma throughout the Myofibril, through which nerve impulses
travel.

Each Myofibril can then be broken down into functional repeating


segments called Sarcomeres.

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The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
There are two main muscle filaments in muscle fibers: Actin and myosin
filaments. Actin filaments are thin and have binding sites for the
globular heads of myosin filaments. Myosin filaments are thick and
formed of a fibrous "tail" and globular "head". These two filaments
overlap and interact to form muscle fibers. The functional unit of a
muscle fiber is called a sarcomere.

During the contraction of a muscle fiber, calcium moves into the


sarcomere and binds to the protein troponin on actin filaments revealing
myosin head binding sites on actin filaments. Myosin heads containing
ADP form crossbridges with the actin filaments by binding to the
myosin head binding site on actin. The myosin head then releases the
ADP molecule causing the myosin filament to move to the cocked
position, pulling the actin fiber towards the middle of the sarcomere in a
"power stoke" . ATP then attaches to the bound myosin head, breaking
the myosin head - actin cross bridge. The enzyme ATPase then
hydrolyses ATP to ADP + inorganic phosphate (Pi) providing energy
for the myosin head to return to it's original uncocked position. As the
myosin head now contains ADP it is ready to form another crossbridge,
starting the cycle again.

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Types of Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue can be classified functionally, voluntary or involuntary and
morphologically striated or non-striated. Voluntary refers to whether the
muscle is under conscious control, striation refers to the presence of
visible banding within myocytes which occurs due to organization of
myofibrils to produce a constant direction of tension.

By applying the above classifications it is possible to describe three forms


of muscle tissue which perform the wide range of functions described.

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscles are those which attach to bones and have the main
function of contracting to facilitate movement of our skeletons. They are
also sometimes known as striated muscles due to their appearance. The
cause of this 'stripy' appearance is the bands of Actin and Myosin which
form the Sarcomere, found within the Myofibrils.

Skeletal muscles are also sometimes called voluntary muscles, because


we have direct control over them through nervous impulses from our
brains sending messages to the muscle. Contractions can vary to produce
powerful, fast movements or small precision actions. Skeletal muscles
also have the ability to stretch or contract and still return to their original
shape. Skeletal muscle tissue can be controlled voluntarily, by the
somatic nervous system. The other types of muscle are controlled mainly
by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system

Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to
our inability to control its movements, or unstriated as it does not have
the stripy appearance of Skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is found in the
walls of hollow organs such as the Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in
the walls of blood vessels. This muscle type is stimulated by involuntary
neurogenic impulses and has slow, rhythmical contractions used in
controlling internal organs, for example, moving food along the
Oesophagus or contricting blood vessels during Vasoconstriction.

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Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)
This type of muscle is found solely in the walls of the heart. It has
similarities with skeletal muscles in that it is striated and with smooth
muscles in that its contractions are not under conscious control. However
this type of muscle is highly specialised. It is under the control of the
autonomic nervous system, however, even without a nervous imput
contractions can occur due to cells called pacemaker cells. Cardiac
muscle is highly resistant to fatigue due to the presence of a large number
of mitochondria, myoglobin and a good blood supply allowing
continuous aerobic metabolism.

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Lec 10 Nerves Tissue

Nervous Tissue:Nervous tissue is the term for groups of organized


cells in the nervous system, which is the organ system that controls the
body‘s movements, sends and carries signals to and from the different
parts of the body, and has a role in controlling bodily functions such as
digestion. Nervous tissue is grouped into two main categories: neurons
and neuroglia. Neurons, or nerves, transmit electrical impulses, while
neuroglia do not; neuroglia have many other functions including
supporting and protecting neurons. Neurons are easily stimulated and
transmit impulses very rapidly. A nerve is made up of many nerve cell
fibres (neurons) bound together by connective tissue. A sheath of dense
connective tissue, the epineurium surrounds the nerve. This sheath
penetrates the nerve to form the perineurium which surrounds bundles of
nerve fibres. blood vessels of various sizes can be seen in the epineurium.
The endoneurium, which consists of a thin layer of loose connective
tissue, surrounds the individual nerve fibres.

Anatomy of peripheral nerve

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Functions of Nerve Tissue

1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body Sensory
Function

2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine

3. Processes the information in the brain and spine Integration Function

4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can


respond appropriately Motor Function

Nerve tissue is composed of 2 main types of cells:

Neurons -nerve cells that are specialized to detect and react to stimuli,
by generating and conducting nerve impulses.
Neuroglial cells- accessory cells for filling spaces and supporting
neurons.

Microscopic anatomy of neurons


All neurons have a cell body called soma which contains a nucleus,
organelles, and a modified endoplasmic reticulum called Nissl body
Although there is DNA in the neuron, somehow DNA replication and
mitosis do not occur, resulting in the neurons lack of ability to reproduce
or regenerate.
Extensions of the soma form nerve such as dendrites which conduct
nerve impulses toward the soma, and axon which conducts nerve
impulses away from the soma (to another neuron, or to an effector
organ).The number of dendrites ranges from 1 ( in unipolar and bipolar
neurons) to thousands ( in multipolar neurons).

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Anatomy of The Neuron

All neurons only contain 1 axon .Longer axons are enclosed by a


lipoprotein substance called myelin sheath produced by type of neuralgia
cell celled schwann cell This myelin sheath insulates the axon against
depolarization, and forces action potential to occur in the gaps (node of
Ranvier) in between the myelin sheath.
axons enclosed by myelin sheath are called myelinated axons
which make up the white matter in the nervous system; while axons that
have no myelin sheath are called unmyelinated axons which make up the
gray matter in the nervous system.
The myelin sheath insulates the axon leaving only narrow gaps called
nodes of Ranvier to allow action potential to occur. This type of nerve
impulse propagation where action potential jumps from one gap to the
next is referred to as "saltatory conduction" .

Synapse
A synapse is the junction between two neurons, or between a neuron and
an effector organ (muscle or gland). Each synapse consists of:
Presynaptic neuron-that sends an impulse to the synapse.
Axon–the nerve fiber extends from the presynaptic neuron, that
propagates the impulse to the synapse .
Synaptic knobs -the round endings of the axon.
Synaptic vesicles -membranous sacs that contain a neurotransmitter (e.g.
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine), located in the synaptic knobs.
Synaptic cleft-a gap between the two neurons in the synapse.

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Dendrite–the nerve fiber that continues to propagate the nerve impulse to
the second neuron (postsynaptic neuron). Receptors on this dendrite
receive the neurotransmitter from the axon .
Postsynaptic neuron -the neuron that receives the nerve impulse from
the presynaptic neuron, through the synapse.

Electrical vs . chemical synapses

Impulses
•A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient
strength to initiate a response.
•Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and
convert it into a nerve impulse
•All of Nothing Rule– The stimulus is either strong enough to start and
impulse or nothing happens
•Impulses are always the same strength along a given neuron
and they are self-propagation –once it starts it continues to the end of the
neuron in only one direction-from dendrite to cell body to axon.
•The nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane
of the nerve cell.

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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters–Chemicals in the junction which allow impulses to
be started in the second neuron

Classification of neurons

Classification based on structure:


A) unipolar neuron- a single nerve fiber is extended from the soma, and
it divides into a dendrite and an axon (sensory neurons that conduct
reflexes or detect various stimuli).
B) bipolar neuron- a dendrite and an axon extend from the soma
independently (sensory neurons involved in special senses such as vision,
olfaction, and hearing).
C) multiple neuron- one axon and many dendrites extend from the soma
(interneurons located inside the brain and spinal cord).

Classification based on function:


A) sensory or afferent neuron
-conducts nerve impulses from the body to the brain or spinal cord.
-endings of its dendrite may be modified to become nerve receptors.
-usually unipolar in structure.
B) interneuron:
- relays nerve impulse from sensory neuron to motor neuron .
-located totally inside the tissues of the brain or spinal cord.

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-involved in the processing and integration in the nervous system.
-usually multipolar in structure.
C) motor or efferent neuron:
- conducts nerve impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the
Effector organ (muscles or glands).
- usually multipolar in structure.
- accelerator motor neurons cause an increase of activity in the
Effector organ; while inhibitory motor neurons cause a decrease of
activity in the effector organ.

The Neuroglia
Supporting cells in the Central Nervous System(CNS) are grouped
together as Neuroglia ,Neuroglia literally means ―nerve glue‖ The
function of neuroglia is to support, insulate ,and protect the delicate
neurons of the brain, In H & E staining, only their nuclei can be seen.
Neuroglia is Capable of multiplying in mature nervous tissue , but
Cannot generate or transmit the impulse.

Types of Neuroglia in CNS


1- Astrocytes: star shaped cells found between neurons and blood
vessels. They are the most abundant glial cells.
2- Microglial cells: small ovoid cells.
3- Ependymal cells: cuboidal or columnar shaped cells.
4- Oligodendrocytes: resemble astrocytes but have less processes and
arranged in rows along nerve fibers.

Types of Neuroglia in PNS


1-Satellite cells :Surround the nerve cells of ganglia, satellite cells are
Flattened cells with prominent nuclei.
2-Schwann cells: Flattened cells with flattened nucleus.

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Divisions of the Nervous System
The human nervous system consists of the :
1- Central Nervous System (CNS)
2- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

1-Central Nervous System (CNS)

The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the
nervous system. It receives information from and sends information to
the peripheral nervous system.(CNS) is composed of the brain (located
in the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (located in the vertebral cavity),
which serve as the main control centers for all body activities . The brain
processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord.
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Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by a three-layered covering
of connective tissue called the meninges.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

is composed of nerves derived from the brain and spinal cord


(12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves),which
serve as linkage between the CNS and the body. PNS can be subdivided
into Sensory(afferent) nerves and Motor(efferent) nerves. Sensory nerves
send nerve impulse from the body to CNS, while motor nerves send
impulse from CNS to effector organs.
Motor nerves are divided into the Somatic Nervous system (SNS) which
regulates the voluntary contraction of skeletal muscles and autonomic
nervous system (ANS) which regulates the involuntary control of smooth,
cardiac muscles and glands.
Finally, the ANS can be divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
branches where in general sympathetic nerves stimulate activities of the
effector organs (except digestive organs), and parasympathetic nerves
inhibit activities of the effector organs (except digestive organs).

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Lec 11 Bacteria define its general properties ,shape & arrangement.

Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms, The cell structure is
simpler than that of other organisms as there is no nucleus or membrane
bound organelles.

Due to the presence of a rigid cell wall, bacteria maintain a definite


shape, though they vary as shape, size and structure.

Bacterial cell structure

Structures of cells

1. Cell wall
2. Cytoplasmic membrane
3. Chromosome
4. Plasmid
5. Ribosome
6. Flagella
7. Inclusion body
8. Pili
9. Endospore

Unique & Distinguishing Characteristics of bacteria


1- No nucleus: Unlike other eukaryotic cell, bacterial cell is the only
cell which lacks prominent nucleus within. This feature has lead to
the scientists to consider bacteria as primitive organisms , earliest
forms of life on earth

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2. Presence of Cell wall: Bacteria has a cell wall which is distinct
from other cells having cell wall. The wall is made of different
substances like glycoproteins, lipopolysacharides and lipoproteins ther
are two main types of bacteria cell walls, those of Gram –positive
bacteria and those of Gram –negative bacteria , which are
differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics.

3- Cell membrane: This is present immediately below the cell wall.


This has a small variation with that of plants and animals cell
membranes. In plants and animals, it is mostly a single or double layer
(bi-layer) of lipids. But bacteria especially the gram negative ones
have an extra membrane i.e. an outer membrane called periplasm
which lies bellow cell wall but above cell membrane.

4-Pilli: These are small and tube like projections from bacterial
surface. They are the organelles of sexual reproduction and are
involved in exchange of genetic material as part of reproduction
between two bacteria.

5- Food dependence: All the organisms either live by their own or on


other resources. But bacteria have different modes of food
procurement. Some of them synthesize their own food like plants by
use of sunlight(Autotrophic bacteria).

Other derive food energy from chemical sources around them


(chemotrops). Sulfur bacteria, hydrogen bacteria, iron bacteria etc.

Few of them are parasites which live on alive plants and animals.
They cause diseases to the host in doing so (Parasitic bacteria).

While others are( symbiotic bacteria ). They live in a give and take
relationships with other animals. Ex: rhizobium in roots, E-coli in
intestine.

6- Reproduction: Most organism have one or two methods of


reproduction. But bacteria have many.

A). Asexual reproduction: The bacteria cell undergoes to produce


two bacteria by Binary fission and also by endospores.

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B) Sexual reproduction: It is also by three distinct methods like
transformation, conjugation and transduction. In transformation, one
bacteria releases naked DNA strand into the surroundings. The other
bacteria takes t up and incorporate into their genome. Transduction
happens due to virus.

7. Spore formation: When the environmental conditions around are


harsh, the bacteria converts to a hard spore form. This spore is highly
resistant to heat, chemicals and drought conditions, When the
conditions are favorable, these spores break open and release the
bacteria.

8-Ribosomes: The protein making machinery has 70S ribosome which is


of two sub-units as 50S and 30S. While in other animals and plants, it is
80S ribosome consisting of two sub-units 60S and 40S.

9- Absence of Cell organelles: Other cell organelles like mitochondria,


golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum are absent in a bacterial cell.

10-Flagella presence: Some of the bacteria are motile. They, especially


the bacilli type have flagella. These are the organs of locomotion. They
are long filamentous organs originating from cell membrane.

11. Cosmopolitan distribution: Bacteria are the only organisms which


show cosmopolitan distribution. They are present in air, water, soil, snow
etc. They are present at very cold (minus degree) temperature regions and
also very high temperature regions. They can live in acidic environment
(helico bacter pyroli) and even basic environment (iron bacteria).

12. Resistance and tolerance: Some of the bacteria are highly resistant
to adverse environments. Even they get tolerance to harsh chemical and
other stuff which destroy them. Hence irrational use of antibiotics. THis

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has become so severe that World Health Organization warns of rampant
prevalence of resistant bacteria which can be incurable by currently
available drugs.

Types of Bacteria
The cell wall also makes Gram staining possible. Gram staining is a
method of staining bacteria involving crystal violet dye, iodine, and the
counterstain safranin. Many bacteria can be classified into one of two
types: gram-positive, which show the stain and appear violet in color
under a microscope, and gram-negative, which only show the
counterstain, and appear red. Gram-positive bacteria appear violet
because they have thick cell walls that trap the crystal violet-iodine
complex. The thin cell walls of gram-negative bacteria cannot hold the
violet-iodine complex, but they can hold safranin. This makes gram-
negative bacteria appear red under a microscope . Gram staining is used
for general identification of bacteria or to detect the presence of certain
bacteria; it cannot be used to identify bacteria in any specific way, such as
at a species level. Examples of gram-positive bacteria include the genera
Listeria, Streptococcus, and Bacillus, while gram-negative bacteria
include Proteobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and cyanobacteria.

Shape of Bacterial Cell


The three basic bacterial shapes are coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-
shaped), and spiral (twisted), however pleomorphic bacteria can assume
several shapes.

1-Cocci (or coccus for a single cell) are round cells, sometimes slightly
flattened when they are adjacent to one another.

2-Bacilli (or bacillus for a single cell) are rod-shaped bacteria.

3-Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are curved bacteria which can
range from a gently curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many
spirilla are rigid and capable of movement. A special group of spirilla
known as spirochetes are long, slender, and flexible

Arrangement of Cocci
Cocci bacteria can exist singly, in pairs (as diplococci ), in groups of four
(as tetrads ), in chains (as streptococci ), in clusters (as stapylococci ), or

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in cubes consisting of eight cells (as sarcinae). Cocci may be oval,
elongated, or flattened on one side. Cocci may remain attached after cell
division. These group characteristics are often used to help identify
certain cocci.

1. Diplococci
The cocci are arranged in pairs. Examples: Streptococcus pneumonia

2. Streptococci
The cocci are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.
Examples: Streptococcus pyogenes

3. Tetrads
The cocci are arranged in packets of four cells, as the cells divide in two
plains.Examples: Aerococcus

4. Sarcinae
The cocci are arranged in a cuboidal manner, as the cells are formed by
regular cell divisions in three planes. Cocci that divide in three planes and
remain in groups cube like groups of eight. Examples: Sarcina ureae,

5. Staphylococci
The cocci are arranged in grape-like clusters formed by irregular cell
divisions in three plains. Examples: Staphylococcus aureus

Arrangement of Bacilli
The cylindrical or rod-shaped bacteria are called ‗bacillus‘ (plural:
bacilli).

1. Diplobacilli
Most bacilli appear as single rods. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after
division.

Example of Single Rod: Bacillus cereus


Examples of Diplobacilli: Coxiella burnetii,

2. Streptobacilli
The bacilli are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.

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Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis

3. Coccobacilli
These are so short and stumpy that they appear ovoid. They look like
coccus and bacillus. Examples: Haemophilus influenzae,

4. Palisades
The bacilli bend at the points of division following the cell divisions,
resulting in a palisade arrangement resembling a picket fence and angular
patterns that look like Chinese letters. Example: Corynebacterium
diphtheria

Arrangement of Spiral Bacteria


Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are curved bacteria which can range
from a gently curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many spirilla are
rigid and capable of movement. A special group of spirilla known as
spirochetes are long, slender, and flexible.

1. Vibrio
They are comma-shaped bacteria with less than one complete turn or
twist in the cell.Example: Vibrio cholerae

2. Spirilla
They have rigid spiral structure. Spirillum with many turns can
superficially resemble spirochetes. They do not have outer sheath and
endoflagella, but have typical bacterial flagella.
Example: Helicobacter pylori

3. Spirochetes
Spirochetes have a helical shape and flexible bodies. Spirochetes move
by means of axial filaments, which look like flagella contained beneath a
flexible external sheath but lack typical bacterial flagella.
Examples: Leptospira species

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Others Shapes and Arrangements of Bacteria
1. Filamentous Bacteria

They are very long thin filament-shaped bacteria. Some of them form
branching filaments resulting in a network of filaments called
‗mycelium‘. Example: Candidatus Savagella

2. Star Shaped Bacteria

Example: Stella

3. Rectangular Bacteria

Examples: Haloarcula spp

4. Pleomorphic Bacteria

These bacteria do not have any characteristic shape unlike all others
described above. They can change their shape. In pure cultures, they can
be observed to have different shapes.
Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae,

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Lec12 Sterilization and disinfection

Introduction
Microbes are ubiquitous and many microorganisms are associated with undesirable
consequences, such as food spoilage and disease. Therefore, it is essential to kill a
wide variety of microorganisms or inhibit their growth to minimize their destructive
effects. The goal is twofold: (a) to destroy pathogens and prevent their transmission
and (b) to reduce or eliminate microorganisms responsible for the contamination of
water ,food, and other substances.

Sterilizationis defined as a process by which an article, surface, or medium is freed


of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or in the spore state. Any
material that has been subjected to this process is said to be sterile. These terms
should be used only in the absolute sense. An object cannot be slightly sterile or
almost sterile; it is either sterile or not sterile .Although most sterilization is
performed with a physical agent ,such as heat, a few chemicals called sterilants can
be classified as sterilizing agents because of their ability to destroy spores.A
germicide, also called a microbicide, is any chemical agent that kills pathogenic
microorganisms. A germicide can be used on inanimate (nonliving) materials or on
living tissue, but it ordinarily cannot kill resistant microbial cells. Any physical or
chemical agent that kills ―germs‖ is said to have germicidal properties

Mode of action
1- Damage of protein
2- Damage of nucleic acid
3- Inhibition of metabolism
4- Alteration of cell membrane permeability

Sterilization
Methods of sterilization can be broadly classified as:
1 .Physical methods of sterilization, and
2. Chemical methods of sterilization

Physical Methods of Sterilization


Physical methods of sterilization include the following:
1 .Sunlight
2 .Heat

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3 .Filtration
4 .Radiation
5- Sound (sonic) waves

Sunlight
Direct sunlight is a natural method of sterilization of water in tanks, rivers, and lakes.
Direct sunlight has an active germicidal effect due to its content of ultraviolet and
heat rays. Bacteria present in natural water sources are rapidly destroyed by exposure
to sunlight.

Heat
Heat is the most dependable method of sterilization and is usually the method of
choice unless contraindicated. As a rule ,higher temperatures (exceeding the
maximum) are microbicidal ,whereas lower temperatures (below the minimum) tend
to have inhibitory or microbistaticeffects. Two types of physical heat are used in
sterilization—moist and dry heat.

Sterilization by moist heat


Moist heat occurs in the form of hot water, boiling water, or steam (vaporized water).
In practice, the temperature of moist heat usually ranges from 60 to 135°C.
Adjustment of pressure in a closed container can regulate the temperature of steam .
Moist heat kills microorganisms by denaturation and coagulation of proteins.
Sterilization by moist heat can be classified as follows:

1 Sterilization at a temperature ˂100°C


2 .Sterilization at a temperature of 100°C
3 .Sterilization at a temperature˃ 100°C
4. Intermittent sterilization

1.Sterilization at a temperature ˂ 100°C:


Pasteurization is an example of sterilisation at a temperature ˂ 100°C
Pasteurization:Fresh beverages (such as milk, fruit juices ,beer, and wine) are easily
contaminated during collection and processing. Because microbes have potential for
spoiling these foods or causing illness, heat is frequently used to reduce the microbial
load and to destroy pathogens .Pasteurization is a technique in which heat is applied
to liquids to kill potential agents of infection and spoilage, while at the same time
retaining the liquid‘s flavor and food value.This technique is named after Louis
Pasteur who devised this method.

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2 Sterilization at a temperature of 100°C:
Sterilsation at a temperature of 100ºC includes (a) boiling and (b) steam sterilizer at
100°C.

Boiling:Simple boiling of water for 10–30 minutes kills most of the vegetative forms
of bacteria but not bacterial spores

Steam sterilizer at 100°C: is used for heat-labile substances that tend to degrade at
higher temperatures and pressure, . These substances are exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure for 90 minutes during which most vegetative forms of the bacteria
.except for the thermophiles are killed by the moist heat

3. Sterilization at a temperature >100 C

Autoclaving is one of the most common methods of sterilization. Principle: In this


method sterilization is done by steam under pressure. Steaming at temperature higher
than 100°C is used in autoclaving. The temperature of boiling depends on the
surrounding atmospheric pressure. A higher temperature of steaming is obtained by
employing a higher pressure. When the autoclave is closed and made air-tight, and
water starts boiling, the inside pressures increases and now the water boils above
100°C. At 15 pounds per square inch ( psi ) , 121°C temperatures is obtained. This is
kept for 15 minutes for sterilization to kill spores. It works like a pressure cooker.

4.Intermittent sterilization:

Certain heat-labile substances(e.g., serum, sugar, egg, etc.) that cannot withstand the
high temperature of the autoclave can be sterilized by a process of intermittent
sterilization, known as tyndallization.Tyndallizationis carried out over a period of 3
days and requires a chamber to hold the materials and a reservoir for boiling water.
Items to be sterilized are kept in the chamber and are exposed to free-flowing steam
at 100°C for 20 minutes, for each of the three consecutive days. On the first day, the
temperature is adequate to kill all the vegetative forms of the bacteria, yeasts, and
molds but not sufficient to kill spores. The surviving spores are allowed to germinate
to vegetative forms on the second day and are killed on re-exposure to steam. The
third day re-ensures killing of all the spores by their germination to vegetative forms .
Intermittent sterilization is used most often to sterilize heat-sensitive culture media,
such as those containing serum (e.g., Loeffl er‘s serum slope), egg (e.g., Lowenstein–
Jensen‘s medium), or carbohydrates (e.g., serum sugars) and some canned foods .

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Sterilization by dry heat
Mechanisms. (1) Protein denaturation, (2) Oxidative damage, (3) Toxic effect of
elevated electrolyte (in absence of water).
Dry heat at 160°C (holding temperature for one hour is required to kill the most
resistant spores). The articles remain dry. It is unsuitable for clothing which may be
spoiled. Sterilization by dry heat includes sterilization by (a) flaming (b) incineration
, and (c) hot air oven

A-Flaming:Sterilization of inoculating loop or wire, the tip of forceps, searing


spatulas, etc., is carried out by holding them in the flame of the Bunsen burner till
they become red hot. Glass slides, scalpels, and mouths of culture tubes are sterilized
by passing them through the Bunsen flame without allowing them to become red hot.

B- Incineration:Incineration is an excellent method for safely destroying infective


materials by burning them to ashes. It has many uses :

■Incinerators are used to carry out this process and are regularly employed in
hospitals and research labs to destroy hospital and laboratory wastes.

■The method is used for complete destruction and disposal of infectious material,
such as syringes, needles ,culture material, dressings, bandages, bedding, animal
carcasses, and pathology samples.
C-Hot Air Oven (Sterilizer). Glass wares, swab sticks, all-glass syringes, powder
and oily substances are sterilized in hot air oven. For sterilization, a temperature of
160°C is maintained (holding) for one hour. Spores are killed at this temperature. It
leads to sterilization.

Filtration
Filtration is an excellent way to reduce the microbial population in solutions of heat-
labile material by use of a variety of filters. Filters are used to sterilize these heat-
labile solutions .Filters simply remove contaminating microorganisms from solutions
rather than directly destroying them

Radiations
The ionizing and nonionizing radiations are the two types of radiation used for
sterilization
1 .Ionizing radiations: Ionizing radiation is an excellent sterilizing agent with very
high penetrating power .These radiations penetrate deep into objects and destroy
bacterial endospores and vegetative cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic. These are,
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however, not that effective against viruses. Ionizing radiations include (a) X-rays ,(b)
gamma rays

2. Nonionizing radiations: Nonionizing radiations include infrared and ultraviolet


radiations.

■Infrared radiationsare used for rapid and mass sterilization of disposable syringes
and catheters.

■Ultraviolet (UV) radiationwith wavelength of 240–280 nm is quite lethal and has a


marked bactericidal activity. It acts by denaturation of bacterial protein and also
interferes with replication of bacterial DNA.

Sound (sonic) waves


High-frequency sound (sonic) waves beyond the sensitivity of the human ear are
known to disrupt cells

Chemical Methods of Sterilization


Several chemical agents are used as antiseptics as well as disinfectants. All these
chemical agents (e.g., alcohols, aldehydesetc.) are described later in detail under
disinfection

Disinfection
Disinfection is the process of inactivating microorganisms by direct exposure to
chemical or physical agents.

■Disinfectants are products or biocides that destroy or inhibit the growth of


microorganisms on inanimate objects or surfaces. Disinfectants can be sporistatic but
are not necessarily sporicidal .

■Antiseptics are biocides or products that destroy or inhibit the growth of


microorganisms in or on living tissue.Antiseptics and disinfectants are used
extensively in hospitals for a variety of topical and hard surface applications. They
are an essential part of infection control practices and aid in the prevention of
nosocomial infections.

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Action of Disinfectants
Disinfectants act in many ways as discussed below.

1 .They produce damage to the cell wall and alter permeability of the cell membrane,
resulting in exposure, damage, or loss of the cellular contents
2 .They alter proteins and form protein salts or cause coagulation of proteins.
3 .They inhibit enzyme action and inhibit nucleic acid synthesis or alter nucleic acid
molecules.
4. They cause oxidation or hydrolysis

Factors Influencing Activity of Disinfectants


Various conditions influencing the efficiency of disinfectant are as follows:

■Temperature:Increase in temperature increases the efficiency of disinfectants.


■Type of microorganism:Vegetative cells are more susceptible than spores. Spores
may be resistant to the action of disinfectants.
■Physiological state of the cell:Young and metabolically active cells are more
sensitive than old dormant cells .Nongrowing cells may not be affected
■ Environment:The physical or chemical properties of the medium or substance
influence rate as well as efficiency of disinfectants, e.g., pH of the medium and
presence of extraneous materials

Types and Classes of Chemical Agents as Disinfectants


ALCOHOLS
-Ethyl or isopropyl at a concentration of 50-70% are used for some
surfaces where a rapid evaporation of the chemical and leaving no residue may be
important, such as on laboratory equipment, etc. Alcohols are low in sporocidal
activity and must remain wet on the surface for several minutes to achieve any
reasonabledisinfection.

ALDEHYDES
-Formaldehyde or more usually glutaraldehyde are used as instrument and catheter
disinfectants. The glutaraldehyde is the basic chemical for various trademarks, such
as Cidex, or Sonacide and newer ones such as Sporocidin or Glutacide or Totacide,
etc. These are used for disinfectants or sterilization of instruments and catheters but
not for environmental surfaces. They may also be used for pipettes and clinical
thermometers, etc.

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DETERGENTS
-The term detergent refers to a removal of soil or dirt and various types of detergents
are available. The anionic detergent such as soap and sodium lauryl sulfate and its
close chemical relative which are the ingredients in the various dish and laundry
detergents have very low level in antimicrobial activity and work by the removal of
dirt
and microorganisms and rinsing them down the drain.

GASEOUS AGENTS
-Ethylene oxide as a gaseous agent may best be used as a sterilant,
but has been used in liquids for antimicrobial action. The use of formaldehyde as a
liquid at the 8% level in alcohol (for many hours) may have sterilizing capability as
well as 20% aqueous formal
in and formaldehyde with low temperature steam (75 C).

HALOGENS
-Chlorine and iodine are the usual halogens used as antimicrobial
chemicals. The chlorine is used as a gas for disinfection of water and swimming
pools. (It is used as the hypochlorite (Clorox) for sanitizing.) Chlorine dioxide has
been utilized for disinfection and is a rapid oxidizing sterilant when used under
certain conditions. Iodine as the tincture is probably the best of the skin antiseptics,
but is more frequently used asthe iodophor which is a so-called tamed iodine which
releases iodine slowly to the environmental surfaces. It is used as a sanitizer in food
preparation areas and also as a skin antiseptic, a surgical scrub, etc.

HEAVY METALS
-The mercurial salts and other heavy metal preparations have lost favor in the
laboratory and hospital scene since they are more bacteriostatic than bactericidal and
may be extremely toxic. This would include trademark names such
asMercurochrome, Merthiolate (Thiomerosal), Merbak, Metaphen and others.

PEROXIDES
-The use of weak peroxides on skin wounds of various small area has negligible
antimicrobial activity and its effect probably due to a washing away of extraneous
dirt and microorganisms. A newer, highly concentrated peroxide at a low pH has
been proposed as a disinfectant-sterilant, under the trademark of Sterisyl and may
disinfect very rapidly

PHENOLICS
-The chemicals based on phenol, i.e., a benzene ring with hydroxyl (OH)group are
among the more common disinfectants for environmental surfaces. Instead of phenol
or cresol, today it is more common to use a mixture of highly substituted phenolics

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(such as orthophenylphenol) which may be diluted out further (1:128-1:256) to
achieve their bactericidal activity.

OTHER CHEMICALS
-Various dyes, acetic acid, carbonates , bicarbonates, chlorites,
essential oils, etc., have been used with more or less success, (usually less success) as
antimicrobial chemicals and should give way to the more effective ones noted above.

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Differences between sterilization and disinfection

Sterilization Disinfection

Definition Freeing an article, surface, Process that reduces the number of


or medium from all living contaminating microorganisms, liable
organisms including viruses, to cause infection to a level which is
bacteria and their spores, and deemed no longer harmful to health.
fungi and their spores Spores are not killed
Uses Objects or instruments Objects or instruments coming
coming in direct contact with in direct contact with mucous
a break in skin or mucous membrane but tissue is intact or
membrane or entering via intact skin
a sterile body area
Examples Surgical instruments, needles , Endotracheal tubes, aspirators ,
syringes, parenteral fluid , bedpans, urinals, etc
arthroscopes, media, reagents
and equipments in laboratory
use

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Lec 13 Viruses , Structure , morphology ,pathogenicity

A virus: is a small parasite that cannot reproduce by itself. Once it


infects a susceptible cell, however, a virus can direct the cell machinery
to produce more viruses. Most viruses have either RNA or DNA as their
genetic material. The nucleic acid may be single- or double-stranded. The
entire infectious virus particle, called a virion, consists of the nucleic acid
and an outer shell of protein. The simplest viruses contain only enough
RNA or DNA to encode four proteins. The most complex can encode 100
– 200 proteins.

Properties of virus
1- They do not have cellular organization.
2- They contain only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA but
never both
3- They are obligate intracellular parasites.
4- They lack the enzymes necessary for protein and nucleic acid
synthesis and are dependent for replication on the machinery of
host cells
5- They multiply by a complex process and not by binary fission.
6- They are unaffected by antibacterial antibiotics.

Virus structure
viruses contain the following components: 1) a nucleic acid genome
and 2) a protein capsid that covers the genome. Together this is called
the nucleocapsid. In addition, many animal viruses contain a 3) lipid
envelope. The entire intact virus is called the virion. The structure and
composition of these components can vary widely.

A: Viral Genomes: While the genomes of all known cells are comprised
of double stranded DNA, the genomes of viruses can be comprised of
single or double stranded from DNA or RNA. The known structures of
viral genomes are summarized below.

DNA: Double Stranded - linear or circular

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Single Stranded - linear or circular

Other Structures - gapped circles

RNA: Double Stranded - linear

Single Stranded - linear :

The genome of some RNA viruses is segmented, meaning that a virus


particle contains several different molecules of RNA, like different
chromosomes.

B: Protein Capsid
Viral genomes are surrounded by protein shells known as capsids. A
capsid is almost always made up of repeating structural subunits that are
arranged in one of two symmetrical structures, a helix or an icosahedron.
In the simplest case, these "subunits" consist of a single polypeptide. In
many cases, however, these structural subunits (also called protomers)
are made up of several polypeptides.

Protein Capsid Function


1- It protects the viral genome from physical destruction and
enzymatic inactivation by nucleases in biological material.

2-It provides the binding site which enable the virus to attach to
specific site on the host cell.

3-it facilitates the assembly and packaging of viral genetic


informataion.

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4-It serves as a vehicle of transmission from host to another.

5- It provides the structural symmetry to the virus particle.

Viral architecture can be grouped into three types based on the


arrangement of morphological subunits.

Icosahedral:

These viruses appear spherical in shape, but a closer look actually reveals
they are icosahedral. The icosahedron is made up of equilateral triangles
fused together in a spherical shape. This is the most optimal way of
forming a closed shell using identical protein sub-units. The genetic
material is fully enclosed inside of the capsid. Viruses with icosahedral
structures are released into the environment when the cell dies, breaks
down and lyses, thus releasing the virions. Examples of viruses with an
icosahedral structure are the poliovirus, rhinovirus, and adenovirus.

Helical :

This virus structure has a capsid with a central cavity or hollow tube that
is made by proteins arranged in a circular fashion, creating a disc like
shape. The disc shapes are attached helically (like a toy slinky) creating a
tube with room for the nucleic acid in the middle. All filamentous viruses
are helical in shape. They are usually 15-19nm wide and range in length
from 300 to 500nm depending on the genome size. An example of a virus
with a helical symmetry is the tobacco mosaic virus.

Complex :

These virus structures have a combination of icosahedral and helical


shape and may have a complex outer wall or head-tail morphology. The
head-tail morphology structure is unique to viruses that only infect
bacteria and are known as bacteriophages. The head of the virus has an
icosahedral shape with a helical shaped tail. The bacteriophage uses its
tail to attach to the bacterium, creates a hole in the cell wall, and then
inserts its DNA into the cell using the tail as a channel. The Poxvirus is
one of the largest viruses in size and has a complex structure with a
unique outer wall and capsid. One of the most famous types of poxviruses
is the variola virus which causes smallpox

C: Viral Envelope

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In some animal viruses, the nucleocapsid is surrounded by a membrane,
also called an envelope. This envelope is made up of a lipid bilayer, and
is comprised of host-cell lipids. It also contains virally encoded proteins,
often glycoproteins which are trans-membrane proteins. These viral
proteins serve many purposes, such as binding to receptors on the host
cell, playing a role in membrane fusion and cell entry, etc. They can also
form channels in the viral membrane.

Many enveloped viruses also contain matrix proteins, which are internal
proteins that link the nucleocapsid to the envelope.

Enveloped viruses are formed by budding through cellular membranes,


usually the plasma membrane but sometimes an internal membrane such
as the ER, golgi, or nucleus. In these cases, the assembly of viral
components (genome, capsid, matrix) occurs on the inside face of the
membrane, the envelope glycoproteins cluster in that region of the
membrane, and the virus buds out. This ability to bud allows the virus to
exit the host cell without lysing, or killing the host. In contrast, non-
enveloped viruses, and some enveloped viruses, kill the host cell in order
to escape.

D: Virus Classification

Viruses are classified using a combination of characteristics, including


the following

1) Morphology: size, shape, presence of envelope, etc.


2) Physicochemical properties: thermal stability, detergent stability,
molecular mass, etc.
3) Genome: size, type of nucleic acid, , etc. 4)
Proteins: number, size, sequence, etc.
5) Lipids: content, character, etc.
6) Carbohydrates: content, character, etc.
7) Antigenic properties: serological relationships.
8) Biological properties: Host range, mode of transmission,
pathogenicity, tissue tropisms, geographic distribution, etc.

General step in viral replication cycles


1-Atachment
2- penetration
3-viral genome replication

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4-mutration
5-Release

Pathogenesis

Pathogenesis is the process by which an infection leads to disease.


Pathogenic mechanisms of viral disease include (1) implantation of virus
at the portal of entry, (2) local replication, (3) spread to target organs
(disease sites), and (4) spread to sites of shedding of virus into the
environment. Factors that affect pathogenic mechanisms are (1)
accessibility of virus to tissue, (2) cell susceptibility to virus
multiplication, and (3) virus susceptibility to host defenses. Natural
selection favors the dominance of low-virulence virus strains.

Cellular Pathogenesis

Direct cell damage and death from viral infection may result from (1)
diversion of the cell's energy, (2) shutoff of cell macromolecular
synthesis, (3) competition of viral mRNA for cellular ribosomes, (4)
competition of viral promoters and transcriptional enhancers for cellular
transcriptional factors such as RNA polymerases, and inhibition of the
interferon defense mechanisms. Indirect cell damage can result from ,
induction of mutations in the host genome, inflammation, and the host
immune response.

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There are several mechanisms that must occur for a viral disease to
develop:

1- Implantation at Portal of Entry: The virus must implant at the


entry portal into the body. Implantation is the earliest stage of
pathogenesis. Implantation frequency is at its greatest where
viruses directly contact living cells. Viruses usually implant on
cells of respiratory, gastrointestinal, skin and genital tissues. Some
viruses are capable of implanting in a fetus through infected germ
cells at the time of fertilization.

2- Local Replication and Local Spread: Local replication and


spread of the virus follows implantation. Replicated virus from the
initially infected cell has the capability to disperse to neighboring
extracellular fluids or cells. Spread occurs by the neighboring cell
being infected or the virus being released into extracellular fluid.

3- Replication: The invading virus must reproduce itself in large


numbers. It usually does this intracellularly.

4- Dispersal: The replicated viruses must spread to target organs


(disease sites) throughout the body. The most common route of
spread from the portal of entry is the circulatory system, which the
virus reaches via the lymphatic system. Viruses can access target
organs from the blood capillaries by multiplying inside endothelial
cells, moving through gaps, or by being carried inside the organ on
leukocytes. Some viruses, such as Herpes , rabies and polio
viruses, can also disseminate via nerves.

5- Shedding: The viruses must spread to sites where shedding into


the environment can occur. The respiratory, alimentary and
urogenital tracts and the blood are the most frequent sites of
shedding.

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