Cell Theory
Cell Theory
1
prokaryotic have a larger surface area to volume ratio giving them a
higher metabolic rate a higher growth rate and consequently a shorter
generation time compared to Eukaryotes .
Unicellular organisms : organisms that have only one cell such as
Amoeba
Multicellular organisms : organisms that have many cells this cell form
the tissue and organs
Cell shape:
There is no typical shape ,but generally the cells are rounded or spherical
, oval, cuboidal ,cylindrical ,flat etc,.
the shape of cells depending mainly on functional adaptation and partly
on the surface tension and viscosity of cytoplasim,the mechanical action
of adjoining cells and rigidity of the cell membrane .
2
Cell Number
— Some organisms like protozoans are single cell and others are
multicellular The body of human being is composed of about
26 trillions of cells in human blood the number of erythrocytes
is about five million per cubic ml of blood .and about 10 billion
neurons constitute the nerves system in human being
Cell size
The size of different cells ranges within broad limits ,some plant and
animals cells are visible to the naked eye , such as eggs ,but the majority
of cells are visible only under microscope .the size of human RBC is 7-8
µ in diameter
3
Lec 2 Organelles and their function
Cell structure
Cells are typically composed of
4
Cell Membrane Structure
5
Organelles and their function
1- Nucleus:
Nucleus is a large organelle that store the cell's DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) .
Structure of Nucleus :
a)Nuclear membrane
b)Nucleoplasm.
c) Chromatin network.
d) Nucleolus.
NUCLEUS STRUCTURE
Function of Nucleus:
1)Nucleus plays a major role in the general metabolism of
the cell .
2) it is helpful in the synthesis of the Ribosomes .
3) it is helpful in the synthesis of RNA .
4) it controls the synthesis of protein.
5) it is the seat of heredity.
6
Within the nucleus is a smaller structure called the nucleolus
,which house the RNA (ribonucleic acid ) . RNA help convey
the DNAs orders to the rest of the cell and serves as
template for protein synthesis ,this space forms near the
part of DNA with instructions for making ribosomes ,the
molecules responsible for making proteins . Ribosomes are
assembled in the nucleolus ,and exit the nucleus with
nuclear pores .
2- Ribosomes:
Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell. Composed of
two subunits , they can be found floating freely in the cells
cytoplasm or embedded within endoplasmic reticulum .
7
3- Endoplasmic reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous
organelle that shares part of its membrane with that of
nucleus .some portion of ER ,known as the rouge ER ,are
studded with ribosomes and are involved with protein
manufacture .the rest of the organelle is referred to as the
smooth ER and serves to produce vital lipids (fats).
8
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not
contain ribosomes .The SER helps in the storage of protein
and lipids .Cells that produce oils have a higher rate of
SERs than do other cells .The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
can be found dispersed throughout the cytoplasmic of the
cell.
4- Golgi apparatus :
If the protein from the rough ER require further modification ,
They are transported to the Golgi apparatus (or Golgi
complex ) .Like the ER ,the Golgi apparatus is composed of
folded membranes . it searches the proteins amino acid
sequences for specialized ''codes'' and modifies them
accordingly .these processed protein are then stored in the
Golgi or packed in vesicles to be shaped elsewhere in the
cell.
9
GOLGI APPARATUS
5- Chloroplast:
Plant and some algae , organelles know as chloroplast serve
as the site of photosynthesis .chloroplast contain a pigment
known as chlorophyll, which capture the suns energy to
transform water and carbon dioxide into glucose for food
.Chloroplasts allow autotrophic organisms to meet their
energy needs without consuming other organisms .
6- Mitochondria :
Mitochondria are oval –shaped organelles found in most
eukaryotic cells. As the site of cellular respiration
,mitochondria serve to transform molecules such as glucose
into an energy molecule known as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) .ATP fuels cellular process by breaking its
high-energy chemical bonds. Mitochondria are most plentiful
in cells that require significant amounts of energy to
function. Such as Liver muscle cells .
11
MITOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE
7- Lysosomes:
The lysosome is the cells recycling center .there organelles
are spheres full of enzymes ready to hydrolyze whatever
substance crosses the membrane .so the cell can reuse the
raw material .these disposal enzymes only function properly
in environments with a PH of 5 ,two orders of magnitude
more acidic than the cells internal PH of 7 . Lysosomal
protein only being active in an acidic environment acts as
safety mechanism for the rest of the cell ,if the lysosome
were to somehow leak or burst , the degradative enzymes
would in activate before they chopped up proteins the cell
still needed .
11
DIGESTION BY LYSOSOMES
8- Peroxisome:
Like the lysosome .the peroxisome is a spherical organelle
responsible for destroying its contents. Un like the lysosome
.which mostly degrades proteins ,the peroxisome is the site
of fatty acid breakdown .it also protect the cell from reactive
oxygen species (ROS)molecules which could seriously
damage the cell.
9- Cytoskeleton :
Within the cytoplasm there is network of protein fibers known
as the cytoskeleton .this structure is responsible for both cell
movement and stability . The major components of the
cytoskeleton are microtubules ,intermediate filaments ,and
microfilaments.
12
1- Microtubules:
Microtubules are small tubes made from the protein tubulin .these
tubules are found in cilia and flagella ,structures involved in cell
movement .they also help provide pathways for secretory vesicles
to move through the cell ,and are even involved in cell division as
they are a part of the mitotic spindle ,which pulls homologous
chromosomes apart.
2-Intermediate filaments:
3- Microfilaments:
CYTOSKELETON STRUCTURE
13
Lec 3 the cell cycle and mitosis
Interphase
Before a dividing cell enters mitosis, it undergoes a period of growth
called interphase. Some 90 percent of a cell's time in the normal cellular
cycle may be spent in interphase.
14
In animal cells, two pair of centrioles formed from the replication
of one pair are located outside of the nucleus.
Cell division
Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis
and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division has special
characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single cell
divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same
number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic
growth, repair, and maintenance. In meiosis a cell divides into two cells
that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the number of
chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides
for genetic diversity
15
The Stage of the cell cycle
1- Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides
to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to
itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division
process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets
of chromosomes.
The great majority of the cell divisions that happen in your body involve
mitosis. During development and growth, mitosis populates an
organism‘s body with cells, and throughout an organism‘s life, it replaces
old, worn-out cells with new ones. For single-celled eukaryotes like
yeast, mitotic divisions are actually a form of reproduction, adding new
individuals to the population.
16
In all of these cases, the ―goal‖ of mitosis is to make sure that each
daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few
or too many chromosomes usually don‘t function well: they may not
survive, or they may even cause cancer. So, when cells undergo mitosis,
they don‘t just divide their DNA at random and toss it into piles for the
two daughter cells. Instead, they split up their duplicated chromosomes in
a carefully organized series of steps.
Phases of mitosis
Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking prophase into an early
phase (called prophase) and a late phase (called prometaphase). These
phases occur in strict sequential order, and cytokinesis - the process of
dividing the cell contents to make two new cells - starts in anaphase or
telophase.
1-1 Prophase
In early prophase, the cell starts to break down some structures
and build others up, setting the stage for division of the chromosomes.
17
In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase), the mitotic
spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.
18
Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore
microtubules. Microtubules that don‘t bind to kinetochores can grab on
to microtubules from the opposite pole, stabilizing the spindle. More
microtubules extend from each centrosome towards the edge of the cell,
forming a structure called the aster.
1-2 Metaphase
In metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined
them up at the middle of the cell, ready to divide.
Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all
the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores
correctly attached to microtubules. This is called the spindle checkpoint
and helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the
two daughter cells when they separate in the next step. If a chromosome
is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division until the
problem is fixed
19
1-3 Anaphase
In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
21
1-4 Telophase,
In telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish
its normal structures as cytokinesis (division of the cell contents) takes
place.
21
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the
final stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase,
depending on the cell, and finishes shortly after telophase.
* Plant cells are much stiffer than animal cells; they‘re surrounded by a
rigid cell wall and have high internal pressure. Because of this, plant cells
divide in two by building a new structure down the middle of the cell.
This structure, known as the cell plate, is made up of plasma membrane
and cell wall components delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in
two.
22
Cell cycle exit and G0
What happens to the two daughter cells produced in one round of the cell
cycle? This depends on what type of cells they are. Some types of cells
divide rapidly, and in these cases, the daughter cells may immediately
undergo another round of cell division. For instance, many cell types in
an early embryo divide rapidly, and so do cells in a tumor.
Other types of cells divide slowly or not at all. These cells may exit the
G1 phase and enter a resting state called G0 phase. In G0 , a cell is not
actively preparing to divide, it‘s just doing its job. For instance, it might
conduct signals as a neuron (like the one in the drawing below) or store
carbohydrates as a liver cell. G0 is a permanent state for some cells,
while others may re-start division if they get the right signals.
23
Lec 4 meiosis
Phases of meiosis
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar
stages and uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes.
In meiosis, however, the cell has a more complex task. It still needs to
separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome),
as in mitosis. But it must also separate homologous chromosomes, the
similar but non identical chromosome pairs an organism receives from its
two parents.
These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division
process. Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division,
called meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate during a second round, called
meiosis II.
Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can
produce four gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go
through four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Meiosis
24
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex
cells or gametes (which contain a single copy of each chromosome) from
diploid cells (which contain two copies of each chromosome). The
process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two
successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As in
mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids.
Meiosis I
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in
mitosis, the cell grows during G1 phase, copies all of its chromosomes
during S phase, and prepares for division during G2 phase
Prophase I
25
between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross pattern so that
the homologues exchange part of their DNA.
26
Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and
held together by the synaptonemal complex
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II.
Meiosis I is a reduction division: the original diploid cell had two copies
27
of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid cells have one copy of
each chromosome.
Meiosis II
The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells
are haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but
their chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids. In meiosis II, the
sister chromatids separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated
chromosomes.
Phases of meiosis II
28
Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I.
Chromosomes condense.
Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome
now has just one chromatid.
During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope
breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms
between them, and the spindle microtubules begin to capture
chromosomes.
In some organisms, the centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II,
even though DNA is not copied during this period. For instance, the
centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II during spermatogenesis,
sperm production, in humans
29
The polar bodies are not normally fertilized by sperm cells, and they
typically undergo programmed cell death, or apoptosis, within 24 hours
of being produced .
31
Lec 5 cell differentiation
Cell Differentiation
What is Cell Differentiation?
Living organisms can be made of a single cell, such as bacteria and
protists, or they can be multicellular, like plants, animals, and fungi.
Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are able to perform all life functions
within one single cell. They can transport molecules, metabolize
nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell.
Stem Cells
A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can divide without limit as
needed and can, under specific conditions, differentiate into specialized
cells. Stem cells are divided into several categories according to their
potential to differentiate.
The first embryonic cells that arise from the division of the zygote are the
ultimate stem cells; these stems cells are described as totipotent because
they have the potential to differentiate into any of the cells needed to
enable an organism to grow and develop.
The embryonic cells that develop from totipotent stem cells and are
precursors to the fundamental tissue layers of the embryo are classified as
pluripotent. A pluripotent stem cell is one that has the potential to
differentiate into any type of human tissue but cannot support the full
development of an organism. These cells then become slightly more
specialized, and are referred to as multipotent cells.
31
A multipotent stem cell has the potential to differentiate into different
types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages,
such as a red blood cell or white blood cell.
Stem cells are unique in that they can also continually divide and
regenerate new stem cells instead of further specializing. There are
different stem cells present at different stages of a human‘s life. They
include the embryonic stem cells of the embryo, fetal stem cells of the
fetus, and adult stem cells in the adult
epithelial stem cell: which gives rise to the keratinocytes in the multiple
layers of epithelial cells in the epidermis of skin.
hematopoietic stem cells, which give rise to red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets
endothelial stem cells: which give rise to the endothelial cell types that
line blood and lymph vessels
32
Figure (1) gene expression
33
Figure (2) Images of chromosomes
Images of chromosomes, like the one to the left, usually look a bit like an ‗X‘. That is
because chromosomes come in pairs—one from each of our parents. Chromosomes in
a pair contain the same genes (like genes for hair color, body height, and lipoma
formation). The genes we receive from each parent might be the same (as shown for
body height), or or they might be different (as shown for hair color). The alternative
forms of a gene that are found at the same place on a chromosome are called alleles.
34
Lec 6 Animals Tissue ( Epithelia and Glandular Tissue)
Animals Tissue
The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found together in the
body. The cells within a tissue share a common embryonic origin.
Microscopic observation reveals that the cells in a tissue share
morphological features and are arranged in an orderly pattern that
achieves the tissue‘s functions.
Although there are many types of cells in the human body, they are
organized into four broad categories of tissues: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous. Each of these categories is characterized by specific
functions that contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the
body. A disruption of the structure is a sign of injury or disease. Such
changes can be detected through histology, the microscopic study of
tissue appearance, organization, and function.
35
Epithelial tissues
Most epithelial tissues are essentially large sheets of cells covering all the
surfaces of the body exposed to the outside world and lining the outside
of organs. Epithelium also forms much of the glandular tissue of the body
36
Simple epithelia– consist of a single cell layer (found where
absorption, secretion, and filtration occur).
Stratified epithelia– are composed of two or more cell layers
stacked on top of each other (typically found in high abrasion areas
where protection is needed).
Simple Epithelia
Simple Squamous
37
Simple Cuboidal
Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall
as they are wide. The important functions of the simple cuboidal
epithelium are secretion and absorption. This epithelial type is found in
the small collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.
Simple Columnar
Pseudostratified
Stratified Epithelium
Stratified epithelia are more durable and protection is one their major
functions. Since stratified epithelium consists of two or more layers, the
basal cells divide and push towards the apex, and in the process flatten
the apical cells.
38
the skin. The outer layer of the skin (epidermis) is keratinized (contains
keratin, a protective protein). Other stratified squamous in the body is
nonkeratinized.
39
41
Glandular Epithelium
A gland is one or more cells that produce and secrete a specific product.
The product is always a water-based fluid (aqueous) and usually contains
proteins (the product is referred to as a secretion). Secretion is considered
an active process. Glandular cells obtain substances needed from blood
and transform them (chemically) into a product that‘s discharged from the
cell.
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because eventually,
they lose their ducts. They produce hormones (chemical messengers )
and secrete them by exocytosis into the extracellular space. After entering
the extracellular space, they enter the blood or lymphatic fluid and travel
to specific organs. Each hormone makes its target organ respond in a
specific way. For instance, hormones produced by intestinal cells cause
the pancreas to release enzymes that aid in digestion.
41
Hormones secreted by endocrine glands vary. For instance, one gland
might secrete an amino acid while another secretes glycoproteins or
steroids.
Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands secrete their products onto the skin or into body
cavities. Unicellular exocrine glands do this directly by exocytosis, while
multicellular glands transport their product through a duct on the
epithelial surface. Products secreted by exocrine glands include sweat,
oil, mucous, bile, and more.
42
Image of a unicellular exocrine gland (goblet cell).
Structural classification
Multicellular exocrine glands are structurally classified depending on the
structure of their duct.
43
Apocrine secretion accumulates near the apical portion of the cell. That
portion of the cell and its secretory contents pinch off from the cell and
are released. The sweat glands of the armpit are classified as apocrine
glands. Both merocrine and apocrine glands continue to produce and
secrete their contents with little damage caused to the cell because the
nucleus and golgi regions remain intact after secretion.
44
Lec 7 Connective tissue
Connective tissue
connective tissue serves a connecting function. It supports and binds
other tissues in the body. Unlike epithelial tissue, which has cells that are
closely packed together, connective tissue typically has cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins
attached to a basement membrane. The primary elements of connective
tissue include a ground substance, fibers, and cells.
1. Ground substance
2. Fibers
3. Cells
Ground substance is a clear, colorless, viscous fluid that fills the space
between the cells and fibers. It is composed of proteoglycans and cell
adhesion proteins that allow the connective tissue to act as glue for the
cells to attach to the matrix. The ground substance functions as a
molecular sieve for substances to travel between blood capillaries and
cells.
Connective tissue fibers provide support. Three types of fibers are found
in connective tissue:
45
1. Collagen fibers
2. Elastic fibers
3. Reticular fibers
Collagen Fibers are the strongest and most abundant of all the
connective tissue fibers.Collagen fibers are fibrous proteins and are
secreted into the extracellular space . White fiber is soft, flexible and
inelastic that gives the tissue strength. We can see in dermis.
Elastic Fibers are long, thin fibers that form branching network in the
extracellular matrix. They help the connective tissue to stretch and recoil.
Reticular Fibers are short, fine collagenous fibers that can branch
extensively to form a delicate network.
46
3)reticular connective tissue
Adipose Tissue
47
The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT) and
brown adipose tissue (BAT). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations
,referred to as adipose depots.
Adipose Tissue
This tissue resembles areolar connective tissue, but the only fibers in its
matrix are the reticular fibers, which form a delicate network. The
reticular tissue is limited to certain sites in the body, such as internal
frameworks that can support lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.
48
With the tensile strength of collagen, this tissue forms tendons, and
ligaments. This tissue forms the fascia, which is a fibrous membrane that
wraps around the muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.
This has the same structural elements as dense regular tissue, but the
bundles of collagen fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly. This
tissue is found in areas where tension is exerted from many different
directions. It is part of the skin dermis area and in the joint capsules of the
limbs.
The main fibers that form this tissue are elastic in nature. These fibers
allow the tissues to recoil after stretching. This is especially seen in the
arterial blood vessels and walls of the bronchial tubes.
49
51
Lec 8 Special connective tissue
51
Articular cartilage function is dependent on the molecular composition of
its ECM, which consists mainly of proteoglycans and collagens. This
connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other
animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the
nose, the knee, the bronchial tubes, and the intervertebral discs.
Types of Cartilage
There are three major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage,
and elastic cartilage.
Hyaline Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Fibrous cartilage has lots of collagen fibers (Type I and Type II), and it
tends to grade into dense tendon and ligament tissue. White fibrocartilage
consists of a mixture of white fibrous tissue and cartilaginous tissue in
various proportions.
It owes its flexibility and toughness to the fibrous tissue, and its elasticity
to the cartilaginous tissue. It is the only type of cartilage that contains
type I collagen in addition to the normal type II.
Elastic Cartilage
52
Elastic or yellow cartilage contains elastic fiber networks and collagen
fibers. The principal protein is elastin.
2-Bone
Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue that contains lots of calcium and
phosphorous salts. About 25% of bone tissue is water, another 25% is
made up of protein fibers like collagen. The other 50% of bone tissue is a
mixture of mineral salts, primarily calcium and phosphorous.
5-Blood cell production ,Blood cells are produced in the red marrow.
The production of blood cells is called hemopoesis.
53
This large deposit of ions can also be used to maintain blood levels of
these ions by either adding or removing them from the bloodstream and
storing them in bone tissue.
A-Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems.
The osteon consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian)
canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix.
Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in
spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the
lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through
the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed
tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic
canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone.
These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with
vessels on the surface of the bone.
54
B- Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone.
Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to
small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi
connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to
receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged
in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum
strength similar to braces that are used to support a building.
Blood
This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue. Blood is a
bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances, such as
nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and transports metabolic waste products
away from those same cells. The matrix consists of the plasma with
erythrocytes or red blood cells, leukocytes or white blood cells, and
platelets suspended in the plasma . Blood has three main functions:
transport, protection and regulation.
Composition of blood
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main
components:
The formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma
membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed elements
are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone
marrow cells. Formed elements are:
55
Red blood cells
Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two main
functions:
Granulocytes
56
Agranulocytes
Proteins ,These are the most abundant substance in plasma by weight and
play a part in a variety of roles including clotting, defense and transport
There are three major categories of plasma proteins
1. Albumins
2. Globulins
3. Fibrinogen
Lymph
Lymph ,pale fluid that bathes the tissues of an organism, maintaining
fluid balance, and removes bacteria from tissues; it enters the blood
system by way of lymphatic channels and ducts.Prominent among the
constituents of lymph are lymphocytes and macrophages, the primary
cells of the immune system with which the body defends itself from
invasion by foreign microorganisms. Lymph is conveyed from the tissues
to the venous bloodstream via the lymphatic vessels. On the way, it is
57
filtered through the lymphatic organs (spleen and thymus) and lymph
nodes.
Bacteria and other particles that find their way into body tissues are
taken up by the lymph and carried into the lymph nodes ,Lymphocytes
proliferate in response to the foreign invader, some cells remaining in the
node and others migrating to other nodes elsewhere in the body. Some of
these cells produce antibodies against the invading bacteria, while others
take part in a direct attack on the foreign material, surrounding and
engulfing it. Although the primary function of the lymphatic system is to
return proteins and fluids to the blood.
4-Hematopoietic tissue
Hematopoietic tissue is where new blood cells are formed in the body,
and where hematopoietic stem cells are located. Hematopoietic stem cells
are found in larger quantities within the bones located in the pelvis, femur
and sternum. The hematopoietic stem cell appearance is small in size
compared to other blood cells and round in shape .
Myeloid tissue
Myeloid tissue generally refers to the red bone marrow, especially in the
formation of red blood cells (erythropoiesis).
During infancy and early childhood, all bone marrow is red; but as one
grows older and less blood cell production is needed, the fat content of
58
the marrow increases, forming more yellow and less red. This means that
the elderly are more prone to infections and cancers because there are
fewer lymphocytes being produced since the red bone marrow is
decreasing.
The hematopoietic elements are present between the bone spicules. The
marrow has a rich vascular supply, as well as sinusoids. The primordial
cell that gives rise to all hematopoietic elements, as well as lymphoid
cells, is the pluripotential stem cell. A few of these cells circulate, but
their job is to home in on marrow and establish cell lines for blood cell
production. This pleuripotential stem cell gives rise to two cell lines:
(2) Lymphatic tissue: A part of the body's immune system that helps
protect it from bacteria and other foreign entities.
Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes are small, oval, or bean‐shaped bodies that occur along
lymphatic vessels. They are abundant where lymphatic vessels merge to
form trunks, especially in the inguinal (groin), axillary (armpit), and
mammary gland areas. Lymph flows into a node through afferent
lymphatic vessels that enter the convex side of a node. It exits the node at
the hilus, the indented region on the opposite, concave side of the node,
through efferent lymphatic vessels. Efferent vessels contain valves that
restrict lymph to movement in one direction out of the lymph node. The
number of efferent vessels leaving the lymph node is fewer than the
number of afferent vessels entering, slowing the flow of lymph through
the node.
59
Lymph nodes perform three functions:
Thymus
The thymus is a bilobed organ located in the upper chest region between
the lungs, posterior to the sternum. It grows during childhood and reaches
its maximum size of 40 g at puberty. It then slowly decreases in size as it
is replaced by adipose and areolar connective tissue. By age 65, it weighs
about 6 g.
Spleen
61
Red pulp consists of venous sinuses filled with blood. Splenic
cords consisting of reticular connective tissue, macrophages, and
lymphocytes form a mesh between the venous sinuses and act as a
filter as blood passes between arterial vessels and the sinuses.
61
Lec 9 Muscular Tissue
Muscle tissue
Muscle is a soft tissue that is highly specialized for the production of
tension which results in the generation of force. Muscle tissue consists of
fibers of muscle cells connected together in sheets and fibers. Together
these sheets and fibers and known as muscles, and control the movements
of an organisms as well as many other contractile functions. There are
three different types of muscle found in animals, depending on their use.
While these muscles differ slightly, they function in a similar way.
62
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Although skeletal muscle cells come in different shapes and sizes the
main structure of a skeletal muscle cell remains the same. If you were to
take one whole muscle and cut through it, you would find the muscle is
covered in a layer of connective muscle tissue known as the Epimysium.
The Epimysium protects the muscle from friction against other muscles
and bones. It also continues at the end of the muscle to form (along with
other connective tissues) the muscles tendon. Looking at the cross section
of the muscle you can see bundles of fibers, known as Fasciculi, which
are surrounded by another connective tissue, called the Perimysium. Each
Fasciculi contains anywhere between 10 and 100 muscle fibres,
depending on the muscle in question.
Looking at each muscle fiber in detail, you can see they too are covered
in a fibrous connective tissue, known as Endomysium which insulates
each muscle fiber. Muscle fibers can range from 10 to 80 micrometers in
diameter and may be up to 35cm long.
63
Sarcoplasm, which is the cells cytoplasm, a gelatinous fluid which fills
most cells.
This contains Glycogen and Fats for energy and also Mitochondria which
are the cells powerhouses, inside which the cells energy is produced.
64
The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
There are two main muscle filaments in muscle fibers: Actin and myosin
filaments. Actin filaments are thin and have binding sites for the
globular heads of myosin filaments. Myosin filaments are thick and
formed of a fibrous "tail" and globular "head". These two filaments
overlap and interact to form muscle fibers. The functional unit of a
muscle fiber is called a sarcomere.
65
Types of Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue can be classified functionally, voluntary or involuntary and
morphologically striated or non-striated. Voluntary refers to whether the
muscle is under conscious control, striation refers to the presence of
visible banding within myocytes which occurs due to organization of
myofibrils to produce a constant direction of tension.
Skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscles are those which attach to bones and have the main
function of contracting to facilitate movement of our skeletons. They are
also sometimes known as striated muscles due to their appearance. The
cause of this 'stripy' appearance is the bands of Actin and Myosin which
form the Sarcomere, found within the Myofibrils.
Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to
our inability to control its movements, or unstriated as it does not have
the stripy appearance of Skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is found in the
walls of hollow organs such as the Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in
the walls of blood vessels. This muscle type is stimulated by involuntary
neurogenic impulses and has slow, rhythmical contractions used in
controlling internal organs, for example, moving food along the
Oesophagus or contricting blood vessels during Vasoconstriction.
66
Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)
This type of muscle is found solely in the walls of the heart. It has
similarities with skeletal muscles in that it is striated and with smooth
muscles in that its contractions are not under conscious control. However
this type of muscle is highly specialised. It is under the control of the
autonomic nervous system, however, even without a nervous imput
contractions can occur due to cells called pacemaker cells. Cardiac
muscle is highly resistant to fatigue due to the presence of a large number
of mitochondria, myoglobin and a good blood supply allowing
continuous aerobic metabolism.
67
Lec 10 Nerves Tissue
68
Functions of Nerve Tissue
1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body Sensory
Function
Neurons -nerve cells that are specialized to detect and react to stimuli,
by generating and conducting nerve impulses.
Neuroglial cells- accessory cells for filling spaces and supporting
neurons.
69
Anatomy of The Neuron
Synapse
A synapse is the junction between two neurons, or between a neuron and
an effector organ (muscle or gland). Each synapse consists of:
Presynaptic neuron-that sends an impulse to the synapse.
Axon–the nerve fiber extends from the presynaptic neuron, that
propagates the impulse to the synapse .
Synaptic knobs -the round endings of the axon.
Synaptic vesicles -membranous sacs that contain a neurotransmitter (e.g.
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine), located in the synaptic knobs.
Synaptic cleft-a gap between the two neurons in the synapse.
71
Dendrite–the nerve fiber that continues to propagate the nerve impulse to
the second neuron (postsynaptic neuron). Receptors on this dendrite
receive the neurotransmitter from the axon .
Postsynaptic neuron -the neuron that receives the nerve impulse from
the presynaptic neuron, through the synapse.
Impulses
•A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient
strength to initiate a response.
•Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and
convert it into a nerve impulse
•All of Nothing Rule– The stimulus is either strong enough to start and
impulse or nothing happens
•Impulses are always the same strength along a given neuron
and they are self-propagation –once it starts it continues to the end of the
neuron in only one direction-from dendrite to cell body to axon.
•The nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane
of the nerve cell.
71
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters–Chemicals in the junction which allow impulses to
be started in the second neuron
Classification of neurons
72
-involved in the processing and integration in the nervous system.
-usually multipolar in structure.
C) motor or efferent neuron:
- conducts nerve impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the
Effector organ (muscles or glands).
- usually multipolar in structure.
- accelerator motor neurons cause an increase of activity in the
Effector organ; while inhibitory motor neurons cause a decrease of
activity in the effector organ.
The Neuroglia
Supporting cells in the Central Nervous System(CNS) are grouped
together as Neuroglia ,Neuroglia literally means ―nerve glue‖ The
function of neuroglia is to support, insulate ,and protect the delicate
neurons of the brain, In H & E staining, only their nuclei can be seen.
Neuroglia is Capable of multiplying in mature nervous tissue , but
Cannot generate or transmit the impulse.
73
Divisions of the Nervous System
The human nervous system consists of the :
1- Central Nervous System (CNS)
2- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the
nervous system. It receives information from and sends information to
the peripheral nervous system.(CNS) is composed of the brain (located
in the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (located in the vertebral cavity),
which serve as the main control centers for all body activities . The brain
processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord.
74
Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by a three-layered covering
of connective tissue called the meninges.
75
Lec 11 Bacteria define its general properties ,shape & arrangement.
Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms, The cell structure is
simpler than that of other organisms as there is no nucleus or membrane
bound organelles.
Structures of cells
1. Cell wall
2. Cytoplasmic membrane
3. Chromosome
4. Plasmid
5. Ribosome
6. Flagella
7. Inclusion body
8. Pili
9. Endospore
76
2. Presence of Cell wall: Bacteria has a cell wall which is distinct
from other cells having cell wall. The wall is made of different
substances like glycoproteins, lipopolysacharides and lipoproteins ther
are two main types of bacteria cell walls, those of Gram –positive
bacteria and those of Gram –negative bacteria , which are
differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics.
4-Pilli: These are small and tube like projections from bacterial
surface. They are the organelles of sexual reproduction and are
involved in exchange of genetic material as part of reproduction
between two bacteria.
Few of them are parasites which live on alive plants and animals.
They cause diseases to the host in doing so (Parasitic bacteria).
While others are( symbiotic bacteria ). They live in a give and take
relationships with other animals. Ex: rhizobium in roots, E-coli in
intestine.
77
B) Sexual reproduction: It is also by three distinct methods like
transformation, conjugation and transduction. In transformation, one
bacteria releases naked DNA strand into the surroundings. The other
bacteria takes t up and incorporate into their genome. Transduction
happens due to virus.
12. Resistance and tolerance: Some of the bacteria are highly resistant
to adverse environments. Even they get tolerance to harsh chemical and
other stuff which destroy them. Hence irrational use of antibiotics. THis
78
has become so severe that World Health Organization warns of rampant
prevalence of resistant bacteria which can be incurable by currently
available drugs.
Types of Bacteria
The cell wall also makes Gram staining possible. Gram staining is a
method of staining bacteria involving crystal violet dye, iodine, and the
counterstain safranin. Many bacteria can be classified into one of two
types: gram-positive, which show the stain and appear violet in color
under a microscope, and gram-negative, which only show the
counterstain, and appear red. Gram-positive bacteria appear violet
because they have thick cell walls that trap the crystal violet-iodine
complex. The thin cell walls of gram-negative bacteria cannot hold the
violet-iodine complex, but they can hold safranin. This makes gram-
negative bacteria appear red under a microscope . Gram staining is used
for general identification of bacteria or to detect the presence of certain
bacteria; it cannot be used to identify bacteria in any specific way, such as
at a species level. Examples of gram-positive bacteria include the genera
Listeria, Streptococcus, and Bacillus, while gram-negative bacteria
include Proteobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
1-Cocci (or coccus for a single cell) are round cells, sometimes slightly
flattened when they are adjacent to one another.
3-Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are curved bacteria which can
range from a gently curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many
spirilla are rigid and capable of movement. A special group of spirilla
known as spirochetes are long, slender, and flexible
Arrangement of Cocci
Cocci bacteria can exist singly, in pairs (as diplococci ), in groups of four
(as tetrads ), in chains (as streptococci ), in clusters (as stapylococci ), or
79
in cubes consisting of eight cells (as sarcinae). Cocci may be oval,
elongated, or flattened on one side. Cocci may remain attached after cell
division. These group characteristics are often used to help identify
certain cocci.
1. Diplococci
The cocci are arranged in pairs. Examples: Streptococcus pneumonia
2. Streptococci
The cocci are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.
Examples: Streptococcus pyogenes
3. Tetrads
The cocci are arranged in packets of four cells, as the cells divide in two
plains.Examples: Aerococcus
4. Sarcinae
The cocci are arranged in a cuboidal manner, as the cells are formed by
regular cell divisions in three planes. Cocci that divide in three planes and
remain in groups cube like groups of eight. Examples: Sarcina ureae,
5. Staphylococci
The cocci are arranged in grape-like clusters formed by irregular cell
divisions in three plains. Examples: Staphylococcus aureus
Arrangement of Bacilli
The cylindrical or rod-shaped bacteria are called ‗bacillus‘ (plural:
bacilli).
1. Diplobacilli
Most bacilli appear as single rods. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after
division.
2. Streptobacilli
The bacilli are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.
81
Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis
3. Coccobacilli
These are so short and stumpy that they appear ovoid. They look like
coccus and bacillus. Examples: Haemophilus influenzae,
4. Palisades
The bacilli bend at the points of division following the cell divisions,
resulting in a palisade arrangement resembling a picket fence and angular
patterns that look like Chinese letters. Example: Corynebacterium
diphtheria
1. Vibrio
They are comma-shaped bacteria with less than one complete turn or
twist in the cell.Example: Vibrio cholerae
2. Spirilla
They have rigid spiral structure. Spirillum with many turns can
superficially resemble spirochetes. They do not have outer sheath and
endoflagella, but have typical bacterial flagella.
Example: Helicobacter pylori
3. Spirochetes
Spirochetes have a helical shape and flexible bodies. Spirochetes move
by means of axial filaments, which look like flagella contained beneath a
flexible external sheath but lack typical bacterial flagella.
Examples: Leptospira species
81
Others Shapes and Arrangements of Bacteria
1. Filamentous Bacteria
They are very long thin filament-shaped bacteria. Some of them form
branching filaments resulting in a network of filaments called
‗mycelium‘. Example: Candidatus Savagella
Example: Stella
3. Rectangular Bacteria
4. Pleomorphic Bacteria
These bacteria do not have any characteristic shape unlike all others
described above. They can change their shape. In pure cultures, they can
be observed to have different shapes.
Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae,
82
Lec12 Sterilization and disinfection
Introduction
Microbes are ubiquitous and many microorganisms are associated with undesirable
consequences, such as food spoilage and disease. Therefore, it is essential to kill a
wide variety of microorganisms or inhibit their growth to minimize their destructive
effects. The goal is twofold: (a) to destroy pathogens and prevent their transmission
and (b) to reduce or eliminate microorganisms responsible for the contamination of
water ,food, and other substances.
Mode of action
1- Damage of protein
2- Damage of nucleic acid
3- Inhibition of metabolism
4- Alteration of cell membrane permeability
Sterilization
Methods of sterilization can be broadly classified as:
1 .Physical methods of sterilization, and
2. Chemical methods of sterilization
83
3 .Filtration
4 .Radiation
5- Sound (sonic) waves
Sunlight
Direct sunlight is a natural method of sterilization of water in tanks, rivers, and lakes.
Direct sunlight has an active germicidal effect due to its content of ultraviolet and
heat rays. Bacteria present in natural water sources are rapidly destroyed by exposure
to sunlight.
Heat
Heat is the most dependable method of sterilization and is usually the method of
choice unless contraindicated. As a rule ,higher temperatures (exceeding the
maximum) are microbicidal ,whereas lower temperatures (below the minimum) tend
to have inhibitory or microbistaticeffects. Two types of physical heat are used in
sterilization—moist and dry heat.
84
2 Sterilization at a temperature of 100°C:
Sterilsation at a temperature of 100ºC includes (a) boiling and (b) steam sterilizer at
100°C.
Boiling:Simple boiling of water for 10–30 minutes kills most of the vegetative forms
of bacteria but not bacterial spores
Steam sterilizer at 100°C: is used for heat-labile substances that tend to degrade at
higher temperatures and pressure, . These substances are exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure for 90 minutes during which most vegetative forms of the bacteria
.except for the thermophiles are killed by the moist heat
4.Intermittent sterilization:
Certain heat-labile substances(e.g., serum, sugar, egg, etc.) that cannot withstand the
high temperature of the autoclave can be sterilized by a process of intermittent
sterilization, known as tyndallization.Tyndallizationis carried out over a period of 3
days and requires a chamber to hold the materials and a reservoir for boiling water.
Items to be sterilized are kept in the chamber and are exposed to free-flowing steam
at 100°C for 20 minutes, for each of the three consecutive days. On the first day, the
temperature is adequate to kill all the vegetative forms of the bacteria, yeasts, and
molds but not sufficient to kill spores. The surviving spores are allowed to germinate
to vegetative forms on the second day and are killed on re-exposure to steam. The
third day re-ensures killing of all the spores by their germination to vegetative forms .
Intermittent sterilization is used most often to sterilize heat-sensitive culture media,
such as those containing serum (e.g., Loeffl er‘s serum slope), egg (e.g., Lowenstein–
Jensen‘s medium), or carbohydrates (e.g., serum sugars) and some canned foods .
85
Sterilization by dry heat
Mechanisms. (1) Protein denaturation, (2) Oxidative damage, (3) Toxic effect of
elevated electrolyte (in absence of water).
Dry heat at 160°C (holding temperature for one hour is required to kill the most
resistant spores). The articles remain dry. It is unsuitable for clothing which may be
spoiled. Sterilization by dry heat includes sterilization by (a) flaming (b) incineration
, and (c) hot air oven
■Incinerators are used to carry out this process and are regularly employed in
hospitals and research labs to destroy hospital and laboratory wastes.
■The method is used for complete destruction and disposal of infectious material,
such as syringes, needles ,culture material, dressings, bandages, bedding, animal
carcasses, and pathology samples.
C-Hot Air Oven (Sterilizer). Glass wares, swab sticks, all-glass syringes, powder
and oily substances are sterilized in hot air oven. For sterilization, a temperature of
160°C is maintained (holding) for one hour. Spores are killed at this temperature. It
leads to sterilization.
Filtration
Filtration is an excellent way to reduce the microbial population in solutions of heat-
labile material by use of a variety of filters. Filters are used to sterilize these heat-
labile solutions .Filters simply remove contaminating microorganisms from solutions
rather than directly destroying them
Radiations
The ionizing and nonionizing radiations are the two types of radiation used for
sterilization
1 .Ionizing radiations: Ionizing radiation is an excellent sterilizing agent with very
high penetrating power .These radiations penetrate deep into objects and destroy
bacterial endospores and vegetative cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic. These are,
86
however, not that effective against viruses. Ionizing radiations include (a) X-rays ,(b)
gamma rays
■Infrared radiationsare used for rapid and mass sterilization of disposable syringes
and catheters.
Disinfection
Disinfection is the process of inactivating microorganisms by direct exposure to
chemical or physical agents.
87
Action of Disinfectants
Disinfectants act in many ways as discussed below.
1 .They produce damage to the cell wall and alter permeability of the cell membrane,
resulting in exposure, damage, or loss of the cellular contents
2 .They alter proteins and form protein salts or cause coagulation of proteins.
3 .They inhibit enzyme action and inhibit nucleic acid synthesis or alter nucleic acid
molecules.
4. They cause oxidation or hydrolysis
ALDEHYDES
-Formaldehyde or more usually glutaraldehyde are used as instrument and catheter
disinfectants. The glutaraldehyde is the basic chemical for various trademarks, such
as Cidex, or Sonacide and newer ones such as Sporocidin or Glutacide or Totacide,
etc. These are used for disinfectants or sterilization of instruments and catheters but
not for environmental surfaces. They may also be used for pipettes and clinical
thermometers, etc.
88
DETERGENTS
-The term detergent refers to a removal of soil or dirt and various types of detergents
are available. The anionic detergent such as soap and sodium lauryl sulfate and its
close chemical relative which are the ingredients in the various dish and laundry
detergents have very low level in antimicrobial activity and work by the removal of
dirt
and microorganisms and rinsing them down the drain.
GASEOUS AGENTS
-Ethylene oxide as a gaseous agent may best be used as a sterilant,
but has been used in liquids for antimicrobial action. The use of formaldehyde as a
liquid at the 8% level in alcohol (for many hours) may have sterilizing capability as
well as 20% aqueous formal
in and formaldehyde with low temperature steam (75 C).
HALOGENS
-Chlorine and iodine are the usual halogens used as antimicrobial
chemicals. The chlorine is used as a gas for disinfection of water and swimming
pools. (It is used as the hypochlorite (Clorox) for sanitizing.) Chlorine dioxide has
been utilized for disinfection and is a rapid oxidizing sterilant when used under
certain conditions. Iodine as the tincture is probably the best of the skin antiseptics,
but is more frequently used asthe iodophor which is a so-called tamed iodine which
releases iodine slowly to the environmental surfaces. It is used as a sanitizer in food
preparation areas and also as a skin antiseptic, a surgical scrub, etc.
HEAVY METALS
-The mercurial salts and other heavy metal preparations have lost favor in the
laboratory and hospital scene since they are more bacteriostatic than bactericidal and
may be extremely toxic. This would include trademark names such
asMercurochrome, Merthiolate (Thiomerosal), Merbak, Metaphen and others.
PEROXIDES
-The use of weak peroxides on skin wounds of various small area has negligible
antimicrobial activity and its effect probably due to a washing away of extraneous
dirt and microorganisms. A newer, highly concentrated peroxide at a low pH has
been proposed as a disinfectant-sterilant, under the trademark of Sterisyl and may
disinfect very rapidly
PHENOLICS
-The chemicals based on phenol, i.e., a benzene ring with hydroxyl (OH)group are
among the more common disinfectants for environmental surfaces. Instead of phenol
or cresol, today it is more common to use a mixture of highly substituted phenolics
89
(such as orthophenylphenol) which may be diluted out further (1:128-1:256) to
achieve their bactericidal activity.
OTHER CHEMICALS
-Various dyes, acetic acid, carbonates , bicarbonates, chlorites,
essential oils, etc., have been used with more or less success, (usually less success) as
antimicrobial chemicals and should give way to the more effective ones noted above.
91
Differences between sterilization and disinfection
Sterilization Disinfection
91
Lec 13 Viruses , Structure , morphology ,pathogenicity
Properties of virus
1- They do not have cellular organization.
2- They contain only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA but
never both
3- They are obligate intracellular parasites.
4- They lack the enzymes necessary for protein and nucleic acid
synthesis and are dependent for replication on the machinery of
host cells
5- They multiply by a complex process and not by binary fission.
6- They are unaffected by antibacterial antibiotics.
Virus structure
viruses contain the following components: 1) a nucleic acid genome
and 2) a protein capsid that covers the genome. Together this is called
the nucleocapsid. In addition, many animal viruses contain a 3) lipid
envelope. The entire intact virus is called the virion. The structure and
composition of these components can vary widely.
A: Viral Genomes: While the genomes of all known cells are comprised
of double stranded DNA, the genomes of viruses can be comprised of
single or double stranded from DNA or RNA. The known structures of
viral genomes are summarized below.
92
Single Stranded - linear or circular
B: Protein Capsid
Viral genomes are surrounded by protein shells known as capsids. A
capsid is almost always made up of repeating structural subunits that are
arranged in one of two symmetrical structures, a helix or an icosahedron.
In the simplest case, these "subunits" consist of a single polypeptide. In
many cases, however, these structural subunits (also called protomers)
are made up of several polypeptides.
2-It provides the binding site which enable the virus to attach to
specific site on the host cell.
93
4-It serves as a vehicle of transmission from host to another.
Icosahedral:
These viruses appear spherical in shape, but a closer look actually reveals
they are icosahedral. The icosahedron is made up of equilateral triangles
fused together in a spherical shape. This is the most optimal way of
forming a closed shell using identical protein sub-units. The genetic
material is fully enclosed inside of the capsid. Viruses with icosahedral
structures are released into the environment when the cell dies, breaks
down and lyses, thus releasing the virions. Examples of viruses with an
icosahedral structure are the poliovirus, rhinovirus, and adenovirus.
Helical :
This virus structure has a capsid with a central cavity or hollow tube that
is made by proteins arranged in a circular fashion, creating a disc like
shape. The disc shapes are attached helically (like a toy slinky) creating a
tube with room for the nucleic acid in the middle. All filamentous viruses
are helical in shape. They are usually 15-19nm wide and range in length
from 300 to 500nm depending on the genome size. An example of a virus
with a helical symmetry is the tobacco mosaic virus.
Complex :
C: Viral Envelope
94
In some animal viruses, the nucleocapsid is surrounded by a membrane,
also called an envelope. This envelope is made up of a lipid bilayer, and
is comprised of host-cell lipids. It also contains virally encoded proteins,
often glycoproteins which are trans-membrane proteins. These viral
proteins serve many purposes, such as binding to receptors on the host
cell, playing a role in membrane fusion and cell entry, etc. They can also
form channels in the viral membrane.
Many enveloped viruses also contain matrix proteins, which are internal
proteins that link the nucleocapsid to the envelope.
D: Virus Classification
95
4-mutration
5-Release
Pathogenesis
Cellular Pathogenesis
Direct cell damage and death from viral infection may result from (1)
diversion of the cell's energy, (2) shutoff of cell macromolecular
synthesis, (3) competition of viral mRNA for cellular ribosomes, (4)
competition of viral promoters and transcriptional enhancers for cellular
transcriptional factors such as RNA polymerases, and inhibition of the
interferon defense mechanisms. Indirect cell damage can result from ,
induction of mutations in the host genome, inflammation, and the host
immune response.
96
There are several mechanisms that must occur for a viral disease to
develop:
97
98