Chapter Three

3. The cellular basis of life (4hrs)

Self Test:
1. State the cellular basis of life and cell theory
2. Identify the different types of organelles, their structure and functions
3.Why is homogenization important in cell study?

In the late 1600‟s, an English scientist named Robert Hook was the first to observe
plant cells with a crude microscope. Then, almost a century and a half later, in the
1830‟s two German scientists proposed that all living things are composed of cells
(their names were Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann). A German pathologist,
Rudolph Virchow extended this idea by contending that cells arise only from other cells.

3.1. The cell theory

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. The activity of an
organism depends on both the individual and the collective activities of its cells.
According to the principle of complementarity of structure and function, the
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the relative
number of their specific sub-cellular structures. All cells arise from pre-existing cells
(continuity of life from one generation to another has a cellular basis).
A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:
 The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.
 The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures
that perform specific cell functions.
 The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities. Typically the nucleus
resides near the cell‟s center.
 Fig: 3.1. Animal cell

3.2. Cell organelles

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. In
eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound structure found within a cell. Just like
cells have membranes to hold everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a
double layer of phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within the larger
cells. Prokaryotes are cells that do not have membrane bound organelles. You can think
of organelles as smaller rooms within the factory, with specialized conditions to help
these rooms carry out their specific task (like a break room stocked with goodies or a
research room with cool gadgets and a special air filter). These organelles are found in
the cytoplasm, a viscous liquid found within the cell membrane that houses the
organelles and is the location of most of the action happening in a cell.

There are two kinds of cell organelles on the basis membrane covering, membranous
and non membranous organelles. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi
bodies, mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles are
membranous whereas, non-membrane bound cell organelles are ribosomes (70S and
80S), centrosomes, cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal bodies and microfilaments.
3.3. Structure and function of organelles
The nucleus: This is distinctly oval or spherically shaped largest central structure
surrounded by a double-layered membrane. In the nucleus, DNA directs protein
synthesis and serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication. DNA gives codes, or
“instruction” for directing synthesis of specific structure and enzymes proteins within
the cell. By monitoring these protein synthesis activity, the nucleus indirectly governs
most cellular activities and serves as the cell‟s master. Three types of RNA are involved
in protein synthesis. At first, DNA‟s genetic code for a particular protein is transcribed
into a messenger-RNA, which leaves nucleus through the nuclear pores of the nuclear
membrane. And, within the cytoplasm, mRNA delivers the coded message to the
ribosomal RNA, which "reads" message/code and translates it into the appropriate
amino acids sequence for the designated protein being synthesized. Finally, transfer-
RNA transfers the appropriate amino acids within the cytoplasm to their designated site
in the protein under production. During cell replication, DNA ensures the continuing of
the identical types of cell line within the body. Furthermore, in the gametes, the DNA
blueprint serves to pass the genetic characteristics to future generation.
Generally, the nucleus may be:
• roundede.g. in hepatocytes.
• indented (segmented)e.g. in neutrophils.
• binucleatede.g. in parietal cells, cardiac muscle cells.
• multinucleatede.g. in osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
• very large (many DNA)e.g. in megakaryocytes.
• absente.g. in mature erythrocytes, blood platelets.
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or
more nucleoli.

The Nuclear envelope

 surrounds nuclear material
 consists of outer and inner membrane
 perforated at intervals by nuclear pores
  through this pores most ions and water soluble molecules to transfer b/n nucleus
and cytoplasm.
Chromatin: The term chromatin means "colored material" and refers to the fact that
this material is easily stained for viewing with microscope, and it is composed mainly
of coils DNA bound to basic protein called his tones. The DNA is so long that it has to
be packed in an organization manner or it would get entangled like unraveled ball of
string.

Nucleoli: The nuclei of most cells contain one or more lightly stained structures called
nucleoli that actively engage in synthesizing of ribosomes. The nucleolus, unlike most
of the organelles, does not have a limiting membrane. Instead, it is simply a structure
that contains large amounts of RNA and protein of the type found in ribosomes. The
nucleolus becomes considerably enlarged when a cell is actively synthesizing proteins.
The genes of five separate chromosome pairs synthesize the ribosomal RNA and then
store it in the nucleolus.

The Cytoplasm: The cytosol is the material of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus,
containing a number of distinct, highly organized membrane-enclosed structures- the
organelles- dispersed within a complex jelly – like marrow called the „cytosol‟. All
cells contain six main types of organelles- the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and vacules. They are similar in all cells, but
with some variations depending on the cell specialization. Each organelle is a separate
compartment, containing different chemically setting for fulfilling a partial or cellular
function. These organelles occupy about half of the total cell volume. The remaining
part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.
 Fig:3.2. Endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum is a fluid-filled membrane system extensively present
throughout the cytosol. The ER is one continuous organelle with many communicating
channels. The two different types are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough ER..
The smooth ER is a meshwork of interconnected tubules, whereas the rough ER
projects outwards from the reticulum as stacks of flattened sacs. Though different in
structure and function, they are continuous with each other.

The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: The outer surface of the rough ER contains dark
particles called ribosomes, which are ribosomal RNA protein complexes that produce
protein under the direction of nuclear DNA. Messenger-RNA carries the genetic
message from the nucleus to the ribosomes “workshop” where proteins are synthesized.
Some ribosomes are “free” dispersed throughout the cytosol. The rough ER in
association with ribosomes produces and releases a variety of proteins, into the fluid-
filled space enclosed by the membrane. Some proteins for export as secretory products
(hormones or enzymes). Other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for use in
the construction of new plasma membrane or new organelle membrane. Cellular
membrane contains predominantly fats and proteins. ER membrane also contains
enzymes required for the synthesis of almost all the lipids needed for the production of
new membranes. These lipids enter the ER lumen along with the proteins. This structure
is well developed in cells producing digestive enzymes or in rapidly growing cells.
Each ribosome is involved in producing only one type of protein. The free ribosomes
synthesize enzyme protein that are used intra-cellularly within the cytosol.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Since it does not have ribosomes, it looks „smooth‟
and does not produce proteins. It serves a variety of other functions that differ in cell
types. In most cells, the smooth ER is sparse and serves in packaging and discharging
site for protein molecules that are to be transported from the ER. All new proteins and
fats pass from ER gathered in the smooth ER. Portions of the smooth ER then “bud
off/pinch off”, giving rise to „transport vesicles‟, they contain the new molecule
wrapped in a membrane derived from the smooth ER membrane. Transport vesicles
move to the Golgi complex for further processing of their cargo. Some specialized cells
have an extensive smooth ER, which has additional functions as follows:
 The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized in lipid metabolism- cells
that synthesize steroid hormones. The membrane wall of the smooth ER
contains enzymes for synthesis of lipids. This is an additional site for synthesis
in addition for ER to keep pace with demands for hormone secretion.

 In liver cells, the smooth ER contains enzymes involved in detoxifying harmful

endogenous substances produced within the body by metabolism or exogenous
substances entering the body from outside as drugs or other foreign compounds.
The detoxifying enzymes alter toxic substances so that they could be easily
eliminated in the urine. But unfortunately, in some instances the same enzyme
transforms otherwise harmless substance into carcinogens that play a role in
cancer development.

 The smooth ER has a special role in skeletal muscle cells. They have an
elaborate network of smooth ER, which stores ionic calcium and plays a crucial
role in the process of muscle contraction.
 Fig:3.3. Golgi apparatus
The Golgi Complex: The Golgi complex is elaborately associated with the ER and
contains sets of flattened, curved, membrane- enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in
layers. Number of stacks vary in cells; cells specialized for protein secretion have
hundreds of stacks, whereas some have only one. The majority of newly formed
molecules budding off from the smooth ER enter a Golgi complex stacks. It performs
the following important functions.
1. Processing the raw material into finished products. In the Golgi complex, the
“raw” protein from the ER are modified into their final state mainly by
adjustment made in the sugar attached to the protein. This is a very elaborate,
precisely programmed activity, specific for each final product.
2. Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination. According to
their function and destination, different types of products are segregated by the
Golgi complex, i.e., molecules that are destined for secretion to the exterior,
molecules that will eventually become part of the plasma membrane, and the
molecules that will become incorporated into other organelles.
3. The smooth ER of the liver and kidney cells are responsible for the
detoxification and inactivation of drugs. Enzymes within the smooth ER can
 inactivate or destroy a variety of chemicals including alcohol, pesticides, and
carcinogens.
4. In skeletal muscle cells, a modified form of smooth ER stores Ca 2+ to be
released for muscle contraction.

Fig: 3.4. Structure of endoplasmic reticulum and its relation with the Golgi
apparatus and the nucleus.

Lysosomes: Lysosomes serve as the intracellular “digestive system”. Lysosomes are

membrane-enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting
and removing unwanted cellular debris and foreign materials such as bacteria that have
been internalized within the cell. Lysosomes vary in size and shape, and about 300μm in
a cell. Surrounding membrane confines these enzymes, preventing from destroying the
cell that houses them. Extrinsic material to be attacked by lysosomal enzymes is
brought into the interior of the cell through the process of endocytosis. If the fluid is
internalized by endocytosis, the process is called pinocytosis. Endocytosis is also
accomplished by phagocytosis.

In pinocytosis, ECF and a large molecule such as protein is engulfed. A specific

molecule may bind to surface receptor, triggering pinocytosis- receptor-mediated
endocytosis. Dynamin, a molecule forms rings wrapping around, severing the vesicle
from the surface membrane in pinocytosis.
In phagocytosis, large multimolecular particles are internalized by endocytosis; this is
achieved by only a few specialized cells- white blood cells that play an important role in
the body‟s defense mechanism. When a leukocyte encounters large multimolecular
particle, such as bacteria or tissue debris, it extends projection (pseudopodia) that
completely surround or engulf the particle, forming an internalized vesicle that traps the
large multimolecular particle within it.

A lysosome fuses with the membrane of the internalized vesicle and releases its contents
of hydrolytic enzymes into the vesicle. These enzymes safely attack the microbes or
other trapped material within the enclosed confines of the
vesicle without damaging the remainder of the cell.

Lysosomes can take up old organelles such as mitochondria and break down into their
component molecules. Those molecules that can be released are reabsorbed into the
cytosol, and the rest are dumped out of the cell. The process by which worn-out
organelles are digested is called autophagy a human liver cell recycles about half its
content every week. In the inherited condition known as lysosomal storage disease
(Tay-Sachs disease) lysosomes are not effective because they lack specific enzymes.
As a result, harmful waste products accumulate disrupting the normal function of cells,
often with fatal results

Peroxisome: Peroxisome Is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative enzymes and

catalase that detoxify various wastes. Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove
hydrogen from specific substance/molecule; such reactions are important in detoxifying
various waste products within the cell or foreign compounds that have entered in, such
as ethanol consumed in alcoholic drinks (in liver and kidneys). The major product
generated is hydrogen peroxide; hydrogen peroxide itself is a powerful oxidant. It also
contains catalase, and antioxidant enzyme decomposing hydrogen peroxide into
harmless water and oxygen. This reaction is an important safety reaction that destroys
deadly hydrogen peroxide, at the site of production, thereby preventing possible
devastating escape into the cytosol. It is shorter and smoother than lysosome and
several hundreds may present in one cell.

Peroximal disorders disrupt the normal processing of lipids and can severely disrupt
the normal function of the nervous system by altering the structure of the nerve cell
membrane Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the “power houses” of a cell; they extract energy from nutrients in
food and transform it into usable form to energize cell activity. Their number varies
depending on the energy needs of each particular cell types. A single cell may have few
hundreds or thousands. Mitochondria are rod or oval shaped about the size of a
bacterium. Each is enclosed by a double membrane - a smooth outer that surrounds the
mitochondria, and an inner membrane that forms a series of enfolding or shelves called
cristae, which project into an inner cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix (See figure 3.5).
These cristae contain proteins that convert much of the energy in food into a usable
form (the electron transport protein). The enfolding increase the surface area available
for keeping these important proteins.

The matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid
cycle enzymes) that are important in preparing nutrient molecules for the final
extraction of usable energy by the cristae proteins.

Carbon-hydrogen bonds in ingested food are the source of energy stored in the chemical
forms. Body cell can extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into energy form
that they can use. The high energy phosphate bonds of ATP contain adenosine with 3
phosphate groups. When high energy phosphate bond is split, a substantial amount of
energy is released.
ATP is the universal energy carrier the common energy “currency” of the body. Cells
can “cash in” ATP to pay the energy “price” for running the cellular machine. To get
immediate usable energy cells can split terminal phosphate bond of ATP, which yields
ADP with phosphate group attached - plus inorganic phosphate (Pi) plus energy. (See
figure 3below).
 Fig. 3.5. Mitochondrial structure
Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:
• In the matrix they have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA.
• Mitochondria have the ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to
which they belong is not undergoing cell division.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the
process of photosynthesis which is a process by which plants synthesize their own food.
They are located in outer surface of the cell to receive enough light. Chloroplasts are
green colored due to the chlorophyll pigments found in its internal parts. Some of
important characteristics of plant is its ability to carry out photosynthesis as the way
they use in making their own food and pass through converting light energy in chemical
energy.
 Fig: 3.6. Structure of plant cell

Vesicles are membrane bound sacs that are used to store or transport substances around
the cell. Lysosomes are actually Vesicles.

Vacuoles are essentially larger Vesicles, and they are formed by the joining together of
many Vesicles. They are membrane bound organelles that have no specific shape and
contain water with a number of different compounds within it. Their function varies
greatly depending on the type of cell they are part of. In plant cells they are important
in maintaining Turgor Pressure.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and muscle” of the
cell. This necessary intracellular scaffoldings supports and organizes cellular
components arrangements and to control their movements; this provides distinct shape,
size to the cell.

This network has at least four distinct elements: Microtubules, Microfilaments,

Intermediate filaments and Microtubular lattice

The different parts of the cytoskeleton are structures linked and functionally coordinated
to provide integration of the cell. The microtubule is the largest of the group; slender,
long, hollow tubes composed of a globular protein molecule (6 nm diameter) tubulin.
They provide asymmetrical shape to the cell, such as a neuron with cell body and long
axon. They coordinate numerous complex cell movements in transport of secretory
vesicles from region to region of the cell, movements of cilia and flagella, distribution
of chromosomes during cell division, microfilaments are important to cellular
contractile system and as mechanical stiffeners. The microfilaments are the smallest of
the cytoskeleton composed of protein molecule actin having a globular shape similar to
tubulin. Generally, cytoskeletons determine/ provide the:

 shape of a cell
 structural support
 organizing its contents
  substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella and intracytoplasmic vesicles),
and  contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.
Plasma/cell membrane
The plasma membrane is extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins forming outermost
boundary of living cell and enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF). It serves as a
mechanical barrier that traps needed molecules within the cell; plasma membrane plays
an active role in determining the composition of cell by selective permeability of
substances to pass between the cell and its ECF environment. There are some
differences in the composition of plasma membrane between cell types, which permits
the cell to interact in different ways with essentially the same extracellular fluid (ECF)
environment. The plasma membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins. It
appears as „trilaminar’ layer structure having two dark layers separated by a light
middle layer as a result of specific arrangement of the constituent molecules.

Fig: 3.7. Structure of cell membrane

All plasma membrane are made up of lipids and proteins plus small amount of
carbohydrates. Phospholipids are most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol.
Phospholipids have a polar charged head having a negatively charged phosphate group
and two non-polar (electrically neutral) fatty acid tails. The polar end is hydrophilic
(water loving) because it can interact with water molecule, which is also polar; the non-
polar end is hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not mix with water. Such two-sided
molecule self assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of lipid molecules when in
contact with water. The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center away from the
water, while the hydrophilic heads line up on both sides in contact with water.
Lipid bilayer forms the basic structure of the membrane, is a barrier to passage of
watersoluble substances between the ICF and ECF; and is responsible for the fluidity of
the membrane.

Membrane proteins are variety of different proteins within the plasma membrane;
have the following special functions: 1. Some form water-filled passage ways or
channels, across the lipid bilayer; such channels allow ions to pass through without
coming in direct contact with lipid interior. The channels are highly selective; they can
selectively attract or repel particular ions. This selectively attracts or repels particular
ions.

Fig: 3.8. Membrane protein

Membrane Carbohydrate: Short-chain carbohydrate on the outer membrane surface

serves as self-identity marker enabling cells to identify and interact with each other in
the following ways:
• Recognition of “self” and cell-to-cell interactions. Cells recognize each other
and form tissues; complex carbohydrates act as a “trademark” of a particular cell
type, for recognition.
 • Carbohydrate-containing surface markers are important in growth. Cells do not
overgrow their own territory. Abnormal surface markers present in tumor cells,
and abnormality may underline uncontrolled growth.
• Some CAMS have carbohydrate, on the outermost tip where they participate in
cell adhesion activity.
Functions of biological membranes
The phospholipid bilayers provides the basic structure of the membrane and they also
restrict entry and exit of polar molecules and ion. The other molecules in the membrane
have a variety of function:

• Channel protein and carrier protein: these proteins are involved in the
selective transport of polar molecule and ion across the membrane
• Enzymes: membrane proteins sometimes act as enzymes, For example, the
microvilli on epithelial cells lining some part of the gut contain digestive
enzymes in their cell surface membrane
• Receptor molecules: proteins have very specific shapes and this makes them
ideal as receptor molecules for chemical signaling between cells.
o For example, hormones are chemical messengers, which circulate in the
blood but, only bind to specific target cells, which have the correct
receptors sites. Neurotransmitters, the chemicals that enable nerve
impules from one nerve cell to the next, also fit into specific receptor
proteins in nerve cells.
• Antigens: these act as cell identity markers or ''name tag''. They are
glycoproteins that is proteins with branching carbohydrates side chains like
antennae. There is an enormous number of possible shapes to these side chains,
so each type of cell can have its own specific markers.

This enables cells to recognize other cells, and to behave in an organized way,
for example, during development of tissues and organs in multicellular
organisms . It also means that foreign antigens can be recognized and attacked
by the immune system.
 • Glycolipids- also have branching carbohydrate side chain and are involved in
cell-cell recognition. They may act as a receptor sites for chemical signals. With
glycoproteins they also involved in sticking the correct cell together in tissues.
Eg. sperm recognition of ova
• Energy Transfer in photosynthesis and respiration proteins take part in the
energy transfer systems that exist in the membranes of chloroplast and
mitochondria respectively.
• Cholosterole: acts like a plug, reducing even further the escape or entry of
polar molecules through the membrane.

3.4. Cellular diversity

Self Test
1. What dictates the diversity of cells?
2. Why cells are diverse in their shape, size and structure?

Cells are found in different organisms, and are very diverse in their size, shape and their
internal structure and this also applies to cells found in the same organism. This
diversity is influenced by their roles and function within organism‟s body.

3.4.1. Cell Shape

Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function. It is possible to find other cells
which are flat, most of these cells are body cells and their function is protecting and
covering body surface. Nerve cells have long extensions. Skin cells have a shape which
is flat. Egg cells have shape which is like sphere, and some bacteria are rod in shape.
Some plant cells are rectangular.
 Fig: 3.9. Various types of animal cells (shape)

3.4.2 Cell Size

Some cell can be seen without using magnification instruments as they are enough to be
seen by the naked eye.
Example, egg of birds/reptiles and a neuron cell of giraffe, which is 2 meters in
length.
3.5. Transport across the cell membranes

Self Test
1. What dictates the diversity of cells?
2. How is osmotic condition of the body kept constant?
3. List dawn the major transport mechanisms that occur in organisms?

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Lipid-soluble substances and small ions
can passively diffuse through the plasma membrane down their electro-chemical
gradients. Highly lipid-soluble particles are able to dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass
through the membrane.. Particles with low lipid-permeability and too large for channels,
cannot permeate the membrane on their own. The phospholipid bilayer is a good barrier
around cells, especially to water soluble molecules. However, for the cell to survive
some materials need to be able to enter and leave the cell. There are 4 basic
mechanisms:
1. Diffusion and facilitated diffusion
2. osmosis
3. active transport
4. bulk transport
Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the plasma membrane:
1. Forces that do not require the cell to expend energy for movement – passive force
2. Forces requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended to transport across the membrane -
active force Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their lower concentration. The molecules move down a
concentration gradient. Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly. All molecules in liquid and gases are in continuous random motion in any
direction as they have more room to move before colliding with another. As a result of
this haphazard movement, the molecules frequently collide bouncing off each other in
different directions.

The greater the concentration, the greater the likelihood of collision. Such a difference
in concentration in molecules between two adjacent areas is chemical /concentration
gradient. The net movement of the molecule by diffusion will be from the higher area of
concentration to the area of lower concentration.

Certain additional factors that influence the rate of net diffusion across a membrane are:

1. permeability of the membrane

2. surface area of the membrane
3. molecular weight of the substance (lighter one diffuses rapidly)
4. distance through which diffusion must take place
N.B:- Increasing all the factors increases rate of net diffusion, except distance -
thickness, that if increased, decreases the rate of diffusion; and molecular weight if
increased, decreases rate of diffusion.

Fig: 3.10. Diffusion of liqiud

As a result of diffusion molecules reach an equilibrium where they are evenly spread
out. This is when there is no net movement of molecules from either side.
Movement along electrical gradient

Movement of charged particles is also affected by their electrical gradient. If a relative

difference in charges exist between two adjacent areas, the cations tend to move
towards more negatively charged area, whereas the anions tend to move toward the
more positively charged areas. The simultaneous existence of an electrical and
concentration (chemical) gradient for a particular ion is referred to as an electro-
chemical gradient.

Fig: 3.11. Concentration difference (A) and difussion (B)

Fig:3.12. Diffusion of lipid molecules

Carrier- Mediated Transport
All carrier proteins span the thickness of the plasma membrane and are able to undergo
reversible changes in shape so that specific binding site can alternately be exposed at
either side of the membrane. As the molecule to be transported attaches to a binding site
on the carrier on one side of the membrane, it triggers a change in the carrier shape that
causes the same site to be exposed to the other side of the membrane. Their having
movement in this way, the bound molecule detaches from the carrier. This transport
displays three characteristics:
 1. Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport a specific
substance or few closely-related chemical compounds amino acid cannot bind to
glucose carrier, but similar amino acids may use the same carrier. Type of
carriers vary in cells. A number of inherited disorders involve defects in
transport system for a particular substance.
2. Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a substance can be
transported via a carrier; limited number of carrier site are available within a
particular plasma membrane for a specific molecule. This limit is known as
transport maximum (Tm).
The substance‟s rate of transport across the membrane are directly related to its
concentration. When the Tm is reached, the carrier is saturated, and the rate of
transport is maximum. Further increase in the substance concentration is not
accompanied by corresponding increase in the rate of transport. Saturation of
carrier is a critical rate-limiting factor to the transport of selected substances
across the plasma membrane in kidney and the intestine. There is a mechanism
to increase the number of carriers in the plasma membrane.
3. Competition: Several closely related compounds may compete for ride across
the plasma membrane on the same carrier.
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a particular
substance across the membrane ''downhill'' from higher to lower concentration. This
process is passive and does not require energy because movement occurs naturally
down a concentration gradient.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Water can
readily permeate the plasma membrane. The driving force for diffusion of water is its
concentration gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute) to the area
of lower water (high solute) concentration. This net diffusion of water is known as
osmosis. Special mechanisms are used to transport selected molecules unable to cross
the plasma membrane on their own.
Fig:3.13. diffusion of water molecules

Fig. 3.14. diffusion of water molecules

Active transport
Active transport is energy consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane
against its natural tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. The movement of
molecules in active transport is in one direction only; unlike diffusion that is reversible
the energy is supplied by the broke down of ATP, which energy carrier is made in
respiration

The major ions within the cells and their surrounding are sodium (Na +),
potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-). In recent years it has been shown that the cell
surface membrane of most cell have sodium pump is coupled with a potassium
pump that actively moves potassium ion from outside to inside the cell. The
combined pump is called the sodium pump (Na+-K- pump).

The pump is a carrier protein that spans across the membrane from one side to the
other. The transfer of sodium and potassium across the membrane is brought about by
the changes in the shape of the protein. Note that for every 2K+ions taken into the cell,
3Na+ ions are removed.

Fig: 3.15. Sodium-potasium pump

Na+-K+-pump plays three important roles

1. It establishes sodium and potassium concentration gradients across the plasma
membrane of all cells; these gradients are important in the nerve and muscle to generate
electrical signals.

2. It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of solutes inside

the cell and thus minimizing osmotic effects that would induce swelling or shrinking of
the cell.
3. The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as the energy source for
the cotransport of glucose and amino acids across the membrane (intestine and kidney
cell).