PHYSIOLOGY OF

THE HUMAN CELL

DR.P.HAMAMBULU
 The cell is a basic structural unit of all living
organism.
 The basic knowledge of cell biology is essential to an
understanding of the organ systems in the body and the
way they function.
 The specialization of the cells in the various organs is very
great, and no cell can be called "typical" of all cells in the
body. However, a number of structures (organelles) are
common to most cells.

INTRODUCTION
TYPICAL HUMAN CELL UNDER
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
ANATOMICAL/MORPHOLOGICAL
STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC
CELL
 The cell(plasma membrane)membrane surrounds the cell
 It is made up of 55% proteins, 42% lipids and 3%
carbohydrates
 It allows some substances to pass through it and excluding
others( selectively permeable)
 The nucleus is also surrounded by a membrane of this type,
and the organelles are surrounded by or made up of a
membrane.
 6-10nm thick

CELL MEMBRANE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE
 Phospholipid(75% of lipids)
(phosphatidylcholine,Phosphatidylethanolamine, Sphingomyelin
and Phosphatidylserine)
 Other lipids (20%Cholesterol and 5%Glycolipids)

COMPONENTS OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
 Membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids often serve as cell
identity markers.
 They may enable a cell to recognize other cells of the same
kind during tissue formation or to recognize and respond to
potentially dangerous foreign cells
 The ABO blood type markers are one example of cell
identity markers.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE
GLYCOLIPIDS AND
GLYCOPROTEINS
  Integral proteins
 Peripheral proteins
 The amount of protein varies with the
function of the membrane but makes up
on average 50% of the mass of the
membrane
Functions Of membrane proteins
 Cell adhesion molecules that anchor cells to their
neighbors or to basal laminas.
 Pumps, actively transporting ions across the membrane.

PROTEINS
 amino acids
• Ion channels, which, when
activated, permit the passage of ions
into or out of the cell e.g.Na⁺,K⁺,Cl⁻
• Enzymes, catalyzing reactions at the
surfaces of the membrane
e.g.phospholipase
• Receptors that bind
neurotransmitters and hormones,
initiating physiologic
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANEchanges inside
the cell
PROTEINS
 Fluid filled space where the cell organelles are suspended
and its size varies according to the specialization of the cell
 Cytoplasm houses the intracellular fluid.
 The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which the
particles are dispersed is called the cytosol; this mainly
contain proteins, electrons and glucose.

CYTOPLASM
NUCLEUS
 Nucleus is enveloped by a double layered membrane,
known as the nuclear membrane.
 A clear fluid called nucleoplasm or karyolymph is enclosed
in the membrane.
 There is a network of fine thread-like matter, called
chromatin network, which contains the DNA molecules
and histones arranged in a particular manner.

NUCLEUS
 During cell division, condensation of chromatin , results in
formation of distinct structures called chromosomes.
 Nucleolus is also found in nucleus, and it has Ribonucleic
Acid (RNA) and ribosomes in abundance.
 Its function(nucleolus) is to produce ribosomes

NUCLEUS
 Storage of genetic material(DNA & RNA) necessary for reproduction,
growth and metabolism
 It controls the transfer and replication of hereditary molecules (DNA and
RNA) between the parent cell and the child cell.
 Nucleus ensures equal distribution and exact copying of the genetic content
during the process of cell replication(division).

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
 The nucleus sustains and controls the synthesis of
structural proteins in the cell.
 The process of energy and nutrient metabolism in the cell
is regulated by the nucleus, by directing the synthesis and
functioning of enzymes.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Membrane bound
 Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic reticulum (rER and sER)
 Golgi apparatus
 Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes

CELL ORGANELLES
Non-membane bound
 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton(microtubules, intermediate filaments and
microfilaments)
 Centrosome(centrioles)
Some structures associated with cytoplasm
 Cillia
 Flagellum
 Microvilli

CELL ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIA
 Sausage-shaped structure
 Considered as the power house of
the cell
 Concentrated in the area of high
energy utilization
 Made up of an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
 The inner membrane is folded to form shelves (cristae).

MITOCHONDRIA
 Space between the two membranes is called the intracristal
space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called
the matrix space.
 The outer membrane of each mitochondrion is studded
with the enzymes concerned with biologic oxidations,
providing raw materials for the reactions occurring inside
the mitochondrion.

MITOCHONDRIA
 Inner mitochondria membrane contains respiratory
electrone carriers(complexes I-IV),ATP Synthase, and
other membrane transporters
 The matrix contains Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
enzymes, TCA Cycle enzymes,fatty acid ᵝ-oxidation
enzymes, amino acid oxidation enzymes, DNA, ribosomes
and many other enzymes

MITOCHONDRIA
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 There are two types

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM(ER)
 The granular endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins
for secretion, new proteins for the plasma membrane, and
lysosomal enzymes; transports and stores molecules
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for
synthesis of lipids; metabolism of carbohydrates;
Detoxification of drugs and alcohol.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
RIBOSOMES
 Each is made up of a large and a small
subunit based on rates of sedimentation in
the ultracentrifuge, the 60S and 40S
subunits.
 They contain many different proteins and
at least three ribosomal RNAs .
 They are the sites of protein synthesis.
 Ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum synthesize all transmembrane
proteins, most secreted proteins, and most
proteins that are stored in the Golgi
RIBOSOMES
apparatus, lysosomes, and endosomes.
GOLGI APPARATUS
 The Golgi apparatus is a huge network of membranous
stacks called cisternae.
 These are divided into four structural and functional
components called cis-Golgi, medial-Golgi, endo-Golgi
and trans-Golgi.
 Each component carries a specialized set of enzymes and
proteins.

GOLGI APPARATUS
 molecules.
 The modifications include addition of
sugar molecules, lipid moieties,
functional groups etc.
 Site for breakdown of proteins to get
functionally active forms of the protein.
Package and distribute macromolecules
to other parts of the cell, and also
facilitates the release of molecules,
especially enzymes and hormones
outsideAPPARATUS
GOLGI the cells.
LYSOSOMES
 These are spherical organelles with a highly acidic interior that
contains degradative or lytic enzymes called hydrolases.
 Lysosomes are polymorphic and exist as primary, secondary,
autophagic and secretory lysosomes.
 Lysosomes serve as the waste disposal system of the cell
 Contains enzymes that digest unwanted molecules, aged or
damaged organelles as well as foreign bodies like bacteria,
viruses and other pathogens.
 They play a vital role in processes central to protection against

LYSOSOMES
pathogens as well as in cell membrane repair, fertilization and
self-destruction (Autolysis).
PEROXISOME
 These are small spherical organelles morphologically
similar to lysosomes.
 They consist of a central crystalloid core that is enclosed
within a phospholipid bilayer.
 The central crystalline core consists of a variety of
enzymes that are essential for several metabolic activities
of the cell.
 Peroxisomes are the site for breakdown/oxidation of fatty
acids to hydrogen peroxide, which is then decomposed by
catalase to water

PEROXISOME
CYTOSKELETON
 System of fibers that maintains the structure of the cell,
assist cell to change shape and move.
 The cytoskeleton is made up primarily of;
1) microtubules
2) intermediate filaments,
3) microfilaments
 Proteins that anchor them and tie them together

CYTOSKELETON
CYTOSKELETON
 witha cavity 15 nm in diameter.
 They are made up of two globular protein
subunits, alpha- and beta -tubulin.
 A third subunit, γ-tubulin, is associated
with the production of microtubules by
the centrosome
 They provide the tracks for transport of
vesicles, organelles such as secretory
granules, and mitochondria from one part
of the cell to another.
 They form the spindle, which moves the
1.chromosomes
MICROTUBULESin mitosis
 8-14 nm in diameter and are made up of various proteins.
 Some of these filaments connect the nuclear membrane to
the cell membrane.
 They form a flexible scaffolding for the cell and help it
resist external pressure.
 In their absence, cells rupture more easily and when they
are abnormal in humans, blistering of the skin is common.

2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
 Long solid fibers 4-6 nm in diameter made up of actin.
 The actin molecules (G-actin) polymerize in vivo to form
F-actin, the long filamentous chains that are the
microfilaments.
 They attach to various parts of the cytoskeleton.
 They reach to the tips of the microvilli on the epithelial
cells of the intestinal mucosa.
 The actin filaments interact with integrin receptors and
form focal adhesion complexes which serve as points of
traction with the surface over which the cell pulls itself.

3. MICROFILAMENT
 Amorphous region adjacent to the nucleus
 Contains a pair of centrioles (Paired perpendicular
cylindrical bodies that are composed of microtubule
triplets).
 Usually located at right angles to each other near the
nuclear membrane
 Organizes microtubules; participates in spindle formation
and movement of chromosomes during cell division.

CENTROSOME
 Long, singular membrane extension containing
microtubules.
 They propel sperm cells in human male

FLAGELLUM
 Cilia are short cellular projections that are often organized
in rows
 They contain microtubules
 They are more numerous than flagella on the cell surface,
but have the same internal structure
 Occur in large numbers on exposed membrane surfaces
 Move fluid, mucus, and materials over the cell surface.

CILIA
CILIA
 Numerous thin membrane folds projecting from the free
cell surface.
 They increase membrane surface area for increased
absorption and/or secretion.

MICROVILLI
THE END!