Module 2 - The Computer System

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN
JOURNALISM
LECTURER: MUKHWANA ERICK
(Bsc.Csc(MUK),PGD I.T(MUK)HCIA AI (Huawei)
HCIA Datacom(Huawei))
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
CONTACT: 0702383384
CONTACT HOURS: Tuesday@5pm ,Friday@5pm, Saturday@1pm
COURSE UNIT : COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Lecture 2A
COMPUTER SYSTEM
ICT by Mukhwana Erick

A computer system
• A computer system refers to a collection of entities that collectively work
together to process data into information.
The components of a computer system
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data and Information
4. Human ware/Users
5. Procedures

1. Computer Hardware
• This is a term used to describe all the various physical devices in the
system Computer hardware components are tangible (they can be
touched).
• Computer hardware includes
• Input devices like the keyboard and mouse,
• Processing devices like the Microprocessor Chip,
• Storage devices like the Hard disks and the CDs,
• Output devices like the monitor and the printer

2. Computer software
• Software is a term for electronic instructions that tell the computer how to
perform a task. These are a series of programs (instructions) that tell the
computer what and how to work. Computer software can be grouped into
System software and Application software.
• System software like the Operating system manages and coordinates all
the computer resources and activities.
• Application software like Games, Calculator and Media Player solve the
specific or exact needs of the user

3. Computer human ware /Users
• This is the most important component of a computer system. Human ware
refers to the people who operate and initialize instructions to the computer
system. They design and develop computer systems, operate the computer
hardware, create the software, and establish procedures for carrying out
tasks.
• Kinds of Computer Users
There are two kinds of Computer Users:
• Ordinary user - is someone without much technical knowledge of computers
but uses computers to produce information for professional or personal tasks,
enhance learning, or have fun. Ordinary users include Computer students,
Typists (Secretaries), etc.
• Professional user -is a person in a profession involving computers who has
had formal education in the technical aspects of computers; Examples include
Computer programmers, webmasters, etc.

4. Data & Information
• Data refers to raw facts and figures that are entered into the computer for
processing. Data is anything in a form suitable for input into a computer for
processing.
• Data can also be grouped into two:
• Unprocessed data Like Letters, digits and symbols (e.g., a, b, c, &, ...),
Musical notes, etc.
• Processed data (Information) Like a words (e.g boy), a mathematical
formula, grades, a piece of music, a song etc.
• Information is processed data.

5. Procedures
• . Procedure: A step-by-step process or a set of instructions for

accomplishing specific results.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
• Computer hardware refers to the physical/tangible components or parts
of the computer.
• Hardware is any physical part of the computer that you can touch, see
and pickup.
• Computer hardware is categorized in the following ways;
1) Input hardware devices
2) Processing devices
3) Output devices
4) Storage devices
5) Communication devices
6) Power backup(UPS)

1)Input hardware devices
Text input devices
Text is a general word for all characters such as letters, numerical digits,
symbols and marks that combine to form words, sentences, paragraphs
and so on. There is a variety of devices that help us to input text into a
computer. The following are the text input devices commonly used.

1. The Keyboard
A keyboard is an input device, consisting of a set of keys (buttons) used to
operate a computer. Each press of a key corresponds to a single written
character of text, but to produce some symbols, it requires pressing and
holding several keys simultaneously. Usually a standard keyboard has
between 80 to110 keys. A keyboard is the main and most reliable computer
input device.
2. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Optical mark recognition (OMR) devices read hand-drawn marks such as small
circles or rectangles. A person places these marks on a form, such as a test,
survey, or questionnaire answer sheet.
The OMR device first reads a master document, such as an answer key sheet
for a test, to record correct answers based on patterns of light; the remaining
documents then are passed through the OMR device and their patterns of
light are matched against the master document.

3. Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR)
Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) reader is used to read text printed with
magnetized ink.
MICR readers are mainly used by the banking industry for processing checks. Each
check is inserted into an MICR reader, which sends the check information to a
computer for processing.
4. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves to
transfer data from an electronic tag, attached to an object, through a reader for the
purpose of identifying and tracking the object. RFID can work over a long distance.
An RFID tag can be affixed to cars, computer equipment, books, mobile phones, etc.
5. Magnetic Strip Card Readers

A magnetic stripe card reader reads the magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards,
bank ATM cards, and other similar cards. Exposure to a magnet or magnetic field can
erase the information and contents of a card's magnetic stripe.

Pointing Input Devices
A pointing device is an input device, which allows users to move a pointer and
make selections on the computer screen. A pointing device is any piece of
hardware that is used to input spatial data into a computer.
There are many examples of pointing devices such as:
1. Mouse/cordless mouse
The cordless mouse is a lot better than a normal mouse. It reduces the amount
of work space needed to move the mouse around. This mouse runs on a battery.
When you move the mouse it sends an infrared beam to a sensor which
interprets it causing the pointer to move.
2. Stylus pen & digitizing tablet
Stylus pen- The pen lets you draw on what is called a digitizing tablet that
mirrors the surface area of the computer screen. The pen can be used as a
standard mouse (without wires connected to it) or also as a free flowing drawing
device. The pen is useful for drawing since drawing graphics with a mouse tends
to be somewhat difficult.

3. Trackball
The trackball is an upside-down mouse that remains stationary on your desk. It
is the same principle as the mouse except that the rollers are reversed and the
ball is on top. This ball does not need as much attention as the normal mouse
because the only thing that touches it is your hand as the normal mouse
touches a surface.
4. Touchpad
The touchpad has sensors that sense your touch. When they sense your touch
they send a signal to the computer to move the mouse pointer to that location
on the screen. Common on laptop computers.
5. Light pen
Light pen- is a form of a light-sensitive wand used in conjunction with a
computer's CRT TV set or monitor. It allows the user to point to displayed
objects, or draw on the screen, in a similar way to a touch screen but with
greater positional accuracy. A light pen can work with any CRT-based display,
but not with LCD screens, projectors and other display devices.

6. Touch Screens
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive input and display device. Users can interact
with these devices by touching areas of the screen.
You touch words, pictures, numbers, letter, pointers or special locations
identified on the screen. With some smart phones, portable media players, and
other personal mobile devices, you can touch the screen to perform tasks such
as dialing telephone numbers, entering text, and making on-screen selections.
Kiosks, which are freestanding computers, usually have touch screens. Many
ATMs also have touch screens.
7. Track Point
A Track Point, also called a pointing stick, is a cursor control device located in
the middle of the keyboard between the G, H, and B keys. The control buttons
are located in front of the keyboard toward the user. The Track Point is
operated by pushing in the general direction the user wants the cursor to
move. Increasing pressure causes faster movement.


Imaging Input Devices
Imaging input Devices are devices that input images such as still photos, motion
pictures, graphics, video etc. into the computer for processing.
1. Image scanner
A scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts hardcopy documents,
drawings, or pictures to an electronic version (softcopy), which can then be
stored on a disk. The electronic version of scanned material is in the form of
rows and columns of dots called a bitmap
Each dot on a bitmap consists of one or more bits of data.

2. Digital Camera
A digital camera allows users to take pictures and store the photographed
images digitally instead of storing on a traditional film.
When you take pictures, the images are electronically stored in the camera.
Later, you transfer a copy of the stored pictures to your computer or printer by
connecting a cable between the digital camera and your computer.
3. Camcorder
This is a light weight video camera that records data in digital form onto a
storage device such as a videotape.

4. Digital video (DV) camera
A digital video (DV) camera, by contrast records video as digital signals
instead of analog signals. To transfer recorded images to the computer hard
disk, users connect DV cameras directly to a port on the system unit. After
saving the video on a storage medium, you can play it or edit it and burn it
to a DVD using software programs on the computer.
5. Web cam
A Web cam, also called a PC video camera, is a type of digital video camera
that usually sits on top of the monitor. Some laptop computers have built-in
Web cams.


Gaming input Devices
Gaming input devices are devices specifically designed
to be used for playing computer games.
1. Gaming keyboard
Gaming keyboards typically include programmable keys
so that gamers can customize the keyboard to the game
being played. The keys on gaming keyboards light up so
that the keys are visible in all lighting conditions.
Some have small displays that show important game
statistics, such as time to targets remaining.

2. Gaming wheels
A gaming wheel is a steering wheel-type input device. Users turn the wheel to
simulate driving a vehicle using programs on a computer. Most gaming wheels
also include foot pedals for acceleration and braking actions. Gaming wheels
include buttons, called triggers that you press to initiate certain events
3. Joystick
Joystick- Consists of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or
direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video
games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read
by the computer.

4. Gamepad
A gamepad controls the movement and actions of players or objects in video
games or computer games. On the gamepad, users press buttons with their
thumbs or move sticks in various directions to trigger events. Gamepads
communicate with a game console or a personal computer via wired or
wireless technology.
5. Light gun
A light gun is used to shoot targets and moving objects after you pull the
trigger on the weapon. Instead of emitting light, most light guns work by
detecting light. When the user pulls the trigger, the screen uses one of several
techniques to send light, which is received by a receptor in the barrel of the
gun.

6. Dance pad
A dance pad is a flat electronic device divided into panels that users press
with their feet in response to instructions from a music video game. These
games test the user’s ability to step on the correct panel at the correct time,
following a pattern that is matching with the beat of a song.
7. Motion sensing game controllers
These are devices that allow the user to guide onscreen elements by moving
a handheld input device in predetermined directions through the air.
Examples include the power glove, play station move gadgets, among
others.


Audio input Devices
Audio input is the process of entering any sound into the computer such as
speech, music, and sound effects. To enter sound into a computer, it must
have a sound card. Audio input devices are plugged into a port on the
sound card.
(i) Sound Card
A sound card is a device that can be slotted into a computer to allow the
use of audio components for multimedia applications. Without a sound
card, Audio input and output is not possible.

(ii) Microphones
A microphone is an instrument for converting sound waves into electrical
energy variations, which may then input into the computer for processing,
recording or audio playback. Microphones are connected to the sound card
in the system unit.
(iii) Dictaphone
This the earliest device most commonly used to record speech for later
playback or to be typed into print. It was established by Alexander Graham
Bell in Washington, D.C. in 1881.


Biometric input Devices
A biometric device translates a biological personal characteristic into a digital
code that is stored or compared with a digital code stored in the computer.
1. Fingerprint scanner
A fingerprint scanner captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint. Some
grocery and retail stores now use fingerprint readers as a means of payment,
where the customer's fingerprint is linked to an account or credit card.

2. Face Recognition systems
A face recognition system captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image to determine if the person is a legitimate user. Some buildings
use face-recognition systems to secure access to rooms.
3. Hand geometry system
Biometric devices measure the shape and size of a person's hand using a
hand geometry system. Some large companies use this system as time and
attendance devices or as security devices. Day-care centers use this system
to verify parents who pick up their children.

4. Signature verification systems
A signature verification system recognizes the shape of your handwritten
signature, as well as measures the pressure exerted and the motion used to
write the signature. Signature verification system uses a specialized pen and
tablet.
5. Iris recognition system
These are devices that use iris recognition technology to read patterns in the
iris of the eye. These patterns are as unique as a fingerprint. Iris recognition
systems are used by government security organizations, the military and
financial institutions that deal with highly sensitive data.

PROCESSING INPUT DEVICES
Processing devices are the computer electronic components and chips

housed in the system unit. They are used to interpret, manipulate,
convert, translate and transform input data into information. Therefore
a processing device handles the intermediate stage in the computer.

1. The system unit
The system unit is a box-like case/chassis that houses all the internal
components of the computer like motherboard, the disks and drive bays, the
power supply and cooling systems. The system unit gives shape and
appearance of the computer. It also protects the internal components against
damage. The components in the system unit are connected to the
motherboard. A drive bay is a rectangular opening inside the system unit that
typically holds disk drives.

2. The Motherboard
The motherboard is a single circuit board that provides the path through
which the processor communicates with internal and peripheral devices.
The motherboard is also called the system board.
The components attached to the motherboard include the processor chip
(the CPU), memory chips, support electronic circuitry, buses, and Expansion
Slots for Adapter Cards.

3. The Power Supply Unit
The power supply is the component of the system unit that converts the wall
outlet Alternating Current (AC) power of 110 to 240 volts into Direct Current
(DC) power of 0.5 to 12 volts. Built into the power supply is a fan that keeps
the power supply cool. Processor chips generate heat, which could cause the
chip to burn up. A heat sink is a small ceramic or metal component with fins
on its surface that absorbs and disperses heat produced by electrical
components such as a processor.

4. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The central processing unit/ microprocessor/processor (CPU) is a chip that
interprets, carries out the basic instructions and manages most of a
computer's operations. It is at times referred to as the ‘brain’ of the
computer. It has two basic sections: the control unit (CU) and the
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which work together to perform the processing
operations. Other CPU components are the Registers and the System Clock.

The basic sections of the CPU
Control Unit
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Registers
1. The control unit (CU)

The control unit is the component of the processor that directs and
coordinates most of the operations in the computer.
It interprets each instruction issued by programs and then initiates the
appropriate action to carry out the instruction. For every instruction, the
control unit repeats a set of four basic steps called the machine cycle steps:

The machine cycle steps
The machine cycle steps: refers to the series through which data is
converted into information in the central processing unit.
Step 1: Fetching the instruction. The instruction to be executed is obtained
from memory.
Step 2: Decoding the instruction. The instruction is translated into
commands the computer understand and sent to the ALU.
Step 3: Executing the instruction. The commands are carried out.
Step 4: Storing results. The results are stored in registers or memory.

2. Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
The ALU performs the arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations in a
computer. It performs the execution step of a machine cycle.
Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators such as AND,
OR, and NOT.
For example, if you wanted to search a student database for Candidates of
Computer studies, you would search for any students classified under
‘Computer studies AND listed under Candidates.

3. Registers
Registers are high-speed working storage areas that temporarily hold
instructions and data during processing. Registers work under the direction of
the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instruction or data and
comparisons at high speed. Registers are not part of Memory or Secondary
Storage: Registers hold data immediately related to the operation being
executed. Memory is used to store data that will be used in the near future.
Secondary storage holds data that may be needed later (in future)

Types of registers
Instruction register, which contains the instruction being executed.
Address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of
data is stored in memory.
Storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be
sent to memory.
The Accumulator, which collects the result of computations.
General-purpose register, which is used for several functions, as assigned
by the Control Unit

5. The system clock
The system clock is a small chip that is used by the CPU to synchronize the
timing of all computer operations. The system clock generates electronic
pulse or ticks at a fixed rate, which set the operating pace of components in
the system unit. Each tick is called a clock cycle, which affects machine cycle
time. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per
second.

OUTPUT DEVICES
These are devices that are used to convey and display information to the
user. A display device is an output device that visually conveys text,
graphics, and video information. Output is data that has been processed
into a useful form called information. Computers generate several types of
output, depending on the hardware and software being used and the
requirements of the user.
Commonly used output devices include
• Display devices
• Printers
• Audio Output Devices

Categories of Computer output
• While working with a computer, a user encounters four basic categories of
output:
• Text, (characters that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs)
• Graphics (non-text information such as drawings and charts)
• Audio (music, speech, or any other sound)
• Video (full-motion images played back at various speeds)

a) Display Devices/ Visual Display Units
A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and
video information. Information shown on a display device often is called soft
copy, because the information exists electronically and is displayed for a
temporary period of time.
Commonly used display devices include
• CRT Monitors
• LCD Monitors
• Plasma monitors
• Projectors
• Headgears
• LED displays

CRT Monitors
A CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor is a desktop screen that contains a large
sealed glass cathode-ray tube. Inside the CRT, an electron beam moves back
and forth across the back of the screen. This causes dots on the front of the
screen to glow, producing an image on the screen. Each dot consists of a red, a
green, and a blue phosphor, which combine to make up a pixel.
Advantages of CRT Monitors
• They are less expensive.
• They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need
of rescaling the image.
• CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.
• Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast generally available.
• Produce the very best color and gray scale.
• Have fast response times and no motion artifacts
• Can also be viewed from a wide angle.
• They are very durable/lasts long
Disadvantages of CRT Monitors
• They consume a lot of electric energy.

• Affected by magnetic fields from other equipment including other
CRTs
• Have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape
• Emit electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields.
• They are large, heavy, and bulky.
• All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns.
• They are subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation
problems.
• Produce a lot of heat.

• Flat-Panel Displays
A flat-panel display is a lightweight display device with a shallow depth and
flat screen that typically uses LCD (liquid crystal display) or gas plasma
technology. Examples of flat -panel displays include LCD monitors, and
plasma monitors. Many are widescreen, i.e. much wider than they are tall.
Screens are measured diagonally from one corner to the other. Common
sizes are 17”, 19”, 20”, 22”, 24” and 27”, 45” and 65 inch screens

Advantages of LCD Monitors
• They consume less electrical energy.

• They are portable in size, light,thin,
• The image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel.
• There is minor distortion from other resolutions because the images
must be rescaled.
• Produce very bright images.
• The screens are perfectly flat.
• Produce little energy

Disadvantages of LCD Monitors
• They are very expensive
• Limited viewing angle
• Each panel has a fixed pixel resolution format determined at the time of
manufacture that cannot be changed.
• Have difficulty producing black and very dark grays.
• The bright end of the LCD intensity scale is easily overloaded.
• The internal Gamma and gray-scale of an LCD is very irregular.
• Can have many weak or stuck pixels which are permanently on or off.
• LCDs have fixed resolution and aspect ratio

Data Projectors
A data projector takes the image that displays on a computer screen and
projects it onto a large screen or wall so that an audience of people can see the
image clearly. For example, many classrooms use data projectors so that all
students easily can see an instructor's presentation on the screen. Presence of
excess light affects data projectors and so they perform well in dark rooms.
Head Mounted Display (HMD) / Headgear
A headgear is made up of two tiny display and sound systems that channel
images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears, thus presenting a
stereo three dimensional sound effect in the virtual world.
The wearer may also put on a body suit that senses the body movement and
relays the data into the virtual reality system which in turn adjusts the position
of the user in the system.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) displays
A LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video
display. A LED panel may be a small display, or a component of a larger display.
They are typically used outdoors in store signs and billboards.

(b) Printers
A printer is a device that produces a hard copy output such as text and
graphics on a physical material like paper. Printed information (hard copy)
exists physically and in a more permanent form than a soft copy on a display
device. Printers with different speeds, features, quality, and capabilities are
available in a range of prices.
Printers can be grouped into two categories:
• Impact printers
• Non-impact printers.

IMPACT PRINTERS
• An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper

by a striking mechanism against an ink ribbon that physically contacts
the paper. Impact printers are noisy because of this striking activity.
• Large Businesses use impact printers because these printers can
withstand dusty environments, vibrations, and extreme
temperatures. Commonly used types of impact printers include
Daisy wheel, dot-matrix, Braille and line printers.

Characteristics/features of impact printers
• Very low consumable costs
• They are very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact between the papers to produce an image.
• They are relatively very slow.
• They do not print transparencies
• Multiple carbon copies may be printed at once.
• Print quality is relatively low.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
• A nonimpact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of

paper without actually striking the paper. Some spray ink, while
others use heat or pressure to create images. Commonly used
nonimpact printers are ink-jet printers, laser printers, thermal
printers, plotters, and mobile printers.

Advantages of Non-Impact –printers.
• They print high quality images

• They are very speedy
• The printer does not make contact with the paper
• They print on most types of paper
• They can also print on transparencies.
• They do not make noise when printing.

AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES
• Computer Speakers
• PC internal Speakers
• Headphones and Earphones
Other Output Devices
• Fax (or facsimile) machine
• Interactive whiteboard.
• Machine Tools.
• LED displays.
• Multifunction peripherals.

STORAGE DEVICES
• Secondary storage devices refers to the category of hardware devices that

stores, holds and keeps data and information permanent in the computer.
They are non-volatile devices.
• When a user issues a command to start an application program, the
operating system locates the program in secondary storage, and loads it into
primary memory. In this Unit, we shall focus on secondary memory

Common terms related to storage devices.
• A Storage medium is the physical material on which a computer keeps data.
There is a variety of storage media available e.g.harddisk,SSD, DVD-
ROM,CD-ROM,Flashdisk, memory card etc
• Capacity is the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold.
• A Storage Device reads and writes data to and from a storage medium e.g
DVD drive, external card reader,USB card reader, Flopy dsk drive,.
• Reading is the process in which a storage device transfers data, from a
storage medium into memory.
• Writing is the process in which a storage device transfers data from memory
to a storage medium (saving).
• Access time, is a measure of the amount of time it takes a storage device to
locate an item on a storage medium.
• Transfer rate is the speed with which data, instructions, and information
move to and from a device. Transfer rates for storage are stated in Kbps
(kilobytes per second).
Categories of Secondary Storage Media
There is a wide variety of storage devices in the following categories.

a)Magnetic storage media
b)Optical storage media
c)Solid-state storage devices

a) Magnetic storage media
The term magnetic storage refers to the storage of data on a magnetized
device. Therefore magnetic storage devices are devices that store data using
magnetized technology.
Common examples of magnetic media include:
Magnetic tape
Floppy disk,
Zip and Jazz disks
Hard disk drives (HDD)

b) Optical Storage Media
Optical storage refers to recording of data by making marks in a pattern that
can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser light.
The reflected light is converted into a series of bits that the computer can
process. An optical disc is a flat, round, portable storage medium made of
metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and read by a laser.
Examples of optical storage Media
• A compact disc (CD)
• CD-R (compact disc-recordable)
• CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable)
• DVD-ROM

c) Solid-state Storage Media (SSS)
Solid state storage (SSS)/flash memory: is a type of computer storage media

that is made from silicon microchips. SSS stores data electronically instead
of magnetically. Flash memory stores the binary data of zeros and ones, but
it does so with electrons that shuttle through the device's circuitry instead
of magnetic poles on a disk. Because electrons store the data, the devices
have no moving mechanical parts. This allows the drives to consume less
power than traditional magnetic drives and to retrieve data faster.

Other Storage Media
• USB flash drive

• Smart Card
• Memory card/Memory Stick
• Punched Cards
• Data Logger

Characteristics of Modern Computers
(1) Speed
Computers operate at extremely high speeds. Their speed is measured in
millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
(2) Automatic
Computers are automatic machines, because once started on a job, they carry
on, until the job is finished, without any human assistance. However,
computer being machines cannot start them. They cannot go out find their
own problems and solutions. They have to be instructed.
(3) Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. The errors in made computing are due to the
users but not technological weakness. If a user enters wrong data, the
computer gives wrong Information. This trend is described as GIGO (Garbage
In, Garbage Out)

(4) Computers are versatile:
Modern Computers can perform different kinds of tasks at the same time.
For example you can play music while typing a document at the same time.
This is also known as multi-tasking.
(5) Diligence: this is the ability of a computer to work without getting tired or
bored. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error human
beings in doing regular types of jobs, which requires great accuracy..
(6) Artificial Intelligence: This is the ability of a computer to think and reason
likes a human being. The computer is capable of mimicking human
behaviours like sensing, responding to the stimuli and others.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Classification by process
• Digital computers
• Analog computers
• Hybrid computers
Analog computers.
An Analog Computer is a computing device that uses continuously changing
values to represent information. It generally deals with physical variables
such as temperature, weight, voltage, pressure, speed, etc. The results
given by the analog computers are approximate since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously. Almost all of the measuring devices are
“Analog computers”.

Examples of Analog computers
• Thermometers,
• Voltmeters and Ammeters
• Speedometers, Barometers
• Traditional automatic watches
• The slide rule is a hand-operated analog computer for doing
multiplication and division, square roots, cubes and cube roots etc

Digital Computers
• These are computers that use discrete (discontinuous) values, i.e. binary digits
(0, 1) to represent data. The binary digits simply mean the presence or
absence of an electric pulse/ voltage. The state of being on is represented by 1
and off is represented by 0.
• Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can
be either discontinuous, such as numbers, and letters, or continuous, such as
sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems. Digital
computers are more accurate and work at a very fast rate.

Examples of digital computers
• All Personal computers (PCs)

• Laptops,
• Digital Watches

Hybrid Computers
• A hybrid computer combines the desirable features of analog and digital

computers. A hybrid computer accepts analog signals and converts them to
digital for processing.
• It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes
and machines. Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters
are used for transforming the data into suitable form for either type of
computation. Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks

Examples of Hybrid computers
• Digital petrol pumps are an example of hybrid computers.

• They measure physical quantities and represent its values in digital form.
• In Hospitals’ Intensive care units, analog devices measure the patients
temperature, blood pressure and other vital signs.
• These measurements which are in analog are then converted into
numbers and supplied to digital components in the system

Differences between Analog and Digital
Computers
Digital Computers Analogue Computers
Use binary code to represent Use changing phenomena due to the
information (0s and 1s) environment
Have no interference and background Have interference and background
noise noise
They are generally fast and cheap They are slow
Data loss does not degrade over time Data degrades over time
during transmission
Data can be compressed Data cannot be compressed
More accurate Less accurate
Classification of Computers by size
• According to size or capacity, we base on the physical size and the number
of people the computers can accommodate at the same time.
• Digital computers can be grouped into four classes as follows:

Super Computers
• Super Computers are the best in terms of processing capacity. These

computers can process billions of instructions per second. They are
used for applications which require intensive numerical computations
such as weather forecasting. They have a high storage capacity and
are huge in size. They generate large amounts of heat and therefore
need complex cooling systems. A supercomputer channels all its
power into executing a few programs as fast as possible. Super
computers are the most expensive ones

Mainframe Computers
• These are powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for

bulk data processing such as census, and financial transaction
processing. They are also called central processors because they
process data centrally. These computers are used in places where
processing needs to be done in bulk such as banks. They can store a
lot of information. They support a wide range of peripheral devices.
They have many users connected via dumb terminals.

Mini Computers
• A minicomputer is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the

middle range between mainframe computers and the smallest single-
user systems (microcomputers or personal computers).
• They are similar to main frames but they are smaller in size, support
a limited number of peripheral devices connected to them, Have a
lower speed, have lesser storage capacity, and support less number
of users at the same time than as compared to main frames.

Micro Computers (a.k.a. Personal Computers
–PCs)
• A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central
processing unit. When equipped with a keyboard and screen for
input and output, they are also personal computers. They are single
user and are the most widely used computers in our everyday life.
Micro computers are relatively cheap, smaller in size and support
fewer peripheral devices.

Micro computers are further classified into:
• Desktop computers: Designed to be stationed in one place probably on top of
a desk.
• Laptop computers: These are more portable and suitable for mobile
computing.
• Palmtops/Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): These are handheld digital
computers.
Characteristics of microcomputers
• They are portable due to their size.
• Have limited support of peripheral devices.
• Fast in processing information.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BY
PURPOSE

Special Purpose Computers
• A special purpose computer is designed to operate on a restricted type of
problems. They have instructions permanently stored in them to perform
the given task quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose computers
have the capability of performing just one task. They are commonly
referred to as "dedicated computers,”
Examples of Special Purpose Computers
• Automatic Teller Machines (ATM),
• Pocket calculators,
• Computers that operate lifts
NB: Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

General Purpose Computers
• General-Purpose Computers are designed to solve a wide range of
problems. They are also able to act in response to new programs created
to meet different needs. A general-purpose computer is one that has the
ability to store different programs of instruction and thus to perform a
variety of operations. Most PCs (Desktops, laptops and palmtops) are
general purpose.

Classification by processor power
Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified into
• a. Sequential computers and
• b.Parallel computers
• a)Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers
is with one microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see
are sequential computers where in any task is completed sequentially
instruction after instruction from the beginning to the end.

Classification by processor power
• b) Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast.

New types of computers that use a large number of processors. The
processors perform different tasks independently and simultaneously
thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs
dramatically. Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers
at a fraction of the cost.

• PCs can be classified by their microprocessor model name or number.
The leading processor chip manufacturers for personal computers are
Intel, AMD, IBM, and Motorola. Due to the rapid changes in
technology processing power is also rapidly increasing. Computers
are getting faster and faster each time a new micro-processor chip is
introduced

Examples of Microprocessors
80286,
80386,
Pentium I,
Pentium II,
Pentium III,
Pentium IV
I core 3
I core 5
I core 7
Pentium Duo core,
Core 2 Quad,
Celeron,

COMPUTER BOOTING
• Booting is the process of starting the computer and it involves loading of the
operating system into the memory of the computer.
• Booting is the process of loading the operating system (OS) from disk into
working memory. Booting (also known as booting up) is the initial set of
operations that a computer system performs when electrical power is
switched on.

Types of booting
There are basically two types of booting:

1. Cold booting/Hard boot: This is the process of turning on a computer
after it had been powered off completely.
2. Warm booting/Soft boot: This is the process of restarting a computer
that already is powered on.

Reasons for cold booting
• When the computer stops responding
• After installing a software program
• After uninstalling a software program
• To recover from errors that cannot be recovered.
• When a computer freezes or locks
• When the computer slows down.
• When switching operating systems in case of multi-boot system
Reasons for warm booting
• After troubleshooting the computer
• Automated software can also cause a warm boot.
• Unexpected power loss can also cause a reboot
• When a computer is infected with a virus.

Benefits of restarting a computer
• It flushes RAM and removes other files that could be causing computer
freezing.
• Fast Performance. Reboots are known to keep computers running quickly.
• Stops Memory Leaks. These occur when a program doesn't close properly.
• Fixes Internet Connection.
Procedure for a warm boot
• On a computer running Windows, a warm boot can be accomplished by
pressing the Ctrl+Alt+Del keys simultaneously or
• By selecting a restart option within Windows.

Why a computer may restart
• When there is a computer virus. A computer may restart itself.

• When a computer program is in the process of installing operating
system.
• When the CPU fan or heat sink stops to work, the computer shall
keep on restarting.

Step-by-step process of booting
• The power supply sends a signal to the components in the system unit.
• The processor finds the ROM chip(s) that contain the
BIOS (Basic input/output system).
• The BIOS performs the POST (Power-On Self-Test) which checks components
such as the mouse, keyboard and adapter cards. A series of messages may
display.
• The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS chip.
• The BIOS looks for system files on the Hard disk (C:)

• The system files and the kernel of the Operating System load into RAM
from the Hard
• The OS loads configuration information and displays the welcome screen.
• A series of messages that may be displayed during a POST
• On startup, the OS may verify that the person attempting to use the
computer is a legitimate user through use of a password.
• After the user logs on, the desktop and icons are displayed on the screen.
• Finally, the operating system also executes programs in the Startup folder,
which contains a list of programs that open automatically when you boot
the computer.

Terms used in the Booting process
• A boot loader is a computer program that loads the main operating

system or runtime environment for the computer after completion of
self-tests. Examples of boot loaders include NTLDR, BOOTMGR, GNU
GRUB, Syslinux, etc.
• A boot drive is the drive from which your personal computer boots
(starts). In most cases, drive C (the hard disk) is the boot drive.

System Configuration
System Configuration is the arrangement in which hardware and

software components of a given computer are laid out, set up or
interconnected in order to have a working computer to perform
intended tasks. In this section, two areas are important:
• System specification of a computer,
• How to find system specifications of a computer.

System specifications
• The specification or ‘spec’ is a list of the key components that make up
the computer. It is provided by retailers to help buyers decide which PC,
and which combination of features, they need. When buying a PC, it is
important to start by deciding what it is you want the PC to do.
• This is structured set of information manufacturers provide to indicate a
given standards in the design of a system or sub-system. System
specifications are either minimum or recommended.

• Minimum system specifications include the list of requirement design
component(s) that can be used at a level of the lowest guidelines for
software or hardware to perform a task.
• Recommended system specifications are requirements that are almost
always of a significantly higher level and represent the ideal situation in
which to run the software or hardware component.
• A sample of system requirements include:

• Hardware requirements
• The most common set of requirements defined by any operating
system or software application is the physical computer resources, also
known as hardware, A hardware requirements list is often accompanied
by a Hardware Compatibility List (HCL), especially in case of operating
systems. An HCL lists tested, compatible, and sometimes incompatible
hardware devices for a particular operating system or application.

Hardware requirements of a computer
• Architecture.
• Processing power.
• Memory.
• Secondary storage.
• CD ROM drives.
• Display adapter.
• Peripherals.
• Network interface card (NIC)

Software requirements
• Deal with defining software resource requirements and basics that

need to be installed on a computer to provide optimal functioning of
an application. They include:
• Platform.
• APIs and drivers.
• DirectX.
• .framework.
• Web browser.
• Internet connection.

How to find specifications of a computer:
• Using the internet:

• Open a browser of your choice,
• Use a URL of any search engine of your choice.
• Type in the computer name and model.
• A list of system requirements shall be displayed for you.
• On the computer itself:
• Right click my computer(This PC).
• Select properties.
• Note: This approach shall give you a detailed list of standard information
clusters that provides a better way of understanding how the system
shall work.

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Processing devices are the computer electronic components and chips

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1. The control unit (CU)

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