COMPUTER SYSTEMS

System
A system can be defined as a collection of interrelated components that work together
towards a collective goal. The function of a system is to receive inputs and transform
them into outputs.

Information System
An information system is a system that accepts data resources as input and processes
them into information products as output.

Computer System
A computer system is a collection of entities that work together to process data and
manage information using computers.

Components of a computer system

A computer system consists of three main components namely;
(i) People (liveware/orgware)
People are required for the operation of all computer systems. These people
resources include end users and specialists.
 End users (also called users or clients) are people who use computer system or the
information it produces. They can be accountants, salespersons, engineers, clerks,
customers, or managers. Most of us are information system end users.
 Computer Specialists are people who develop and operate computer systems. They
include systems analysts, programmers, computer operators etc.
(ii) Hardware
Computer hardware includes all physical or tangible components of a computer
system. Examples of computer hardware are:
 Central Processing Unit
 Input devices e.g. keyboard, mouse
 Output devices e.g. printers and monitors
 Secondary storage devices e.g. hard disks and flash disks
(iii) Software
Computer software refers to the instructions that tell the computer hardware how to
perform a task.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped into four major categories
namely:
 Input devices
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Output devices
 Secondary Storage devices

Page 1 of 37
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are computer hardware that translates data from human readable into a
form that the computer can process. In other words, input devices allow people to put or
enter data into the computer in a form the computer can use. The human-readable form
may be words like the ones in these sentences but the computer-readable form consists of
binary 0s and 1s, or on and off signals.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. These
include:
 Keying devices
 Pointing devices
 Scanning devices
 Speech/Voice recognition devices
 Digital devices

Keying devices
Keying devices are input devices are input hardware that convert numbers and other
characters into machine readable from. Keying devices include keyboard and keypad.
Key pads are found on devices such smart phones and ATMs (Automatic Teller
Machines).

Because keying devices require typing by people, the data input this way is less accurate
than data input via non-keyboard source data entry devices.

Pointing devices
One of the most natural of all human gestures is the act of pointing. This concept is
incorporated in several kinds of input devices. The pointing devices used with
microcomputers are the mouse, the trackball, the joystick and the touchpad all of which
have variations. All pointing devices have the same purpose; allowing the user to move
the cursor (or pointer) around the screen and to click to select items or perform other
functions.

1.Mouse
A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer on the computer’s
display screen. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse, its
connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one must
make it scurry along a surface. When you move the mouse on the desktop, the pointer on
the screen moves in the same direction. The mouse pointer is the symbol that indicates
the position of the mouse on the display screen. The pointer will change from an arrow to
a pointing finger icon depending on the task you are performing. It also changes to the
shape of an I-beam to indicate where text or other data may be entered.

Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which have different
functions depending on what program is running. Some newer mice also include a scroll

Page 2 of 37
wheel for scrolling through long documents. The movement of the mouse over a flat
surface is mirrored by a pointer on the monitor screen. Buttons on the mouse allow you to
make selections from the menus, move objects around the screen and paint or draw.

Types of Mice

Mechanical Mice
Mechanical mice use a rubber-coated ball that contacts the mouse pad. Moving the mouse
causes the ball to move, which in turn causes one or both of the internal cylindrical
rollers with which the ball is in contact to move.

Advantages
 Mechanical mice are inexpensive.

Disadvantages
 They require frequent cleaning since the ball can get dirty. Dirt causes the mouse
pointer to move erratically.
 They provide limited resolution
 They are unreliable because of many moving parts

Optical Mice
Optical mouse uses an optical sensor instead of the mouse ball. It emits a small beam of
red light which bounces off the surface into a sensor. The sensor sends co-ordinates to the
computer which in turn moves the cursor or pointer on the monitor screen, according to
these co-ordinates.

Advantages
 Do not require frequent cleaning as mechanical mice.
 More reliable because of the reduced number of moving parts
 Can slide over most surfaces since it does not have a ball.

Disadvantages
 They are more expensive than mechanical mice

Cordless Mouse
The cordless mouse uses the wireless communication technology (via infrared, radio or
Bluetooth) to transmit data to the computer. And like the wireless, it doesn’t use any
cord.

2.Trackball
Another pointing device, the trackball is a variant on the mouse. A trackball is a movable
ball on top of a stationary device that is rotated with the fingers or palm of the hand. A
trackball looks like a mouse turned upside down. To move the pointer, you rotate the ball
with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your hand. There are usually one to three
buttons next to the ball, which you use just like mouse buttons.

Page 3 of 37
3.The touchpad
The touchpad contains a touch-sensitive pad and is normally found on laptops. It is a
pressure- and motion-sensitive flat surface about the same size as a mouse over which
you move your fingers to control the cursor/pointer on the screen. Buttons placed close to
this surface allow for selection of features on the screen.

4.The Pointing Stick

A pointing stick is a pointing device first developed by IBM for its notebook computers.
Most pointing sticks are pressure-sensitive, so the pointer moves faster when more
pressure is applied. The pointing stick found on laptop computers looks like a pencil
eraser. It protrudes from the keyboard between the B, G and H keys. Pushing on the
pointing stick with your finger will move the pointer around the screen. Once again,
buttons placed close by allow for selection of features on the screen.

5.Joysticks
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick which lets you control the movement of
an object on the screen by operating a small lever. It is used mainly for computer games
such as flight simulators and occasionally for CAM/CAD systems. Special joysticks are
also available for people with disabilities that don’t let them use a mouse or a trackball.

6.Light pen
The light pen is a light-sensitive stylus or pen-like device connected by a wire to the
computer terminal. It allows you to point and make selections more accurately on a
screen. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed
against the screen, detects the light from the screen and enables the computer to identify
the location of the pen on the screen. Making selections with a light pen is far more
accurate than using your finger to make selections on a touch sensitive screen. Light pens
also allow the user to draw directly on the screen. However, they are not as accurate as a
digitising tablet and drawing can become uncomfortable.

Digitising tablet (graphics tablet)

A digitising tablet is a board which can detect the position of a pointing device such as a
stylus or a puck on its surface. A stylus is a pen-like pointing device for a user sketches
an image on the graphics/digitising tablet. A puck is a copying device with which the
user traces or copies an image. The images the user sketches are displayed on the
computer screen. Digitizing tablets are used primarily in graphics design, computer
animation and engineering.

Pen-Based Systems
Pen-based computer systems use a pen-like stylus to enter handwriting and marks into a
computer. Small handheld computers called PDAs (Personal digital assistants) use pen-
based input.

Page 4 of 37
Touch Screens
A touch screen is a video display screen that has been sensitized to receive input from the
touch of a finger. Behind the screen, which is covered with a plastic layer, there are
invisible beams of infrared light. The user can input a request for information by pressing
on displayed buttons and then see the requested information displayed as output on the
screen.

Touch screens are often used in automatic teller machines, in directories displaying
tourist information in airports and hotels, in fast-food restaurants to select menu items
and in preschool multimedia education.

SOURCE-DATA (DIRECT) ENTRY

Source-data input devices do not require keystrokes to input data to the computer. Data is
entered from as close to the source as possible; people do not need to act as typing
intermediaries. Source-data entry devices include scanning devices, voice recognition
input devices and digital input devices

Scanning Devices
Scanners are input devices that use laser beams and reflected light to translate hardcopy
images of text, drawings and photos into digital form. The images can then be processed
by a computer, displayed on a monitor, stored on a storage device, or communicated to
another computer. Scanning devices can be classified according to the technology they
use to capture data. These are optical scanners magnetic scanners.

Magnetic Scanners
Magnetic scanners capture by using magnetic technology. Magnetic scanners include:
magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) and magnetic stripe.

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a scanner that translates the magnetically
charged numbers printed at the bottom of bank cheques and deposit slips. MICR
characters, which are printed with magnetized ink, are read by MICR equipment,
producing a digital signal. This signal is used by a bank’s reader/sorter machine to sort
cheques.

MICR is mainly used in the banking industry to read/sort cheques. Bank cheques have
the following information encoded in them:
• The cheque number
• The bank branch number
• The customer’s account number.

Magnetic stripe codes

A magnetic stripe is a short length of magnetic coated tape printed on the surface of or
sealed into a ticket or card. It contains information to identify the ticket or card and its
user.
The card is read by swiping it – moving the magnetic strip through a reader so that the

Page 5 of 37
strip can be read. Such stripes are found on bank cards which identify the card holder’s
bank account, so that the card holder can perform banking transactions.

Cards with these magnetic stripe codes can provide quick identification of people
entering buildings, allowing access to the card holder. These cards are therefore used for
security purposes too. Examples of other uses are in phone cards and debit cards for cell
phones. The magnetic stripe in this instance contains information about the amount of
money left ‘on’ the card.

Optical Scanners
Optical scanners capture data using light. A special type of concentrated light is passed
over the object, image or text that needs to be input. These types of scanners include:
image scanners, Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Optical Mark Recognition
(OMR) and Bar-Code Readers.

Image ((Graphics) Scanners

Image scanners are scanners that convert text, drawings and photographs into digital
form. They were originally designed to scan pictures (image scanners) but now their use
is extended, for example to scan text into a word processing program. Image scanners are
used in document management, desktop publishing (DTP), and multimedia development.
There are many types of scanners:
 Flat-bed scanner: This is a type of optical scanner that consists of a flat surface on
which you lay documents to be scanned. Flatbed scanners can scan single sheets and
book-bound pages. The picture is placed on a flat scanning surface and the image is
captured, similarly to how a photocopying machine works.

 Hand-held scanner: This is a type of scanner that is rolled by hand over the
documents to be scanned. These scanners are generally used to scan in small images
or parts of images. Their resolution is not very high.

 Drum scanner: This is a type of scanner used to scan one sheet at a time. They cannot
handle book-bound pages.

 Sheet-fed scanner: This is a scanner that allows only paper to be scanned rather than
books or other thick objects. The sheet that contains the image is fed through rollers
and the picture is scanned as the paper passes through.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) uses a device that reads pencil/soft pen marks and
converts them into computer usable form. OMR technology scans a printed form and
reads predefined positions and records where marks are made on the form.

OMR detects the position of black marks on white paper. The documents to be read have
empty boxes pre-printed on them. The user makes pencil or ink marks in the appropriate

Page 6 of 37
boxes. The intensity of the reflected light from these marks on the form is detected by the
OMR. This is sometimes called mark sensing. The computer records the position of the
marks and analyses it to determine the meaning of the data. OMRs are used mainly in
assessing multiple-choice examinations such as Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
(KCPE), questionnaires given out by researchers or ballot papers.

This technology is also useful for applications in which large numbers of hand-filled
forms need to be processed quickly and with great accuracy, such as surveys, reply cards,
questionnaires and ballots.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

OCR (optical character recognition) uses a device that reads special OCR character set
called fonts as well as typewriter and computer-printed characters and converts them into
machine-readable from. Some advanced OCR systems can recognize human handwriting
but the letters must be block printed.

Examples that use OCR characters are utility bills and price tags on department-store
merchandise.

OCR is being used by libraries to digitize and preserve their holdings. OCR is also used
to process checks and credit card slips and sort the mail.

Barcode readers
A barcode is a set of vertical lines of differing thickness with a string of numbers printed
at the bottom found on most manufactured and retail products. You can see barcodes on
items in supermarkets, books in libraries and on such things as magazines. The barcode is
read by an optical scanner (barcode reader) in which a laser beam scans the barcode and
the light is reflected back into the scanner. The information received by the scanner is
sent to a computer for processing.

Barcodes form part of the Point of Sale (POS) system usually found at retail outlets. A
terminal is connected to a central computer which records details after the barcode of an
item has been scanned. The price of the product is displayed on a monitor at the point of
sale. Meanwhile the central computer calculates the amount due, including VAT, and
prints an itemised receipt. The information recorded can also be used for stock control
and sales analysis.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) uses radio waves as a means of identifying

animals, persons and objects. A chip connected to a small antenna makes up the RFID
transponder or RFID tag. Information such as a serial number is transmitted to an RFID
receiver that converts the radio waves to digital information so that it can be processed by
the computer.

RFID chips are used for tracking animals, for example, as they can be embedded in the

Page 7 of 37
skin of the animal and the tag can be read once the animal is within range of the reader.
Some stores are now tagging their merchandise with RFID tags to record POS
information, and also as a means of security to reduce theft. Alarms can be raised when
someone tries to exit a store without paying for an item.

Smart cards
In recent years, new means of storing data on cards have become available. ‘Smart’ cards
with very thin gold-coloured memory chips sealed into them can store more information
than magnetic stripe cards. Data is stored on the memory chip embedded in the card,
allowing a greater amount of information to be kept and updated on the card than would
be the case with the old-style magnetic stripe. The chips can hold information for cell
phone use, debit and credit cards, and any prepaid services. Eventually, smart cards may
store information about a person’s driving history, their birth certificate or paper, and
could even be imprinted with the holder’s voice, fingerprints and retinal scans.

Optical Cards
These are plastic, laser recordable, wallet-type cards used with optical card readers. They
can store much more data than smart cards and may become more popular in future.

Audio and video input devices

Voice data entry/voice recognition

Voice recognition systems require the use of a microphone. This system accepts the
spoken word as input data or commands. Human speech is very complex, because it
carries tones, inflections and emphasis of various parts of words and phrases. The
computer is programmed to recognise certain patterns of speech. Using a microphone,
human speech is coded into a sequence of electronic signals. These signals are compared
to a set of stored patterns. If they match, the command or data being entered is accepted
by the computer and is processed.

Simple commands can be used to control machines or even ‘type’ letters in a word
processor. Voice recognition has become important in many areas of our lives. It has
made life easier for people with movement difficulties, such as the paralysed, who with
suitable equipment can now operate a wheelchair, lighting and even open doors using
voice commands.

Sound capture
All modern computers contain a built-in microphone for sound capture. This means that
you can record your voice, for example, to make comments that are embedded in a word
processing document. A sound card on your computer is required for recording voice or
music. The sound card digitises the information into a form that the computer can
understand.

Page 8 of 37
MIDI instruments
Electronic musical instruments can have a MIDI port (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface) for input into the computer. The sounds are digitised and stored as a file, can be
displayed on screen, edited and played back, using appropriate software.

Digital input devices

Digital cameras
Digital cameras capture an image and store it in memory within the camera. These
cameras have a sensor that converts the light into electrical charges. The processor in the
camera converts this information into digital data and stores it on a small diskette, flash
memory or flash RAM card. The digital images can then be uploaded from the camera to
a computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed. The memory can be
erased so that more images can be captured. Unlike normal RAM memory where the
information is lost when the computer is switched off, flash RAM is non-volatile. That is,
the images are not lost when the camera is switched off. The resolution of the camera is
measured in pixels. The larger the number of pixels the camera has, the clearer the image
and the greater the detail captured.

Digital video camera (Digital video camcorder or DVD camcorder)

In the digital video camera, light is focused onto an image sensor called a charge-coupled
device which contains thousands of light-sensitive diodes called photo sites. These detect
the light intensity and record an image. The digital video camera/camcorder detects not
only light intensity but also levels of colour to reproduce a coloured image. The camera
takes many pictures per second to give an impression of movement.

Remote control
A remote control emits a beam of infra-red light that carries data signals. Commonly used
for input to televisions, stereo systems, VCRs and DVD players, they are now being used
by computers as a wireless means of communication.

Sensors
A sensor is an input device that collects specific kinds of data directly from the
environment and transmits it to a computer. Although you are unlikely to see these
devices connected to a computer, they exist all around us. Sensors convert chemical or
physical changes in humans and their environment to electrical signals that can be passed
to a computer, where it is analysed, stored and manipulated by special software. Sensors
are useful in the fields of medicine, environmental planning and preservation, weather
reporting, and so on. A variety of sensors can be used to measure such things as heat,
light, sound, pressure, strain, acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, humidity, pulse, water
level, water flow, speed, tilt or even something like a door or a valve opening or closing.

Page 9 of 37
 How a sensor system works

Human-Biology Input Devices

Characteristics and movements of human body when interpreted by sensors, optical
scanners, voice recognition and other technologies can become forms of input. Examples
include:

Biometric systems
Biometrics refers to the science of identifying an individual through their body
characteristics such as face geometry and hand geometry (e.g. fingerprints), iris or retinal
scans, veins and voice patterns. All these forms of identifying an individual can be input
into a computer system set up for security purposes. In the near future they may become
common, for allowing access to buildings and bank accounts. Retinal scans use a ray of
light directed into the eye to identify the distinct network of blood vessels at the back of
the eye. Fingerprint readers scan the imprint made by the pattern of ridges on the finger
and compare it to a set of patterns stored in memory. Fingerprints are considered unique,
as no two individuals have the same fingerprint.

Line-of-Sight Systems
Line-of-sight systems enable a person to use his/her eyes to point at a screen. This
technology allows users with physical disabilities to direct a computer. This is
accomplished using a video camera mounted beneath the monitor in front of the viewer.
When the user looks at a certain place on the screen, the video camera and the computer
translate that location into screen coordinates.

Terminals
People working on a large computer system are usually connected to the main or host
computer via terminals. A terminal is an input/output device that uses a keyboard for
input and a monitor for output. There are two types of terminals:
 Dumb: A dumb terminal can only be used to input data to and receive information
from a computer system; it cannot do any processing on its own.

For example, airline clerks use dumb terminals at airport ticket and check-in counters.
 Intelligent: An intelligent terminal has built-in limited processing capability and
RAM but does not have its own storage capacity. Intelligent terminals are not as
powerful as microcomputers and are often found in local area networks where users
share application software and data stored on the server. Examples of intelligent
terminals include ATMs and Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals.

 The Automated Teller Machines (ATM)

Page 10 of 37
 ATM is a terminal that reads the encoded magnetic stripe on the ATM card and
provides output in the form of display on a monitor and printed records of
transactions.

 Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals

A POS terminal combines input capabilities of a cash-register-type keypad, an optical
scanner for reading barcodes, and/or a magnetic stripe reader for reading credit cards
with output capabilities of a monitor and a receipt printer. POS terminals are usually
hooked up to a central computer for credit checking and inventory updating. POS
terminals are found in most supermarkets.

Page 11 of 37
The Processing Hardware
Data in a computer is processed by the circuitry known as the processor. In large
computers such as mainframes, the processor along with the main memory and other
basic circuitry is called the Central Processing Unit (CPU). In microcomputers the
processor is often called the microprocessor because it is made of a tiny silicon chip.
The processor works hand in hand with other circuitry known as main memory and
registers to carry out processing.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is considered as the “brain” of the computer
is the most important component of the computer and without it the computer cannot
process data. It is the centre of all processing that happens in the computer system. The
CPU continually receives instructions to be executed.

Modern CPU's are called 'integrated chips' or microprocessors. The idea of an

integrated chip is that several processing components are integrated into a single piece
of silicon fixed on the motherboard. A CPU is plugged in a CPU socket on the
motherboard, on top of the CPU is placed a heat sink and a fan which must run
whenever the CPU is in use to keep it cool. Cooling is necessary because the CPU
generates a lot of heat as it processes data, and for it to function properly and to prevent
it from crashing, it must be cooled.

Parts of the Processor

The processor follows the instructions of the software to manipulate data into
information. A CPU has three functional units namely; the Control unit, the
Arithmetic/logic unit and the main memory. These components are connected by a
kind of electronic roadway or pathway called a computer bus.

The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations and logical
operations and controls the speeds of those operations. Arithmetic operations include:
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Logical operations are comparisons. These operations involve comparing one data
item with another, and determine if the first item is greater than, equal to, or less
than the second item.

Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR,

Page 12 of 37
and NOT. Some common logic comparison symbols include the following;

Operator Meaning
= equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= less than or equal to
>= greater than or equal to
<> not equal

The Control Unit (CU)

The control unit controls the computer operations by directing the flow of information
into the CPU and/or memory or storage and controlling or determining which
instructions the CPU will execute next.

The functions of the CU include:

1. It tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program’s instruction.
2. It directs movement of electronic signals between main memory and ALU
3. It directs movements of electronic signals between main memory and the input
devices, output devices and secondary storage devices.
4. It instructs the arithmetic logic unit which logical or arithmetic operation is to be
performed.
5. It co-ordinates the activities of the ALU and main memory as well all peripherals and
auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.

Computer Bus (System Bus)

A computer bus also known as the system bus is an electronic pathway through which
bits are transmitted within the CPU and between the CPU and other devices in the
system unit. The wider the computer bus, the wider it operates. There are three kinds of
buses namely; Data bus, address bus, and the control bus.

Data Bus
The data bus carries the data between the processor and other components. The size of
the data bus determines the amount of data that can be transmitted simultaneously.

Address Bus
The address bus is a collection of wires connecting the processor with main memory
that is used to identify particular locations (addresses) in main memory.

Control Bus
The control bus is used by CPUs for communicating with other devices within the
computer by carrying commands from the CPU and returns status signals from the
devices.

Main Memory (Primary Memory)

Page 13 of 37
The main memory or the primary memory is part of computer hardware where the
processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from. This memory is
accessed by CPU in random fashion; this means that any location of this memory can be
accessed by the CPU to either read information from it or to store information in it.

The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies namely;
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a temporary working storage. This means that RAM
is the computer’s ‘work space’ or ‘desk area’ where data and programs needed for
immediate processing are held. Computer memory is contained on memory chips
mounted on the motherboard. Memory capacity is important because it determines how
much data can be processed at once and how big and complex the program used to
process data can be.

Functions of RAM
 It holds data waiting processing
 It holds the instructions (programs) for processing the data.
 It holds data that has been processed (information) and is waiting to be sent to an
output, secondary storage, or communication devices.

Characteristics of RAM
 RAM is a temporary storage whose contents are lost when the power is turned off.
Thus RAM is volatile.
 RAM is a random access memory i.e. the memory is accessed by the processor in a
random fashion.
 The size of RAM determines how much data can be processed at once and how big
and complex a program a program may be used to process the data.

Types of RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is available in two types: Dynamic Random Access
Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the most common kind of main memory in
a computer. It is a prevalent memory source in PCs, as well as workstations. Dynamic
random access memory is constantly restoring whatever information is being held in
memory. It refreshes the data by sending millions of pulses per second to the memory
storage cell. DRAM's density makes it a better choice for RAM.

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is the second type of main memory in a
computer. It is commonly used as a source of memory in embedded devices. Data held in
SRAM does not have to be continually refreshed; information in this main memory
remains as a "static image" until it is overwritten or is deleted when the power is switched

Page 14 of 37
off. Since SRAM is less dense and more power-efficient when it is not in use; it is
therefore a better choice than DRAM for certain uses like memory caches located in
CPUs.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM also known as firmware is "built-in" computer memory containing data that
normally can only be read, not written to. Thus ROM cannot be erased or written on by a
computer user. One of the ROM chips in a microcomputer contains instructions that tell
the processor what to do when you first turn on or boot the computer. These instructions
are called the ROM bootstrap. Another ROM chip helps the processor transfer
information between the keyboard, screen, printer and other peripheral devices to make
sure all units are functioning properly. These instructions are called ROM BIOS or Basic
Input/Output System. Unlike a computer's random access memory (RAM), the data in
ROM is not lost when the computer power is turned off. Thus ROM is non-volatile.
ROM is sustained by a small long-life battery in the computer.

Types of ROM
 Mask-Programmed ROM
Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are integrated circuits that physically
encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after
fabrication.
 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) are blank chips on which the user
using a special device called a PROM programmer can write programs. Once a
program is written, it cannot be erased.
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) can be erased by
exposure to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten
with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied. Repeated exposure
to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM
chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can
often be identified by the prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter.
After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent
accidental erasure.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is based on
a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or
selected to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be
removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an
EEPROM is much slower than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM.

Special Purpose Memories

Apart from ROM and RAM there are other types of special purpose memories found
inside the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories are very vital because
they enhance the overall performance of the processor. These memories include: cache
memory, registers and buffers.
Registers

Page 15 of 37
Registers are special high-speed temporary storage locations within the CPU that store
data during processing and provide working areas for computation. Registers are found
within the CU and the ALU.

Cache Memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a
computer’s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. The
CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run
programs, improving overall system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that the
CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system bus for data transfer. Whenever data
must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to the
motherboard’s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by avoiding the
bottleneck created by the system bus.

The performance of cache memory is highly affected by its level. The level of cache to
refers to its connecting circuits or electronic pathways (bus) and physical proximity to the
CPU.

Buffers
This is a temporary holding place that maybe part of the CPU or built-in an input or
output device. Because the CPU is very fat compared to input and output devices, buffers
provide temporary storage so that the CPU is free to carry out other activities instead of
waiting for all data to be entered or information to be output. For example, printer buffers
temporarily hold the output to be printed thus freeing the CPU to perform other functions.

Video Memory (Video RAM or VRAM)

VRAM chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of video
memory determines how fast images appear and how many colours are available. Video
memory chips are particularly desirable if you are running program that display a lot of
graphics. VRAM chips are usually located on a special video adapter card inserted in an
expansion slot on the system board.

Flash Memory (Flash RAM cards)

Flash memory consists of circuitry on credit-card size cards that can be inserted into slots
connecting to the motherboard. Flash RAM is derived from EEPROM and is used
primarily in portable computers. Unlike RAM chips, flash memory is non-volatile. Flash
memory can be used to simulate main memory and also to supplement or replace hard
disk drives for permanent storage.

Memory Capacities
The following terms are used to express computer capacity.

Page 16 of 37
 Bit: This is the smallest unit of measurement in a computer. Bit refers to a binary
digit – either 0 or 1.
 Byte: To represent letters, numbers, or special characters such as ! or * bits are
combined in groups. A byte refers to a group of eight bits and a byte represents one
character, digit or value.
 Kilobyte: A kilobyte (K, KB) is about 1000 bytes or precisely 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte: A Megabyte (M, MB) is about 1 million bytes (1,048,576 bytes).
 Gigabyte: A Gigabyte (G, GB) is about 1 billion bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes).
 Terabyte: A Terabyte (T, TB) is about 1 trillion bytes (1,009,511,627,776 bytes)
 Petabyte: A Petabyte is a new measure that accommodates the huge storage
capacities of modern databases. A petabyte represents about 1 million gigabytes.

FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE CPU

The diagram below shows functional organization of the CPU.

CONTROL UNIT
(CU)

ARITHMETIC/
LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

INPUT MAIN OUPUT

DEVICES MEMORY DEVICES

SECONDARY
STORAGE

Legend/Key

Data/Instruction Flow

Command/Control Flow

Page 17 of 37
THE SYSTEM UNIT
The system unit is the box or the cabinet that contains the microcomputer’s processing
hardware and other components. The most important of these components include the
power supply, mother board, central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, RAM
chips, ROM chips, Cache memory, VRAM, Ports, expansion slots and boards and bus
lines and PC slots and cards.

THE POWER SUPPLY

The electricity available from a standard wall outlet is AC but a computer runs on DC.
The power supply is the device that converts power from AC (Alternating Current) to
DC (Direct Current) to run the computer. The on/off switch in your computer turns on
or shuts off the electricity to the power supply. Because electricity can generate a lot of
heat, a fan inside the computer keeps the power supply and other components from
becoming too hot.

THE MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard or system board is the main circuit board in the system unit. This
board acts as a container for the different components in the system unit such as the
CPU, ROM chips and RAM chips.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) CHIPS

These are integrated circuits that temporarily store data and instructions that will be
processed shortly by the processor. Memory chips are factory-fixed on a small circuit
board (module). The circuit board has an edge pin connector which is fitted in a memory
socket (slot) on the motherboard, and anyone can install them. RAM cards are
manufactured with different speeds depending on the memory chips installed on them
for example, 128 MB, 256 MB, 512 MB, 1024 MB and more. RAM modules are either
SIMM or DIMM RAM modules.

ROM CHIP
The ROM chips fixed on the motherboard, contain instructions, which are specific for
that particular system board, the PC cannot write new data to those chips. All PC's
have instructions in ROM chips or ROM BIOS chips on the system board, usually
start-up instructions of the computer. The ROM chips are supplied by specialty
software manufacturers, who make BIOS chips.

Memory Slots
Modern computer system board slots support either DDR (184 pins) or DDR2 RAM
(240 pins), which is becoming the more popular type of memory. Slots usually come
either two or four to a board, and are often color-coded to tell you where to place
matching memory cards. This means that more than one memory card can be fixed on a
motherboard.

CMOS

Page 18 of 37
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) memory is a special type of
memory chip that is used to store information about the computer system configuration,
such as the amount of memory, the type of peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse etc.)
installed on the computer, and the capacity of disk drives fixed on the computer. CMOS
also keeps track of the date and time. The system information in the CMOS memory is
needed each time the computer is started. CMOS memory has very low electricity
requirement and is powered by a battery known as the CMOS battery fixed on the
motherboard. The battery power enables CMOS memory to retain the stored
information even when the power to the computer is turned off, which is why your
computer clock runs even when the computer is off. Information in the CMOS is
changed whenever installation of a device is done.

EXPANSION SLOTS (BUS SLOTS) AND CARDS

They are sockets on the motherboard into which you can plug expansion cards.
Expansion cards (adapter cards) are circuit boards that provide more memory or
control peripheral devices. Examples of expansion cards are:
 Memory cards: Memory expansion cards (memory modules) allow you to add
RAM chips giving you more memory.
 Video adapter cards: These cards allow you to adapt different kinds of colour
display monitors for your computer.
 Graphics accelerator cards: These cards improve the performance of your
computer when displaying graphics.

To install a new adapter card in your computer, you must plug the card into a bus slot
to enable the new device to communicate with the rest of the computer system.

VIDEO MEMORY (VRAM)

VRAM chips are used to store display images for the monitor. The amount of VRAM
determines how fast images appear and how many colours are available. VRAM chips
are usually located on a special video adapter card inserted in an expansion slot on the
system unit.

FLASH MEMORY (FLASH CARDS)

Flash memory is derived from EEPROM and is primarily used in portable computers. It
consists of a circuitry on credit-card-size cards that can be inserted into slots connecting
to the motherboard.

THE MICROPROCESSOR
Most of today’s microprocessors chips are of two kinds; those made by Intel and those
made by Motorola although that situation may be changing.

Page 19 of 37
Output Devices

Output hardware consists of devices that translate information processed by the computer
into a form that humans can understand. Thus the function of output devices is to provide
the user with the means to view and use information produced by the computer system.

Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Soft copy or temporary

output refers to information displayed on a screen or in audio or voice form through
speakers. This kind of output is not tangible and disappears when the computer is
switched off. Hard copy output or permanent output refers to output printed on paper.
This kind of output is tangible; the output can be held in your hand.

Soft copy output devices

Monitor/Visual Display Unit (VDU)/Screen

Monitors are softcopy output devices that many people use most. Monitors can output
still or moving pictures. Monitors run under the control of a graphics display adapter card
plugged into an expansion slot on the motherboard. The adapter allows information to
leave the computer and appear on the monitor. The display adapter comes with its own
RAM, called VRAM or Video RAM. VRAM controls the resolution of images displayed
on the monitor as well as the number of colours and the speed at which the images are
displayed. The more video memory you have, the higher the resolution and the more
colours you can display. Images and text are formed by many tiny dots of coloured light
called pixels (short for picture element). A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen. It can
be turned on or off or coloured in different shades. Pixels are so numerous that when
placed together in certain patterns they appear to form a smooth image on the screen, be
it a character in a word, a diagram or a photograph. There are two types of monitors:
cathode ray tube (CRT) and flat panel display.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used as display screens in a computer or
video display terminals. This same kind of technology is found not only in desktop
computer screens but also in TVs and flight-information monitors in airports. A stream of
bits defining the image is sent from the CPU to the CRT’s electron gun, where the bits
are converted to electrons. The inside of the front of the CRT screen is coated with
phosphor. When a beam of electrons from the electron gun (deflected through a yoke)
hits the phosphor, it lights up selected pixels to generate an image on the screen.

Flat panel display (FPD)

Flat panel displays (FPDs) are thin, flat electronic devices used as display screens.
Compared to CRTs, flat panel displays are much thinner, weigh less and consume less
power. They are therefore better for portable computers although they are becoming
popular for desktop computers. Flat panel displays are made up of two plates of glass
with a substance in between, which activated in different ways.

Page 20 of 37
Flat panel displays are distinguished in two ways:
1. by the substance between the plates of glass
2. by the arrangement of transistors

Substance between Plates

The types of technology used in flat display include liquid crystal display,
electroluminescent display and gas plasma displays.

 LCD (liquid crystal display)

This is a common type of flat panel display used for computer monitors and TVs.
LCD screens consist of layers of liquid crystal placed in between plates that are lit
from behind by a fluorescent lamp to create images. LCD screens perform well in
bright rooms. It is small, light and flat and uses much less power than the CRT
display. It is therefore extensively used on laptop computers.

 Electroluminescent (EL) displays

El displays contains a substance that glows when it is charged by an electric
current. A pixel is formed on the screen when current is sent to the intersection of
the appropriate row and column. The combined voltages from the row and
column cause the screen to glow at that point.

 Gas Plasma display

Gas plasma displays use a gas that emits light in the presence of an electric
current. This technology uses predominantly neon gas and electrodes above and
below the gas. Although gas plasma displays have high resolution they are quite
expensive. They tend to perform well in dark rooms and poorer in well-lit rooms.

 Light-emitting diode displays (LED)

These are flat panel display screens that use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as a
backlight for the screen instead of a fluorescent lamp. These display technology
offers some potential advantages over LCDs such as better contrast ratios and less
energy consumption.

 Organic light-emitting diode displays (OLEDs)

These are flat panel displays that function by exiting organic compounds with
electric current to produce light. OLED displays do not have a back light like
LCD and LED displays which allows for high contrast ratios and low power
consumption. OLED is an emerging technology and is still primarily used in
small portable devices such as cell phones and mp3 players.

Arrangement of transistors
Flat panel displays are either active-matrix or passive-matrix displays according to where
transistors are located.
 In an active-matrix display, each pixel on the screen is controlled by its own
transistor. Active-matrix displays are much brighter and sharper than passive-

Page 21 of 37
 matrix displays but are more complicated and thus more expensive. An example
of active-matrix display is thin film transistor (TFT) display.
 In a passive-matrix display, a transistor controls a whole row or column of pixels.
Passive matrix provides a sharp image for one-color (monochrome) screens but is
more subdued for color. Passive-matrix displays are less expensive and use less
power.

Multimedia projector
This device is used to create and deliver dynamic multimedia presentations
(presentations in which sound, photos, video, text and other moving graphics may be
combined to interesting effect). There are two types of multimedia projectors: LCD
projector and LCD panel.

The LCD projector has its own built-in lenses and light source and connects directly to
computer, television, video/DVD player and video camcorder. Images from these devices
are projected through the LCD projector onto a screen or wall. Versions of the LCD
projector now come with a digital video camera on an arm extension attached to it. This
video camera allows real-time videos and pictures to be instantly projected through the
LCD projector onto a screen. For example, the camera can be directed at a page in a book
or at someone performing a demonstration; the video camera image is projected through
the LCD projector onto a screen or wall.

The LCD panel is used with a normal overhead projector (OHP). This panel is the size of
a notebook and is placed directly on the surface of the OHP. Like the LCD projector, the
panel can be connected to devices such as computer, television, video/DVD player and
video camcorder. The image displayed on the panel is projected onto a screen when the
light of the OHP shines through it.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output is another form of ‘soft copy’ output. Sound output devices produce
digitized sounds ranging from beeps and chirps to music. All these sounds are non verbal.
To produce sound, you need the necessary software and sound card or digital audio
circuit board. The sound card plugs into an expansion slot on the motherboard. New
computers come with the sound card integrated with the motherboard. Some of the sound
output devices include:

Speakers
A simple speaker will make a range of sounds available to the computer user. Computer-
generated sound, music output, computer-synthesised voice and the normal speaking
voice are now conventional output using a speaker. Sound cards need to be installed in
microcomputers to obtain good sound quality for music or games.

Voice Output Devices

Voice output devices convert digital data into speech-like sounds.

Page 22 of 37
Voice response systems
The voice response system selects from a set of digitised pre-recorded words, phrases,
music, alarms or other sounds stored on disk. The system combines these pre-recorded
words into responses based on selections made by the user. For example, many phone
banking systems use voice response systems. Based on the information given to them
when a caller selects options on their telephone keypad, the bank computer outputs voice
information to the caller. The sounds must be converted from digital format back to
analogue before being output to the speaker.

Speech Synthesizers
This system converts written text into computer generated speech (‘text to speech’). It is
used for computer-aided conversations by hearing and speech-impaired persons to aid
speaking, sight-impaired persons to aid reading, or for converting conversations/text from
one language into another.

Page 23 of 37
Hard copy output devices

You can print out information that is in the computer onto paper or film. By printing you
create what is known as a ‘hard copy’. It is tangible – you can hold it in your hands.

Printers
A printer is a hardcopy output device which produces a text and/or graphics of
documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or
transparencies. Printers can be categorized into two ways namely:
(i) according to whether or not the image produced is formed by physical contact of
the print mechanism with the paper (printing technology)
(ii) according to the number of characters printed at ago (basic unit of printing)

There are therefore many different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print
quality, depending on the desired print output.
Use of Printers.
1. Different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong
quality paper in a particular printer can make the paper get stuck.
2. Printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges & ribbons. Use of clones
or imitations (i.e., the wrong make & model) can damage the printer mechanism.
3. Avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of Ribbons. This can spoil the printer
due to leakage or use of poor quality materials.

Classification of Printers according to basic unit of printing

Printers are broadly classified into three types according to the basic unit of printing.
 Character printers
 Line Printers
 Page Printers

Character printers
These are printers that print one character at a time much like a typewriter. They are also
known as serial printers. Daisy wheel printers and dot matrix printers are examples of
character printers. Character printers are slower than line and page printers.

Line printers
These are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line
printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are
that they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy. They are
used with mainframe computers where high speed is vital for the large volume of printed
output required.

Examples of line printers include drum printers, band printers and chain printers.

Page 24 of 37
Page printers
These printers print a whole page at a time. They are therefore even faster and deal with
very large volumes of printed output. A laser Printer is an example of page printers.

Classification of Printers according to basic printing technology

Printers can also be broadly classified into two types according to the basic printing
technologies;
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers
Impact printers
An impact printer forms characters or images by striking mechanism such as a print
hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper. The print head of
an impact printer contains a number of metal hammers which strike an inked ribbon
placed between the print head and the paper. These hammers may contain complete
characters; alternatively, they may contain ‘dots’ that are used to build up a character.
The main types of impact printer are:
• Dot matrix printer
• Daisy wheel printer
• Drum, chain or band printer.

Characteristics of impact printers

– They are very noisy
– They can produce multiple copies by printing on duplicating paper
– They produce low quality output

Dot matrix printers (character printers)

This is a type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against
an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. Dot-matrix printers
are relatively inexpensive and do not produce high-quality output. However, they can
print to multi-page forms (that is, carbon copies).

Characteristics of dot matrix printers include:

– Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.
– They are slow
– They are very noisy
– The print obtained is usually of poor quality. They are useful for low-quality carbon
copy printing of text, or printing text on continuous sheets of paper.
– They are not good for printing graphics or photographs.

Daisy wheel printers (character printers)

The daisy printer wheel uses a disk made of plastic or metal on which characters stand
out in relief along the outer edge. To print a character, the printer rotates the disk until the
desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to
hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the paper. You can change the

Page 25 of 37
daisy wheel to print different fonts. Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in
general they are noisy and slow, printing from 10 to about 75 characters per second.

Characteristics of daisy wheel printers include:

 Prints are made by a hammer-like action of the keys hitting the print ribbon.
 The process involves a lot of moving mechanical parts and is very noisy.
 Printing is slow (less than 90 copies per second).
 The text is generally crisp and clean
 The size and font produced can only be changed by using a different wheel, as the
characters on the wheel are fixed.

This printer is not used much any more: it is becoming obsolete, as laser printers are able
to produce the same quality print as the daisy wheel printers and are much more versatile.

Drum Printers (Line Printers)

Drum printer is an impact printer in which the type is mounted on a rotating drum that
contains a full character set for each printing position. In a typical drum printer design, a
fixed font character set is engraved onto the periphery of a number of print wheels, the
number matching the number of columns (letters in a line) the printer could print. The
wheels, joined to form a large drum (cylinder), spin at high speed and paper and an inked
ribbon is stepped (moved) past the print position. As the desired character for each
column passes the print position, a hammer strikes the paper from the rear and presses the
paper against the ribbon and the drum, causing the desired character to be recorded on the
continuous paper.

Chain Printers (Line Printers)

A Chain printer is an impact printer that carries the type slugs by links of a revolving
chain. Chain printers placed the type on moving bars (a horizontally-moving chain). As
with the drum printer, as the correct character passes by each column, a hammer is fired
from behind the paper. Compared to drum printers, chain printers have the advantage that
the type chain could usually be changed by the operator. By selecting chains that had a
smaller character set (for example, just numbers and a few punctuation marks), the
printer can print much faster than if the chain contained the entire upper- and lower-case
alphabet, numbers, and all special symbols.

Band Printers (Line Printers)

These are a variation of chain printers, where a thin steel band is used instead of a chain,
with the characters embossed on the band. A selection of different bands is generally
available with a different mix of characters so a character set best matched to the
characters commonly printed could be chosen.

One other type of printer worth mentioning is the Braille printer. This is an impact printer
which converts text into the Braille code, producing patterns of raised dots on paper for
use by the blind.

Non-impact printers

Page 26 of 37
Non-impact printers form characters and images without making direct physical contact
between the paper and printing mechanism. These printers are faster and quieter than
impact printers because they have fewer moving parts. The main types of non-impact
printer are:
– Thermal printer
– Laser printer
– Ink-jet printer

Thermal printers (character printers)

These printers use colored waxes and heat to produce images by burning dots onto
special paper. Thermal printers are widely used in fax machines and some ATMs
(automated teller machines).

Laser printers (page printers)

Laser printers use the principle of dot-matrix printers of creating images with dots. Laser
printers use laser beams to create the images on a drum treated with a magnetically
charged ink-like toner (powder) and then transferred from the drum to paper. The light of
the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled
through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum.
Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure.
This is also the way copy machines work. Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum
before the toner is applied, laser printers are called page printers.

Inkjet printers (line printers)

Inkjet printers produce an image by spraying ink onto the paper in a dot matrix pattern.
Colour graphics can be produced by spraying cyan, magenta, yellow and black ink onto
the page. Inkjet printers can print in both colour and black-and-white. Ink-jet printers are
capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers.

Characteristics of non-impact printers

– Much quieter – useful in hospitals, busy offices, etc.
– Much faster printing speeds
– Sometimes require special paper
– Do not have multiple-copy facilities, that is they cannot produce multiple copies by
printing on duplicating paper

Plotters
Plotters are special output devices used to produce hard copies of large graphs and
designs on paper. Plotters are often used for the production of construction maps,
engineering drawings, architectural plans and business charts.
 Plotters are slow, but can draw continuous lines often in a variety of colours.
 They are useful for producing architectural drawings, building plans, maps and
CAD (computer aided design) drawings, where precision is required.
 The paper is sometimes laid on a flat bed (flat-bed plotter) or on a rotating drum
(drum plotter).

Page 27 of 37
There are four main types of plotters: drum (pen plotters), flat-bed plotters, inkjet plotters
and electrostatic plotters.

Drum Plotter
A drum plotter is pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed
attachment. The drum then rotates the paper as pens move across it and draw the image.
It was the first output device used to print graphics and large engineering drawings. There
are two types of drum plotters, external and internal. With an external drum plotter, the
paper is wrapped around its external surface, while the internal drum plotter uses a sheet
of paper wrapped around its internal surface.

Flat-Bed Plotter
A flat-bed plotter is a mechanical drafting device used with many CAD programs for
designers. The paper remains stationary on a flat surface while a pen moves across it
horizontally and vertically. This plotter may use several different colours of pens to
create the graphics. The size of the graphic is limited to the size of the flat-bed plotter's
surface.

Inkjet Plotter
The inkjet plotter is a plotter that creates an image by spraying small droplets of ink onto
a piece of paper. A popular choice for advertising agencies and graphic designers, inkjet
plotters are used generally for large outputs, such as banners and billboards and large
signs often seen on roadsides. They are available in thermal or piezoelectric models.
Thermal inkjet plotters use heat to apply droplets of ink, while piezoelectric plotters use
charged crystals to apply the ink. Inkjet plotters tend to produce better quality graphics
than other types of plotters.

Electrostatic plotter
This is a plotter that uses an electrostatic method of printing. Electrostatic plotters apply
colour using coloured toner particles suspended in a liquid carrier. Charges are applied to
the paper and passed through liquid toner, where charged toner particle adhere to the
paper. As the paper is removed from the bath, the toner emerges dry.

Page 28 of 37
Secondary Storage devices

Data and computer programs must be stored in a computer-usable form. During

processing a copy of the software instructions must be retrieved from the secondary
storage device and placed into RAM. The operating system determines where and how
programs are stored on the secondary storage devices.

Secondary storage, also called auxiliary or backup storage, is used to store data and
program instructions when they are not in use. The most commonly used secondary
storage devices are magnetic storage (magnetic tapes and magnetic disks), optical storage
(CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW) and solid state memory
(flash memory and USB drives).

Characteristics of Secondary storage devices

 Secondary storage is more permanent than main memory, since data and instructions
are retained when the power is turned off.
 Secondary storage is also much cheaper than primary storage
 Secondary storage devices provide high amount of storage compared to primary
storage

Factors to consider when choosing a secondary storage device

Because of diverse range of storage needs, a number of secondary storage devices are
available. Devices are chosen for a particular use based on:
 Storage capacity (how much data the device can store)
 Access speed (the time needed to locate the data and transmit it to
the CPU)
 Transfer rate; this refers to the speed at which data is transferred from the secondary
storage to the main memory.
 Size; some situations require compact storage devices for portability others don’t.
 Portability (ability to be easily removed and used on another system)
 Cost; The cost of the device is directly related to the previous factors

Classification of secondary storage device

Secondary storage devices are mainly classified according two factors;
1. The technology used to make the devices e.g. magnetic and optical technology
2. Portability i.e. whether the device is fixed or removable. Fixed storage devices are
those that are not removed from the system unit such as hard disks. Removable
storage include magnetic tapes, optical disks, floppy disks, zip disks, jaz disks and
flash disks.

Page 29 of 37
Magnetic Storage Media

Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tape is a ribbon of plastic material coated with a metal oxide film on which data
is recorded as magnetized or unmagnetized spots. The magnetic orientations of the
magnetized and unmagnetized spots represent the binary digits 0 and 1. On mainframe
computers the tape is stored on reels or cartridges. In microcomputers tapes are stored in
cartridges similar to those used to store music, but of a much higher quality. Just like the
tape in a tape recorder, data can be written to, or read from, the tape as it passes the
magnetic heads.

Magnetic tape is not suitable for data files that are revised or updated often because it
stores data sequentially. This means that data is retrieved in the order in which it was
stored. Therefore accessing data is very slow as you cannot go directly to an item of data
on the tape. It is necessary to start at the beginning of the tape and search for the data as
the tape goes past the heads.

However, magnetic tapes are erasable, reusable and moderately durable, and are made to
store large quantities of data inexpensively. For these reasons they are mainly used for
emergency backup purposes.

Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are one of the most widely used secondary storage media for computers.
All magnetic disks provide direct access to data stored. This means that you can go
directly to a specific piece of data without having to access any other data either before or
after the data you want. The capacity and access speeds of magnetic disks vary with each
device or medium. Magnetic disks include floppy disks (diskettes) and hard disks.

Floppy Disks (Diskettes)

A floppy disk or a diskette is a soft, flexible plastic disk coated with magnetized material.
Unlike most hard disks, floppy disks are portable, because you can remove them from a
disk drive.

To use a diskette, you need a disk drive. A disk drive (floppy drives) is a device that
holds, spins and reads data from and writes data to a diskette. Read means that the data
stored on the secondary storage is copied to the primary storage. Write means that the
information held in the main memory is transferred to a secondary storage device.

Floppy disks are useful for transferring data between computers and for keeping a backup
of small files.

Floppy disk management.

Floppy disks are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the
likelihood of destroyed or corrupted data.

Page 30 of 37
Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software,
which can easily be re-loaded.
Handling precautions for diskettes.
1). Insert the diskette in the drive with the correct side up & in the correct direction.
The diskette should slide in easily (with no force at all) until it locks in the drive.
To remove the diskette out of the drive, press the Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.
3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This
indicates that the diskette is in use, and removing it might damage the files on
the diskette.
4). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.
5). Ensure that all your diskettes are labelled carefully using meaningful names that
indicate the right contents of the diskette. The labels should be applied at the
slightly depressed region at the top surface of the diskette.
Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes, and also mixing
diskettes that are used everyday with those used for long-term storage of
important data.
6). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.
7). Use the shutter at the bottom of the diskette to write-protect it in order to protect
the data stored in it.
Note. To write-protect the diskette, the shutter is pushed up until the hole is
covered & no data can be written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the
hole must be left open.
8). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (usually over 6 months), its
surface wears out.
9). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.
10). Keep your disks safely away from extreme temperatures or direct sunlight, i.e.,
avoid placing the diskette near possible heat sources, e.g. on top of monitor
displays.
11). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media, e.g., near power supplies &
magnets. They can corrupt the data.
12). Never carry disks in loose bags or in pockets to prevent dust from getting in &
harming them.
Store your diskettes in disk banks or a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or
enclosed polythene when carrying them.
13). Always store the disks vertically in the storage box/container.
14). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.
15). Do not bend the diskette, or leave it lying on top of the desk.
16). Protect the diskettes against computer viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign
diskettes in your computer, especially if you suspect that they might have
viruses in them.

Page 31 of 37
Hard disks
Hard disks are thin but rigid metal platters covered with a substance that allows data to be
held in the form of magnetized spots. Hard disks are tightly sealed within an enclosed
hard-disk drive unit to prevent any foreign matter from getting inside. Data may be
recorded on both sides of the disk platters.

The disks constantly rotate at a high speed and may have one read/write head per disk
(moveable head).

The access time (time to get data) from a spinning disk with one read/write head is a
combination of:
 Seek time – how long it takes the head to get to the right track;
 Rotational delay or latency time – how long it takes for the data to rotate under the
head; and
 Transmission time – the time taken to read the data and transmit it to the CPU.

Like floppy disks, a hard disk must also be formatted before any data can be stored on it.
Formatting sets up the tracks, sectors and cylinders. A cylinder is made up of all the
tracks with the same number from all the metal disks that make up the hard disk, which
can be read or written to at the same time. For example, if you start from the bottom of a
stack of disks, track 5 of the second disk will be directly above track 5 of the first disk.
Track 5 of the third disk will be directly above track 5 of the first and second disks and so
on. If you put these all together on top of each other, you’d have something that looks
like a tin can with no top or bottom – a cylinder.

The computer keeps track of what it has put where on a disk by recording the addresses
of all the sectors used – a combination of the cylinder, track and sector numbers. Data is
written down the disks on the same cylinder. This works quickly because each metal
platter has a read/write head for each side and they all move together. So for one position
of the read/write heads, the computer can put some data on all the platters.

Page 32 of 37
Cross-section of a hard disk arranged and divided into tracks, sectors and cylinders

Virtual Memory
Sometimes the computer uses hard-disk space called virtual memory to expand RAM.
When RAM space is limited, the use of virtual memory can let users run more software at
once, if the computer’s CPU and operating system are equipped to use it. The system
does this by using some free hard-disk space as an extension of RAM – that is the
computer swaps parts of the program and/or data between the hard disk and RAM as
needed.

Hard disk variations

Two additional types of hard drives that can be used with a PC are external hard drives
and removable disk.
 External hard drive: An external hard drive can be used if there is no space in the
system unit to house another hard drive. It may come with its own power source and
is connected to the system unit via a special cable. External hard drives can be easily
removed and connected to another computer, thereby giving them a certain amount of
portability and flexibility of use.
 Removable hard disks or cartridge systems
Hard disk cartridges or removable hard disks consist of one or two platters enclosed
along with read/write heads in a hard plastic case. The case is inserted into an internal
or detached external cartridge drive connected to a microcomputer. These cartridges
are often used to transport huge files. They are also used for backing up files.
Although they are relatively expensive, they hold much more information and are
much faster than diskettes and tapes. Examples include zip drives and jaz drives.

Zip drive
These are a floppy-like technology that use design concepts from hard disks and Iomega's
earlier Bernoulli disks developed by Iomega Corporation. Zip disks are slightly larger
than conventional floppy disks, and about twice as thick. They can hold 100 or 250 MB
of data. Because they're relatively inexpensive and durable, they have become a popular
media for backing up hard disks and for transporting large files.

Jaz Drive
This is a removable hard disk drive developed by Iomega Corporation. The removable
cartridges hold up to 2 GB of data. The fast data rates and large storage capacity make it
a viable alternative for backup storage as well as everyday use.

Hard disks for large computers consist of the following;

 Removable hard disk pack: A removable hard disk pack may contain between 6 and
20 hard disks aligned one above the other in a sealed unit. The storage capacity is
usually very large, in the terabyte range.

 Fixed disk drives: These are similar to those found in PCs. They have a high storage
capacity and are more reliable than removable hard disks. A mainframe computer

Page 33 of 37
 may have between 20 and 100 fixed disks housed in a single cabinet. Data is
transmitted to the CPU using a single data path.

 RAID storage system: RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disk. A
RAID storage system consists of a cabinet which may contain a large number of disk
drives (up to 100). Besides holding more data than a fixed disk, it stores multiple
copies of data on different drives. If one drive fails, others can take over allowing the
data to be recovered. Data is transmitted to the CPU using multiple data paths.

For larger computer systems hard disks consist mainly of removable hard disk packs,
fixed disk drives and RAID (Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive)
Disks) storage systems.

Hard Disk Interfaces

The hard disk interface defines the physical and logical means by which the hard disk connects to
the motherboard. A modern PC uses one or more of the following hard disk interfaces:
 Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
IDE (pronounced as individual letters) was by far the most common hard disk interface used
in PCs from the early 1990s through 2003. IDE is officially designated ATA (Advanced
Technology Attachment), but is now often informally called Parallel ATA or PATA, to
differentiate it from the new Serial ATA (SATA) interface. IDE is still used in new systems,
although it is being superceded by SATA.
 Serial ATA (SATA)
Serial ATA (SATA) is a new technology that will ultimately replace parallel IDE/ATA.
SATA has several advantages over PATA, including superior cabling and connectors, higher
bandwidth, and greater reliability. Although SATA and PATA are incompatible at the
physical and electrical levels, adapters are readily available that allow SATA drives to be
connected to PATA interfaces and vice versa.
 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
Usually pronounced scuzzy, SCSI hard disks are generally used in servers and high-end
workstations, where they provide two major advantages: improved performance relative to
IDE and SATA in multitasking, multi-user environments and the ability to daisy-chain many
drives on one computer.

Optical disks
An optical disk is a removable disk on which data is written and read through the user of
laser beams. The disk is made mainly of a type of plastic (polycarbonate). In optic
technology, a high-power laser beam is used to represent data by burning tiny pits (holes)
onto the surface of a plastic disk. The data is stored on a layer inside the plastic. To read
the data, a low-power laser light scans the disk surfaces; pitted areas are not reflected and
are interpreted as 0 bit; the areas that do not have pits (land) are interpreted as 1 bit. Thus
in optical devices the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’ and the absence of light is
interpreted as ‘0’. Because the pits are so tiny, a great deal more data can be represented
than is possible with the same amount of space on a diskette.

Page 34 of 37
The optical disk technology used with computers consists of four types:
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) disks
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) disks
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) disks
 DVDs (Digital Versatile Disks)

CD-ROM Disks
This is an optical disk format that is used to hold pre-recorded text, graphics and sound.
Read only means that the disk’s content is recorded at the time of manufacture and
cannot be written on or erased by the user.

The speed at which the data is accessed depends on how fast the disk spins. The faster the
disk spins, the faster the data can be transferred to the computer’s memory. The speed of
a CD-ROM drive is indicated by a number followed by an ‘X’. Typical CD-ROM drive
speeds are 48X, 50X, etc. The higher the number the faster the disk spins, resulting in
faster data access.

Because of their large storage capacity (up to 750 MB), CD-ROMs are used to store
software packages for sale or distribution. They are particularly useful for storing
multimedia (text, graphics, sound and videos) and application software packages such as
encyclopaedias, reference works, word processors, training programs, games and
graphics packages.

CD-R
This is a CD format that allows users to use a CD-Recorder to write data (only once) onto
a specially manufactured disk that can then be read by any compatible CD-ROM drive. It
is ideal for storing large volumes of data that does not need to change. A typical use is to
create music CDs. The storage capacity of CD-R, like all CDs, is between 750 and 800
MB.

CD-RW
This is a CD format that allows users to record and erase data so that the disk can be used

Page 35 of 37
over and over again. The data layer of these disks uses a phase-changing metal alloy film.
By using a higher intensity laser light the film can be melted to level out the marks made
by the laser burner when the data was stored, effectively erasing previously stored data.
New data can then be recorded using a lower intensity laser light to burn the new data. In
theory you can erase and write on these disks as many as 1000 times. It therefore makes it
an ideal backup storage device for storing large volumes of data that change frequently.

DVD disks
This is an optical disk format that represents a new generation of high-density CD-ROM
disks, which are read by laser and which have both write-once and rewritable capabilities.
The main types are DVD-ROM (read only), DVD-R (recordable) and DVD-RW
(rewritable). They look similar to a CD-R disk but are capable of holding much more
information. This is possible because:
 The tracks on a DVD are placed closer together as compared to a CD, thus allowing
more tracks.
 The pits on a DVD are much smaller and closer together than those on a CD allowing
far more information to be represented there.
 The technology uses a new generation of lasers that allows a laser beam to focus on
pits roughly half the size of those on CDs.
 DVD formats allow for two layers (dual layer) of data-defining pits
 Some DVDs are double-sided. This allows data to be stored on both sides and
therefore dramatically increases the disk’s capacity.
 Data is squeezed into fewer pits through data compression.

Single-sided single-layer DVD has a capacity of 4.7 GB, single sided dual layer has a
capacity of 8.5 GB. Double sided single layer has a capacity of 9.4 GB and double sided
dual layer has a capacity of 17 GB.

Care of Optical Disks

CDs and DVDs are not indestructible, as they were made out to be when they first
became popular. Although they are more reliable than diskettes, CDs must be handled
with care otherwise data may be lost. Data loss results from:
 Physical damage (breaking, melting, scratching, etc.)
 Blocking of laser light by dirt, paint, ink and glue
 Corrosion of the reflecting layer.

The following are some guidelines for the proper handling of CDs and DVDs.
1 CDs and DVDs should be stored in their cases when not in use to prevent them from
being scratched or getting dirty.
2 Avoid soiling the surface of a CD – hold it by the edge or centre hole.
3 Keep your CDs clean by gently wiping both sides with a clean damp cloth from the
centre to the outer edge, not by wiping around the disk. Wiping in a circle can create
a curved scratch, which can confuse the laser. For stubborn dirt, use isopropyl alcohol
or methanol, or CD/DVD cleaning detergent.
4 Do not write on the top side of the CD with a ballpoint pen or other hard object as this

Page 36 of 37
 can damage the data layer on the other side. Use a CD marker instead.
5 Don’t write on the top side with a fine-point marker or with any solvent-based
marker. (Solvent may dissolve the protective layer.)
6 Do not expose a CD to high temperature or humidity for an extended period of time,
as the CD may warp.

Flash memory
Flash memory technology is based on EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory) technology. Like EEPROM, flash memory is non-volatile.
However, reading from and writing to flash memory is a lot faster than with EEPROM.
This is because data in flash memory can be erased a block at a time instead of only a
single byte at a time as is the case with EEPROM. Flash memory got its name because a
block of memory cells is erased in a single action or ‘flash’.

The compact nature of flash memory enables it to be incorporated into very small solid
state (no moving parts) devices that are available in all shapes and forms. These devices
are rapidly becoming an integral part of modern living. Flash memory is particularly well
known today because of the popular flash memory cards used in digital still cameras.

USB drive
This new type of flash memory storage device does not yet have a generally accepted
name. Each company calls it something different, including flash drive, flash pen, thumb
drive, key drive and mini-USB drive. They often double as MP3 players, i.e. you can
download music to them from your PC, plug in some headphones and listen to your
favourite songs. All are small, about the size of your thumb or a large car key, and plug
into a USB port on the computer. No additional software is needed for Windows XP,
2000 or ME. Plug it in and the computer notices that a new hard drive has been added,
and will show it on your desktop. These small flash drives can have storage capacities
from 8 MB to 1 GB or more! Some flash drives include a password protection facility
and the ability to run software directly off the USB drive.

Page 37 of 37