Chapter 2

The Thinking Machine: History, Hardware, and Software

Learning Objective

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the History of Computers
2. Describe what is a Computer System
3. Discuss the different characteristics of a computer System
4. Describe the Limitation of Computers
5. Identify the Major Components of a Computer
System
o Hardware
o Software
o Humanware
6. Classify the classification of Computers according to:
o Size
o Data Handled
o Purpose
7. Distinguish generations of computers
o First Generation of Computers
o Second Generation
o Third Generation of Computers
o Fourth Generation
o Fifth Generation
 Learning Contents
 What is a Computer System?
 Characteristics of a Computer System
 Limitation of Computers
 Major Components of a Computer System
o Hardware
o Software
o Humanware
 Classification of Computers according to:
o Size
o Data Handled
o Purpose
 Generations of Computers
o First Generation of Computers
o Second Generation
o Third Generation of Computers
o Fourth Generation
o Fifth Generation
Brief History of Computers

(See Supplemental Topics)

The Computer System and its Parts and Categories

What is a Computer System?

A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of
arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern
computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs.
These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. A
"complete" computer including the hardware, the operating system (main
software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation can
be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a
group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular a
computer network or computer cluster.

Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and
consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave
ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-
aided design, and also general-purpose devices like personal computers and mobile
devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects
hundreds of millions of other computers and their users.
 Early computers were only conceived as calculating devices. Since ancient
times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations.
Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate
long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical
machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first
digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The first
semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the silicon-based
MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip technologies in
the late 1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in
the 1970s. The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing
dramatically ever since then, with MOS transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace
(as predicted by Moore's law), leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to
early 21st centuries.

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing

element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) in the form of a metal-oxide-
semiconductor (MOS) microprocessor, along with some type of computer memory,
typically MOS semiconductor memory chips. The processing element carries out
arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can
change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral
devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices
(monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both
functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow
information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result
of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Input Devices
An input device is essentially a piece of hardware that sends data to a
computer. Most input devices either interact with or control the computer in some
way. The most common input devices are the mouse and the keyboard, but there are
many others. The key distinction between an input device and an output device is
that the former sends data to the computer, whereas the latter receives data from the
computer. Input and output devices that provide computers with additional
functionality are also called peripheral or auxiliary devices.
1. Keyboard
Keyboards are the most common type of input device. Before keyboards, interaction
with computers was generally carried out using punch cards and paper tape. Most
English language keyboards use the QWERTY layout for the alphabetic keys, which
are surrounded by number, symbol, function, and other key types. By pressing the
relevant keys, a user can feed data and instructions to the computer.

2. Mouse
A mouse interacts with a computer through a process known as "point and click."
Essentially, when a user moves the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer moves in a
corresponding direction on the computer's monitor screen. The concept of a
computer mouse has its roots in the trackball, a related pointing device invented in
1946 that used a "roller ball" to control a pointer. Most modern computer mice have
two buttons for clicking and a wheel in the middle for scrolling up and down
documents and web pages.

3. Touchpad
Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute for a computer mouse.
It is essentially a specialized surface that can detect the movement of a user's finger
and use that information to direct a pointer and control a computer. Touchpads were
first introduced for laptops in the 1990s, and it's now rare to find a laptop without one.

4. Scanner
The word "scanner" can be used in a number of different ways in the computer world,
but here I am using it to refer to a desktop image scanner. Essentially, a scanner is
an input device that uses optical technology to transfer images (or sometimes text)
into a computer, where the signal is converted into a digital image. The digital image
can then be viewed on a monitor screen, saved, edited, emailed, or printed.
5. Digital Camera
Digital cameras are used to capture photographs and videos independently. Later,
these photo and video files can be transferred to a computer by connecting the
camera directly with a cable, removing the memory card and slotting it into the
computer, or through wireless data transfer methods such as Bluetooth. Once the
photos are on the computer, they can be saved, edited, emailed, or printed.

6. Microphone
A microphone captures audio and sends it to a computer where it is converted to a
digital format. Once the audio has been digitized, it can be played back, copied,
edited, uploaded, or emailed. Microphones can also be used to record audio or to
relay sounds live as part of a video chat or audio stream.

7. Joystick
Joysticks are commonly used to control characters and vehicles in computer video
games. Essentially, a joystick is a handle that pivots on a base and sends its angle or
direction to the computer as data. Many video gaming joysticks feature triggers and
buttons that can be pressed to use weapons or projectiles in games.

8. Graphic Tablet
Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input devices used for converting hand-
drawn artwork into digital images. The user draws with a stylus on a special flat
surface as if they were drawing on a piece of paper. The drawing appears on the
computer screen and can be saved, edited, or printed. While scanners can only
create digital images from drawings, graphic tablets offer greater control and
versatility for artists by allowing them to see their drawing appear live on their monitor
as they create it.

9. Touch Screen
Many devices nowadays use a touch screen rather than a mouse as a way for users
to point, drag, or select options on a screen. As the name suggests, a touch screen
is a touch-sensitive monitor screen that reacts to fingers moving across it. Touch
screens are particularly common in portable devices, such as tablets, palmtops,
laptops, and smartphones.

10. Webcam
Webcams are different from digital cameras in two ways. Firstly, they cannot operate
independently from a computer, and second, they have no inbuilt memory. Although
webcams can capture photographs and videos, they are more often used to live-
stream videos or facilitate video chats.
Output Devices

What Is an Output Device?

An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data from a computer
and then translates that data into another form. That form may be audio, visual,
textual, or hard copy such as a printed document.

The key distinction between an input device and an output device is that an input
device sends data to the computer, whereas an output device receives data from the
computer.

For example, using a microphone to record a podcast is an example of using an

input device. Listening to the recorded podcast through a connected speaker is an
example of using an output device. Both output and input devices are examples of
auxiliary or peripheral devices.

Analyzing the Functionality of a Device

There are four different categories of output device: visual, data, print, and sound.
Each output device example has a specific history, so here I cover specifically how
each device works, when it became a part of technology history, popular brands on
the market selling the device, and a fun fact.
1. Monitor Mode: Visual
Function: A monitor consists of a screen, circuitry, a power supply, buttons to adjust
screen settings, and a casing that contains all of these components. A monitor
displays data from a computer onto a screen so the user can interact with the data
via a digital interface.

Popular Brands: Acer, Alienware, Apple, Asus, Dell, HP, LG, Lenovo, Samsung

Origin Story: The first monitors used the same technology as early televisions,
relying on a cathode ray tube and a fluorescent screen. This technology was first
utilized for computer monitors in 1965 in the Uniscope 300 machine, which had a
built-in CRT display. CRT display lights up a series of dots with a beam on an active
part of the screen. This resulted in a maximum resolution of 1600 by 1200 pixels.
LCD (liquid crystal display) entered the market in 2000 and outsold CRT monitors in
2007. Nowadays, monitors incorporate flat display technology. Plasma monitors are
brighter than both CRT and LCD and function by illuminating tiny charged gas
bubbles, or plasma, in the screen.

2. Printer Mode: Print

Function: The function of a printer is to create a copy of whatever is sent from the
computer to the printer. Printers take electronic data sent from a computer and
generate a hard copy.

Popular Brands: Brother, Canon, Epson

3. Headphones
Mode: Sound

Function: Headphones output audio from a computer through two individual

headphones for a single listener. Also known as earphones, headphones allow you
to listen to audio without disrupting other people in the vicinity.

Popular Brands: Sennheiser, JBL, Bose, Sony, Skullcandy

4. Computer Speakers
Mode: Sound

Function: Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the signal from
the computer's sound card into audio. Speakers create sound using internal
amplifiers that vibrate at different frequencies according to data from the computer.
This produces sound.
5. Projector Mode: Visual

Function: As its name suggests, this output device "projects" computer images or
video onto a wall or screen.
6. GPS (Global Positioning System) Mode: Data

Function: GPS is a radio-based navigation system that’s composed of a sender

computer and a receiver. The sender broadcasts signals to 24 satellites that ping to
the sender the exact location of the sender computer in the form of latitude and
longitude coordinates. The satellites use microwave signals to “talk” to the GPS,
giving information on location, vehicle speed, and a number of other pieces of data.

7. Sound Card Mode: Sound

Function: The sound card controls the output of sound signals, enabling devices like
speakers and headphones to work. The sound card is known as an expansion card,
which means it can be added to the motherboard. Although a sound card is not
essential to a computer's basic functionality, you need one if you wish to play games,
watch movies, listen to music, and use audio and video conferencing.

Popular Brands: Audigy, ASUS, Creative, EVGA

8. Video Card Mode: Visual

Function: As with the sound card, the video card is an expansion card that slots into
the motherboard. The video card processes images and video, enabling visuals to be
seen on a display. Most computers have basic video and graphics capabilities built
into the computer's motherboard, but for faster, more detailed graphics, a video card
is required.

Popular Brands: NIVIDIA, ASUS, MSI, EVGA

9. Braille Reader Mode: Print

Function: A braille reader is a peripheral device that enables a blind person to read
text displayed on a computer monitor. The text is sent by the computer to the device,
where it is translated into a braille format and made readable by pushing rounded
pins up through a flat surface. Braille readers are also called braille displays and
come in various sizes. Braille readers come in the form of separate devices from a
keyboard or as part of a keyboard. Most use piezoelectric technology, or electricity
generated by mechanical stress, to create a single line of text at a time in the form of
raised bumps.
10. Speech-Generating Device (SGD) Mode: Sound

Function: SGDs, also known as voice output communication aids, generate text to
speech. A user types something and when the command is sent, the SGD reads the
sentence out loud.

What is Digital Data Storage?

Digital data storage is essentially the recording of digital information in a
storage medium, typically by electronic means. The storage device usually enables a
user to store large amounts of data in a relatively small physical space, and makes
sharing that information with others easy. The device may be capable of holding the
data either temporarily or permanently.

Digital data storage devices have many uses. For example, computers usually
depend upon information storage to function. Storage media can also be used to
back up important information (storing digital data can involve durability and reliability
issues, so making independent copies of the information is normally a wise
precaution). Some storage devices are also portable, meaning that they can be used
to transfer information from one computer to another.
Digital data storage media generally fall into one of five categories: magnetic storage
devices, optical storage devices, flash memory devices, online/cloud storage, and
paper storage. I will give one or more examples of each category below.

1. Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive (also known as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) can be found installed in
almost every desktop computer and laptop. It stores files for the operating system
and software programs, as well as user documents, such as photographs, text files,
and audio. The hard drive uses magnetic storage to record and retrieve digital
information to and from one or more fast-spinning disks.

2. Floppy Disk
Also know as a diskette, floppy, or FD, the floppy disk is another type of storage
medium that uses magnetic storage technology to store information. Floppy disks
were once a common storage device for computers and lasted from the mid-1970's
through to the start of the 21st century. The earliest floppies were 8-inch (203 mm) in
size, but these were replaced by 5 1⁄4-inch (133 mm) disk drives, and finally a 3 1⁄2
inch (90 mm) version.

3. Tape
In the past, magnetic tape was often used for digital data storage, because of its low
cost and ability to store large amounts of data. The technology essentially consisted
of a magnetically thin coated piece of plastic wrapped around wheels. Its relative
slowness and unreliability compared to other data storage solutions has resulted in it
now being largely abandoned as a media.

4. Compact Disc (CD)

The compact disc, known for short as a CD, is a form of optical storage, a technology
which employs lasers and lights to read and write data. Initially compact discs were
used purely for music audio, but in the late 1980's they began to be also used for
computer data storage. Initially, the compact discs that were introduced were CD-
ROM's (read only), but this was followed by CD-R's (writable compact discs) and CD-
RW's (re-writable compact discs).

5. DVD and Blu-ray Discs

The DVD (digital versatile disc) and Blu-ray disc (BD) are formats of digital optical
disc data storage which have superseded compact discs, mainly because of their
much greater storage capacity. A Bluray disc, for example, can store 25 GB
(gigabytes) of data on a single-layer disc and 50 GB on a duallayer disc. In
comparison, a standard CD is the same physical size, but only holds 700 MB
(megabytes) of digital data.
6. USB Flash Drive
Also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash-drive, memory stick, jump drive, and
USB stick, the USB flash drive is a flash memory data storage device that
incorporates an integrated USB interface. Flash memory is generally more efficient
and reliable than optical media, being smaller, faster, and possessing much greater
storage capacity, as well as being more durable due to a lack of moving parts.

7. Secure Digital Card (SD Card)

A common type of memory card, SD cards are used in multiple electronic devices,
including digital cameras and mobile phones. Although there are different sizes,
classes, and capacities available, they all use a rectangular design with one side
"chipped off" to prevent the card from being inserted into the camera or other device
the wrong way.

8. Solid State Drive (SSD)

A solid state drive uses flash memory to store data and is sometimes used in devices
such as netbooks, laptop, and desktop computers instead of a traditional hard disk
drive. The advantages of an SSD over a HDD include a faster read/write speed,
noiseless operation, greater reliability, and lower power consumption. The biggest
downside is cost, with an SSD offering lower capacity than an equivalently priced
HDD.

9. Cloud Storage
With users increasingly operating multiple devices in multiple places, many are
turning to online and cloud computing solutions. Cloud computing basically involves
accessing services over a network via a collection of remote servers. Although the
idea of a "cloud of computers" may sound abstract to those unfamiliar with this
metaphorical concept, in practice it can provide tremendous storage solutions for
devices that are connected to the internet.

10. Punch Card

Punch cards (or punched cards) were a common method of data storage used in the
early computers. Basically, they consisted of a paper card with punched or
perforated holes that have been created by hand or machine. The cards were
entered into the computer to enable the storage and accessing of information. This
form of data storage media pretty much disappeared as new and better technologies
were developed.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

• Characterized by vacuum tubes started in 1951.
• UNIVAC I (Universal Integrated Automatic Computer)
• UNIVAC first commercially viable electronic digital computer
• It handled alphabetic characters instead of just numbers.
• IBM 701 marked the company’s initial foray into the market
• IBM 650 it was designed as a logical upgrade to the existing punched card
machines.

SECOND GENERATION
• 1959 marked the invention of transistors
• Faster input-output devices were also developed
• IBM Competitors: Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell, collectively
known as BUNCH
• 1963 marked the successful introduction to the market of minicomputers via Digital
Equipment Corporation’s PDP-8

THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

• 1967 arose the third generation of computer the invention of smaller electronic
circuits called integrated circuits
• IBM’s System 360 the first used computer in this generation
• Integrated circuit was composed of numerous transistors manufactured as a single
unit

FOURTH GENERATION
• 4004 chip the First Microprocessor introduce by Intel Corporation • A four bit
processor with 2,200 transistors
• 1971 the fourth generation of computers.
• Altair 8800 1975 introduce computing to individuals and small companies
• 1981 IBM grab the lead in microcomputer industry through IBM PC (Personal
Computer)

TYPES OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO SIZE

1. Microcomputer
• Microcomputers appeared in the year 1970s
• Single User, Single Task
• Processor is capable to handle one task at a time
• Flexibility
• Low Cost
• Rapid Technological Advances

2. Minicomputers
• The smallest computer designed for the multiuser environment
• Provide specialized and well-defined services;
• Dedicated to specific application such as controlling and assembly line or
recording data in a research laboratory
 • Storage capacity are smaller
• They service fewer terminal compared to a mainframe computer

3. Mainframe
• ENIAC AND UNIVAC were mainframe computers
• The largest, fastest and most expensive computers in commercial used
today.
• Requires huge storage capacity and massive processing ability
• Multi-user environment
• Mainframe can serve more than 100 terminals
• EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the
earliest electronic computers. Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary
rather than decimal, and was designed to be a stored-program computer.

4. Supercomputer
• More oriented towards exhaustive processing of data
• They are for engineering and scientific problem analysis as well as for
computerized graphics and special effects seen in films
• Use for weather and climate predications

TYPES OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO DATA HANDLED

1. Analog Computers
• Analog computers operate on data of continuous values
• Used for a few engineering and scientific application, but not for business
purposes.

2. Digital Computer
• Represent data as discrete or whole value.
• Data in digital computers are expressed by the on or off state of its electrical
components.

3. Hybrid Computers
• Combines the features of both analog and digital computers.
• Limited to a small number of engineering and scientific applications.

TYPES OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS ACCORDING OT PURPOSE

1. General-Purpose Computers
• General purpose computers are used for a rainbow of application
• Business, scientific and engineering purposes
• The most common type of digital computer in used today

2. Special-purpose computers
 • Use to perform specific functions, such as navigational control, thermal
control in large buildings, or control in large buildings. Or video games.
• Their functions are limited to the particular purposed for the they were
created

Case Study 4:
Conduct further
research and SOFTWARE
investigation about • A program is a set of instructions that a
the categories of computer follows in order to perform a specific
hardware (Input, function.
• It is used to refer to programs written to control
Output, and Storage
and direct hardware operations.
Devices). Identify 2
latest and innovative
hardware devices in
each category.
Provide pictures and
their functionalities.
Elaborate on the topic
by gathering more
facts and information
using the following
format:

Topic: << Category 1 –

Input Devices >>
Brief Introduction
(History)
Background Information
(What it is all about?)
Picture of the Device
Parts and their functions
Conclusions (What are
you findings?)
References:
1. Application Software – is designed and written to perform a specific task for
computer users.

• Enrollment System
 • Transaction Processing System
• Point of Sale Systems
• Payroll System
• Inventory System

2. General-purpose software – provides the framework for a great number of

business and personal applications.

a. Word processor – permits users to enter, store, manipulate, and print text
• Microsoft Word
• WordStar
• Word Perfect
• Note Pad
• Word Pad
b. Spreadsheets – permits user to work with rows, and columns of a matrix (or
spreadsheet) of data.
• Excel
• SPSS
• Lotus 123
• Accounting 102
• Solaris

c. Graphics – allows creating images.

• Adobe
• Flash Macro Media
• Photo Editor
• Dream weaver
• 3D Software

d. Desktop Publishing (DTP) – allows users to produce near typeset-quality copy

from the confines of a desktop.
Publisher
• Photo Shop
• Print Artist
• Print Master
• News Master

e. Utility Software – are service routines that eliminate the need for users to writes
a program every time we need to perform certain computer operations.

• Norton Utilities
• Defragmenter
• Backup files
 • Scandisk
• Formatting and Partitioning

f. Data Base Management System – is a type of software that allows user with a
wide variety of application needs to create, access modify and maintain
databases.
• Access
• Visual FoxPro
• Visual FoxBase
• Dbase III+
• Dbase IV

3. System software – includes all programs designed to help control the

computer system. This is usually independent of any general-purpose software
package or any specific application area.

a. Operating System – is a set of control program that govern the operation of a

computer.

• LINUX
• UNIX
• WINDOWS
• DOS
• Oracle

b. Programming Languages refers to several languages programmers use to give

instructions to the computer, and these are divided into different types:

1. Low-Level Programming Languages - the native language of computer.

• Assembly Language
• Debug

2. Middle-Level Programming Languages – combination of Low and High Level

3. High Level Programming Languages – English like statements

• Visual Basic
• Visual C++
• Pascal
• Cobol
• Java
c. Translators – interprets, compilers and assemblers all have one objective to
translate instructions into machine readable command in order to allow the
computer to execute the instructions.
• Clipper
• C++ Compiler
• Data Base Compilers
• JAVA Compilers
• Visual Basic Compiler

4. Rogue Software - Software is any program that runs on the computer without the
user’s knowledge and consent. More often than not, it does damage to the user’s
file.

Examples:
• Back Doors
• Chameleon
• Logic Bombs
• Trojan Horses
• ANSI Bombs
• Worm
• Virus
Case Study 5:
Conduct further
research and
investigation about
the categories of
hardware (Application
Software, General
Purpose,
Programming
Language, Rogue).
Identify 2 latest and
innovative software
application tools in
each category.
Provide pictures and
their functionalities.
Elaborate on the topic
by gathering more
facts and information
using the following
format:

Topic: << Category 1 –

Application Software
>>
Brief Introduction
(History)
Background Information
(What it is all about?)
Picture of the Software
Parts and their functions
Conclusions (What are
your findings?)
References: