JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

B.SC. COMPUTER SCIENCE: FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER.

ICS 2100: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS
NB: Additional notes may be given if/when found to be necessary.
Course Outline
Chapte Chapter Name Chapter Contents
r
1 Introduction
to Definitions, advantages and limitations of computers,
computers applications of computers, evolution of computers,
classification of computers, the anatomy of a computer
2 Computer Definition of hardware and software, types of computer
hardware and software, system software, application software, examples of
software each category of software
3 Input and output Definitions of input and output devices, types of input and
devices output devices
4 Computer Definition of computer memory, classification of computer
memory memory, primary memory, RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM,
EAPROM, registers, cache, secondary memory (hard disks,
flash drives, DVDs, etc)
5 Number systems Categories of number systems, octal, decimal, binary and
hexadecimal number systems
CAT 1 & ASSIGNMENT
6 Word Processing Definition of terms, features of word processors, examples of
word processing applications, advantages and disadvantages of
word processors, parts of the Microsoft Word 2013 application
window/screen, using Microsoft Word 2013 to create
documents
7 Spreadsheets Definition of terms, features of Spreadsheets, examples of
spreadsheet applications, advantages and disadvantages of
spreadsheets, parts of the Microsoft Excel 2013 application
window/screen, using Microsoft Excel 2013 to create and
manipulate data, performing calculations in Microsoft excel
8 Introduction to Definitions, advantages and disadvantages of the internet, web
the internet browser, various uses of the internet.
CAT 2 Then End of Semester Exams

CHAPTER 3: INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

Input Devices

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Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called input devices. Some
important input devices are Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone etc.

1. Keyboard

The keyboard is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as the standard input
device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a typewriter with additional keys. The most
commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.

There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:

• Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.

• Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double

Quotes, etc.

• Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END
etc.

2. Mouse
It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2
buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel
between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of
information. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction.
Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead
of the mouse ball. The mouse cannot be used for entering data. It is only useful to select the
options on the screen.

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 3. Scanner
It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into digital
form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered separately
resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types:

i) optical scanners
ii) MICR
i. Optical scanners:

These include:

a. Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of
light. This is used in office atomization, for example to convert printed documents to digital
forms.
b. Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the
presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude
tests, in electronic vote counting, etc.
c. Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that
read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in
Point of Sale (POS) applications such as in supermarkets, book shops etc. Supermarkets use a
bar code system called the Universal Product Code (UPC). The bar code identifies the product
to the supermarket‘s computer which has a description and the latest price of the product. The
computer automatically tells the Point of Sales (POS) terminal what the price is.

ii. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

It is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the
processing of the cheques. MICR characters (cheque No., Acc.No.etc) are printed in special ink

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usually containing iron oxide. When a document that contains the ink needs to be read, it passes
through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will be a reader sorter unit which
translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a secure, high speed of
scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600 cheques/min.

4. Light Pen
A light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen. There is a special type of photocell in the small tube of the light pen.
When the tip of the light pen is moved to the monitor screen, and the button of the pen is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the location of the screen and sends that
signal to the CPU.  Even though the light pen continues to be used in various cases, its
use has reduced ever since the invention of the touch screen. The figure shown below
depicts the usage of a light pen.

Light pens can be used in the following scenarios:

i. In graphics design to design graphics the way one would do with a pen and paper.
ii. Light pens are used for painting on computer screens.
iii. They are also used to highlight or point to any text or image visible on the monitor.
iv. Light pens are also used in during presentations, such as to write on the screen such as
when adding extra information for the audience.
v. They can also be used with some phones to make short notes from a presentation or
speech.

5. Speech input devices

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Speech or voice input devices convert a person‘s speech into digital form. These input
devices, when combined with appropriate software, form voice recognition systems.
These systems enable users to operate microcomputers using voice commands. An
example of a computer microphone is as shown below.

6. Digitizing Tablets
This is an input device that enables you to enter drawings and sketches into a computer.
A digitizing tablet consists of an electronic tablet and a cursor or pen. A cursor (also
called a puck) is similar to a mouse, except that it has a window with cross hairs for
pinpoint placement, and it can have as many as 16 buttons. A pen (also called a stylus)
looks like a simple ballpoint pen but uses an electronic head instead of ink. The tablet
contains electronic field that enables it to detect movement of the cursor or pen and
translate the movements into digital signals that it sends to the computer. These tablets
may also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures. Digitizing tables are
also called digitizers, graphics tables, touch tables or simply tables. The two images
below are examples of digitizing tablets.

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Output Devices

Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired
form. They include display screens, loudspeakers, printers, plotters, etc.

1. Display Screen
When a program or document is keyed in, the screen (which is similar to a television
screen) displays the characters. The user can read the program or document line by line
and make corrections before it is stored or printed on a printer. It is also possible to bring
to the screen a portion of the program or document stored in the external storage for
editing. Screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80
characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling. This facilitates the user to move
the text vertically or horizontally on the screens thus bringing to the screen the hidden
text.

Thus the user can scan through the entire file either to review or to select a particular
portion. The cursor on the screen is controlled by the cursor keys on the keyboard.

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 2. Printer
Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper and in many cases on
transparencies and other media.

There are many different types of printers. In terms of the technology utilized, printers
fall into the following categories.

(i) Ink-jet Printers

Ink-jet printers work by spraying ionized ink on a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in
the ink‘s path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Inkjet printers are
capable of producing high quality print approaching to that produced by laser printers. A
typical ink-jet printer provides a resolution of 300 dots per inch, although some newer
models offer higher resolutions.

In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower than that of laser printers.

However, they are also considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-jet printers is that
they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper.

Because ink-jet printers require smaller mechanical parts than laser printers, they are
especially popular as portable printers. In addition, color ink-jet printers provide an
inexpensive way to print full-color documents.

(ii) Laser Printers

Laser printers utilize a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through
a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the
toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure. This is also
the way copy machines work. Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum before the
toner is applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers. There are two other

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types of page printers that fall under the category of laser printers even though they do
not use lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to expose the drum, and the other uses
LCDs. Once the drum is charged, however, they both operate like a real laser printer.

One of the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution – how many dots per
inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end to
1,200 dpi at the high end. By comparison, offset printing usually prints at 1,200 or 2,400
dpi. Some laser printers achieve higher resolutions with special techniques known
generally as resolution enhancement.

In addition to text, laser printers are very adept at printing graphics.

However, you need significant amounts of memory in the printer to print high resolution
graphics. To print a full-page graphic at 300 dpi, for example, you need at least 1 MB
(megabyte) of printer RAM. For a 600-dpi graphic, you need at least 4 MB RAM.

The speed of laser printers ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm).
A typical rate of 6 ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters per second (cps).

(iii) Line Printers

Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast
line printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line
printers are that they can print only one font, they cannot print graphics, the print quality
is low, and they are very noisy.

(iv) Thermal printers

Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing electrically heated pins
against special heat-sensitive paper. Thermal printers are inexpensive and are used in
most calculators and many fax machines. They produce low quality print, and the paper
tends to curl and fade after a few weeks or months.

3. Plotters

A plotter is a device that draws vector graphics or pictures on paper based on commands
from a computer. Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen. As a

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result, they can produce continuous lines, whereas printers can only simulate lines by
printing a closely spaced series of dots. Multicolor plotters use different colored pens to
draw different colors. In general, plotters are considerably more expensive than printers.
They are used in engineering applications where precision is mandatory. An example of
a plotter is as shown below.

4. Sound Cards & Speakers

An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound
cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern
personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers
connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the
computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.

Nearly all sound cards support MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), a standard
for representing music electronically. In addition, most sound cards are Sound Blaster-
compatible, which means that they can process commands written for a Sound Blaster
card, the de facto standard for PC sound.

5. 3D-Audio Devices

3D audio is a technique transforming stereo sound into a multidimensional audio

experience, adding space, clarity, and depth. Typically, 3D sound, or 3D audio, is
produced by placing a device in a room with stereo speakers. The device dynamically

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analyses the sound coming from the speakers and sends feedback to the sound system so
that it can re-adjust the sound to give the impression that the speakers are further apart.

3D audio devices are particularly popular for improving computer audio where the
speakers tend to be small and close together. There are a number of 3D audio devices
that can be attached to a computer‘s sound card.

CHAPTER 4: COMPUTER MEMORY

Memory means storage location for data and programs. In computer’s memory both data
and programs are stored in binary form. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1.
These are called bits.
As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only
understand binary system. This is because a large number of integrated circuits inside
the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch
is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states
will give you a message like this: 110101......10.
So the computer takes input in the form of 0s and 1s and gives output in the same form,
i.e., 0s and 1s only. Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system
and vice versa; for example, decimal number 9 means 1001.
The computer takes information or data in decimal form from you, converts it into binary
form, processes it, producing output in binary form and finally again converts the output
to decimal form.
A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information.
This can be either 0 or 1. Memory unit is made up of several small storage locations
called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length.
Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used
to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1).
The memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses of
memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the
drawer.

Memory Sizes (Capacity):

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The size of memory is termed in terms KB, MB, GB etc.

1 Byte = 8 bits

1 Kilo Byte(KB) = 1024 Bytes(210)

1 Mega Byte(MB) = 1024 KB

1 Giga Byte(GB) = 1024 MB

1 Tera Byte(TB) = 1024 GB

1 Peta Byte(PB) = 1024 TB

1 Exa Byte(EB) = 1024 PB

1 Zetta Byte(ZB) = 1024 EB

1 Yotta Byte(YB) = 1024 ZB

A byte is used to store one character such as (alphabets (a-z), digits (0-9) or special
symbols +,,$,% etc).

Each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is defined
in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 x
1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes).
A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousands of Giga
bytes in large mainframe and super computers.
Suppose a memory card size is 2 GB means that it can store

2GB = 2 x 1024 MB

= 2 x 1024 x 1024 KB

= 2 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes

= 2147483648 bytes

Types of Computer Memory

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There are two kinds of computer memory:

1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory.

Hierarchy of Computer Memory

Increasing cost per bit,

access time speeds
Registers Increasing
memory sizes

Caches

Main memory (RAM,

ROM)

Secondary memory (Hard disks, CDs, DVDs, etc)

1. Primary Memory

Primary memory is also known as internal memory or main memory. As soon as the
computer is switched off, the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory.
Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. When the computer is
doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary memory. This
data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device
like a floppy disk, memory card or pen drive etc.,.

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The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The
first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is read only memory
(ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read Write Memory), the CPU
can write and read information from any primary memory location implemented using
RAM. The other part of primary memory is implemented using ROM which stands for
Read Only Memory.

(a) Random Access Memory (RAM) :

The primary storage is referred to as Random Access Memory (RAM) because it is
possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly to store and
retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address.
It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the
primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the
computer is switched off. The memories, which lose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as volatile memories. So now we can say that RAM is volatile
memory. The image below shows how RAM looks like.

(b) Read Only Memory (ROM) :

There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM).
Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in
the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by
the manufacturers to operate a personal computer. ROM can only be read by the CPU
but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that
examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is turned

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ON. The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of power supply, are
known as non-volatile memories. ROM is nonvolatile memory.

(c) PROM :
There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable
Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase
programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip.
Once the programs are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is
switched off. Therefore, programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be
erased or changed.

(d) EPROM :
This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM and ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by
erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM can be erased
by exposing it to ultraviolet light. This memory can be reprogrammed using a special
programming facility. When the EPROM is in use, information can only be read.

(e) EAPROM :
This stands for Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only Memory. This concept is
same as that of EPROM. The only difference is that the memory can be altered using
electrical signals. The whole of the memory need not be erased.
(f) Cache Memory :
The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory.
Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between
CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU.
It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or
temporary data frequently used by the CPU. It is also very expensive to have bigger size
of cache memory. Its size is therefore, normally kept small.

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 (g) Registers :
The CPU processes data and instruction with high speed. There is also movement of data
between various units of the computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with
high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. The
registers are special storage locations in the CPU. They store data or information
temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.
The diagram below shows the relationship between the CPU, RAM, cache and registers.

The diagram below shows the relationship the CPU, primary and secondary memory, as
well as input/output devices.

On the other hand, the diagram below shows a simplified version of the fetch-execute
cycle.

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 2. Secondary memory:

The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for large
storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the auxiliary or secondary memory is
used. It is also referred as backup storage as it is used to store large volumes of data on a
permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for
processing. Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main
(primary memory) storage. Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard
Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and Flash drive.

1. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where large
volumes of data is stored for a longer time. In PCs also you can use tapes in the form of
cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive.

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Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25
mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with
magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed
into or read from the tape through the processor. It is similar to cassette tape recorder.

Advantages of Magnetic Tape:

1. Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800,
1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such
type is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more compact on tape.
2. Economical: The cost of storing characters on tape is very less as compared to other
storage devices.
3. Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.
4. Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term
storage and a tape can be used repeatedly without loss of data.

2. Magnetic Disk

You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and coated
with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same
principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the disk drive. Data are stored on both
the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage. Each
disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is
recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic sports. The presence of
a magnetic sport represents one bit (1) and its absence represents zero bit (0). The
information stored in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data.
So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then
the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.

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 3. Floppy Disk
It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. It is 3.5 inch in diameter. The capacity
of a 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 megabytes. It is cheaper than any other storage devices and
is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer
system.

4. Optical Disk
With every application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is
the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk
storage medium.

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Optical disks can be divided into the following categories.

(i) Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of
reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high
power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and
access time is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can
hold over 600 MB of data. As the CDROM can be read only we cannot write or make
changes into the data contained in it.

(ii) Write Once Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we cannot write
anything in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data
permanently on the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased without
physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner,
OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast
amount of data amounting to gigabytes. Any document in a WORM can be accessed
very fast.

(iii) Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased
and rewritten. This also applies a laser beam to write and rewrite the data. These disks
may be used as alternatives to traditional disks.

Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To
write a data bit on the erasable optical disk the MO drive‘s laser beam heats a tiny,
precisely defined point on the disk‘s surface and magnetizes it.

5. Flash drive:

Flash drives have many names — jump drives, thumb drives, pen drives, and USB
keychain drives. Regardless of what you call them, they all refer to the same thing,
which is a small data storage device that uses flash memory and has a built-in USB
connection.

Flash drives are typically no more than two to three inches in length and less than an inch
in width. Their size and shape may resemble a thumb or a small pen (which is where the
names thumb drive and pen drive come from). Flash drives are also very thin, often
having a depth of less than a centimeter. Because of their small form factor, they are

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highly portable and can easily fit in a pocket or on a keychain (hence the name keychain
drive).
Nowadays flash drives can store several gigabytes of information. Since they are small in
size but have large storage capacities, flash drives have replaced most previous portable
data storage mediums such as floppy disks and removable hard disks like Zip disks.
Because they have a built-in USB connection, flash drives also don‘t require a special
disk drive to be used. Instead, they can be used on any computer with a USB port, which
nearly all modern computers have.

6. Hard Disk:

The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of information
from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is fixed inside the
CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is made up of a collection of
discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is recorded. These platters are
coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to external environmental disorders and
hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard disk might be as much as 25 times larger
than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several Gigabytes like
80GB, 160GB.

7. DVDs

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DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can store larger
amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can store up to
17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to store a very
large multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and graphics.

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