CALCULUS I - AY2023-24

Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives

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Summary

One of the most important applications of the derivative is its use as a

tool for finding the optimal (best) solutions to problems.
We study the following topics.
Maximum and Minimum (Extreme) Values of Functions
The Mean Value Theorem
Derivative Tests
Curve Sketching
Optimization Problems
Newton’s Method
Antiderivatives

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

CALCULUS I - AY2023-24 3 / 94
Let us consider the figure below.

We see that the highest point on the graph of the function f (x) is the
point (3, 5), while the lowest point is the point (6, 2). We say that
f (3) = 5 is the absolute maximum of f (x) and f (6) = 2 is the absolute
GTNN
minimum. GTLN

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In general, we use the following definition.

Definition. Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f (x).

Then f (c) is the
absolute maximum value of f (x) on D, if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all
x ∈D
absolute minimum value of f (x) on D, if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all
x ∈ D.

- An absolute maximum or minimum is sometimes called a global

maximum or minimum.
- The maximum and minimum values of f (x) are called extreme values
of f (x).

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The figure below shows the graph of a function f (x) with absolute max
at x = d and absolute min at x = a.

If we consider values of x near b (for instance, if we restrict our

attention to the interval (a, c)), then f (b) is the largest values in the
interval and is called a local maximum value of f (x).

Likewise, f (c) is called a local minimum value of f (x). The function

f (x) also has a local min at x = e.

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In general, we have the following definition.

Definition.
cc tr The number f (c) is a
local maximum value of f (x) if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x is near c
local minimum value of f (x) if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is near c.

To be more specific, if we say that something is true near c, we mean

that it is true on some open interval containing c.

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The following result gives conditions under which a function is
guaranteed to possess extreme values.

Theorem (The Extreme Value Theorem)

If f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f (x) attains both
an absolute maximum value f (c) and an absolute minimum value f (d)
at some number c and d in [a, b].

The Extreme Value Theorem is illustrated in the figures below,

Again, a function can attain extreme values more than once.

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Note. Conditions continuity and closed interval in the Extreme Value
Theorem are essential; that is if either of these conditions is violated,
then a function may not have extreme values.

- Left: A function is not continuous on the interval. It has no max value.

The range of f (x) is [0, 3), it can never attains the value 3.
- Right: A function is continuous on the open interval (0, 2). It does not
have neither a max nor a min value. The range of f (x) is (1, ∞).

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The Extreme Value Theorem does not tell us how to find these extreme
values. However, we can start by looking for local extreme values.

Theorem (Fermat’s Theorem)

If f has a local maximum or minimum at an interior point c of its
domain, and if f 0 (c) exists, then

f 0 (c) = 0.

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The converse of Fermat’s Theorem, in general, is not true.

Example
Consider f (x) = x 3 at x = 0.

We have f 0 (x) = 3x 2 and f 0 (0) = 0, but f (x) has no maximum or

minimum at 0.

The condition f 0 (0) = 0 simply means that the curve y = x 3 has a

horizontal tangent at (0, 0).

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We look at another example.
Example
The function f (x) = |x|

It has (local and absolute) minimum value at x = 0, but f 0 (0) does not
even exist.

The above examples show that we must be careful when using

Fermat’s Theorem.
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To characterize the points above, we need the following definition.

Definition. An interior point c of the domain of a function f is

called a critical point, if either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.

In terms of critical numbers, Fermat’s Theorem can be rephrased as

follows.
If f (x) has a local maximum or minimum at x = c, then c is a critical
number of f (x).

Thus the only points (of the domain) of a function can assume extreme
values are critical points and end-points.

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Now we are ready to find the absolute maximums or minimums of a
continuous function on a closed interval.

The Closed Interval Method

To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous
function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
1 Find the values of f at the critical points of f in (a, b).
2 Find the values of f at the end-points of the interval.
3 The largest of these values from steps 1) and 2) is the absolute
maximum values; the smallest of these values is the absolute
minimum value.

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Example
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
1
f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 1, − ≤ x ≤ 4.
2

Solution. - Firstly, we find critical points

f 0 (x) = 3x 2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) =⇒ x = 0, x = 2.

Hence, f (0) = 1 and f (2) = −3.

 
−1 1
- Next, the values of f (x) at the endpoints are f = and
2 8
f (4) = 17.

- Lastly, comparing these four values, we see that the absolute

maximum value is f (4) = 17, and the absolute minimum value is
f (2) = −3.
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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

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• Rolle’s Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem is essential to Calculus. To arrive at this, we

need the following special case known as Rolle’s Theorem.

Theorem (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let f be a function that satisfies the following three conditions:
1 f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
2 f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
3 f (a) = f (b).
Then there is a number c ∈ (a, b), such that f 0 (c) = 0.

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Rolle’s Theorem says that the graph of a differentiable function has at
least one horizontal tangent between any two points where it crosses a
horizontal line.

It may have just one in figure a), or it may have more in figure (b).

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Example
Prove that the equation
x3 + x − 1 = 0

has exactly one real root.

Solution. - First, we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that

a root exists.

Let f (x) = x 3 + x − 1. We have f (0) = −1 < 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0. Since

f is a polynomial, it is continuous, and hence by the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there is a number c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0. Thus the
given equation has a root.

- Next, we use Rolle’s Theorem to show that the equation has no other
roots, by contradiction.

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Assume that there are two roots a and b, i.e. f (a) = f (b) = 0, with
a < b. Since f is a polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and
continuous on [a, b]. Hence, by Rolle’s Theorem, there is a number
c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

But f 0 (x) = 3x 2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all x, which shows that f 0 (x) can never be
0. This gives a contradiction.

Therefore, the equation can’t have more than one real root.

Combining the two facts yields that the given equation has exactly one
real root.

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• Mean Value Theorem

Using Rolles’ Theorem we can prove the following important result.

Theorem (The Mean Value Theorem (Lagrange’s Theorem))

Let f be a function that satisfies the following conditions:
1 f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
2 f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = ,
b−a
or equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a).

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We can interpret its geometrical meaning.

f (b) − f (a)
The slope of the secant line AB is mAB = .
b−a
The Mean Value Theorem indicates there exists (at least one) point
P(c, f (c)) on the graph, such that the tangent to the curve at P is
parallel to the secant AB.

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Exercise (A physical interpretation)
A car accelerating from 0 takes 8 sec to go 176 m, and hence its
176
average velocity for the 8-s interval is = 22 m/s. Using the Mean
8
Value Theorem to show that at some interior point during the
acceleration, the speedometer must read exactly 79.2 km/h (22 m/s).

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As consequences of the Mean Value Theorem, we have the following
results.

Theorem
If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).

Theorem
If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for all x ∈ (a, b), then f − g is constant on (a, b); that is,
f (x) = g(x) + C, where C is constant.

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Note. Care must be taken in applying the theorem above. For example,

x 1 x >0
f (x) = =
|x| −1 x < 0.

The domain of f is Df = {x : x 6= 0} and f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ D. But f is

obviously not a constant function.

Does it contradict the theorem?

The answer is NO, because D is not an interval!

Notice that f is constant on the interval (0, ∞) and also on the interval
(−∞, 0).

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

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• What does f 0 say about f ?

Derivative of f (x) can tell us where a function is increasing/decreasing!

Between A and B, C and D, tangent lines have positive slopes, i.e.

f 0 (x) > 0; also f (x) is increasing, while between B and C, tangent lines
have negative slope, i.e. f 0 (x) < 0; also f (x) is decreasing.

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We can use the Mean Value Theorem to prove the following result.

Increasing-Decreasing (or Monotonic) Test

If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f (x) is increasing on that interval
If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f (x) is decreasing on that interval

Now we have the following test.

The First Derivative Test

Suppose c is a critical point of a continuous function f .
If f 0 changes from + to − at c, then f has a local max at c.
If f 0 changes from − to + at c, then f has a local min at c.
If f 0 is + to the right and left of c, or − to the left and right of c,
then f has no local max or minimum at c.

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- Local maximum and local minimum:

- No maximum or minimum:

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Example
Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function

g(x) = x + 2 sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

Solution. We start by finding the critical points. The derivative of g is

g 0 (x) = 1 + 2 cos x, and so

1 2π 4π
g 0 (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ cos x = − ⇐⇒ x= ,x = .
2 3 3
Since g is differentiable everywhere, these are only critical points.

We split the domain into intervals by the critical points. Within each
interval, g 0 (x) is either always positive or always negative and so we
analyze g in the following table.

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According to the table, by the First Derivative Test, we obtain
2π
g(x) has a local maximum at and the local maximum value is
3
2π 2π
g(2π/3) = + 2 sin ≈ 3.83,
3 3
4π
g(x) has a local minimum at , and the local minimum value is
3
4π 4π
g(4π/3) = + 2 sin ≈ 2.46.
3 3

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The graph of g(x) below supports our conclusion.

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In the Figure below, graphs of two increasing functions on (a, b). Both
graphs join point A to point B but they look different because they bend
in different directions.

We check the tangents to these curves and see that

Left figure: the curve lies above the tangents
Right figure: the curve lies below the tangents.

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• What does f 00 say about f ?
Definition.
If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I,
then it is called concave up (or upward) in I
If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on an interval I,
then it is called concave down (or downward) in I.

Figure below shows the graph of a function that is concave up on the

intervals (b, c), (d, e), and (e, p), and is concave down on the intervals
(a, b), (c, d), and (p, q).

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Look at this figure.

We can notice the following

- Left figure: the slope of the tangent increases, meaning that f 0 is an

increasing function and therefore its derivative f 00 is positive.

- Right figure: the slope of the tangent decreases, so f 0 decreases and

therefore f 00 is negative.

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So we have the following result.

Concavity Test
If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in I, then graph of f is concave up on I.
If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in I, then graph of f is concave down on I

It can happen that a graph of a function changes its concavity passing

through a point. We give a special name to this point.

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• Second Derivative Test

Definition. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called an inflection

point if f is continuous at this point, and the curve changes from
concave up to concave down or vice-versa.

We have the following result.

The Second Derivative Test

Suppose f 00 are continuous near c.
If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c
If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.

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Note.
The Second Derivative Test is inconclusive when f 00 (c) = 0.

In other words, at such a point there might be a maximum, or a

minimum, or neither.

This test also fails when f 00 (c) does not exist.

In such cases the First Derivative Test must be used.

Note. In fact, even when both tests apply, the First Derivative Test is
often the easier one to use.

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

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• Asymptotes

For curve sketching of y = f (x), we need notion of asymptotes.

If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line
approaches zero as a point on the graph moves increasingly far from
the origin, we say that
the graph approaches the line asymptotically, and
the line is an asymptote of the graph.

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 Vertical asymptotes

Definition. The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote

of the graph of y = f (x) if either of the following is true

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞,

x→a x→a− x→a+

lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.

x→a x→a− x→a+

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For instance, the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the function

 1 , x 6= 0


y = f (x) = x 2
1, x = 0.


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 Horizontal asymptotes

Definition. The horizontal line y = b is called a horizontal asymp-

tote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if either of the following is
true
lim f (x) = b, lim f (x) = b.
x→∞ x→−∞

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Example
x3 − 2
Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of f (x) =
|x|3 + 1
2
x3 − 2 1− x3
Solution. - For x ≥ 0: lim f (x) = lim 3 = lim 1
= 1.
x→∞ x→∞ x + 1 x→∞ 1 +
x3
x3 − 2 1 − x23
- For x < 0: lim f (x) = lim = lim = −1.
x→−∞ x→∞ −x 3 + 1 x→∞ −1 + 1
3 x
So the horizontal asymptotes are y = ±1. Notice that the graph
crosses the horizontal asymptote y = −1 for a positive value of x.

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 Oblique asymptotes

In the case when f (x) is a rational function

P(x)
f (x) = , where P and Q are polynomials,
Q(x)

we have a notion of oblique asymptotes.

If deg(P) = deg(Q) + 1, then the graph has an oblique asymptote.

We can find an equation for the asymptote as follows:

Dividing numerator by denominator to express f as a linear func-

tion plus a remainder that goes to zero as x → ±∞. That is,

f (x) = (mx + b) + R(x), with R(x) → 0 as x → ±∞.

| {z }
an oblique asymptote

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Example
x2 − 3
Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of f (x) = .
2x − 4

Solution. Dividing 2x − 4 into x 2 − 3, we get

x2 − 3 x   1 
f (x) = = +1 + .
2x − 4 2 2x − 4

1
Since the remainder → 0 as x → ±∞, the linear function (a
2x − 4
x
line) y = + 1 is an oblique asymptote of the graph of f , both to the
2
right and to the left.

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The graph of the function f looks as follows.

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• Guidelines for a Curve Sketching

These guidelines provide all the information you need to make a

sketch of a function, that captures its most important properties.
You should note that not every item is relevant.

A. Domain
It is often useful to start by determining the domain D of f (x), on which
f (x) is defined.

B. Intercepts
- The y -intercept is f (0).
- To find the x-intercepts, we set y = 0 and solve for x. (Omit this step,
if the function is difficult to solve.)

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 C. Symmetry
- Even function if f (−x) = f (x), for all x ∈ D.
- Odd function if f (−x) = −f (x), for all x ∈ D.
- Periodic function if f (x + p) = f (x), for all x ∈ D.

D. Asymptotes
- Horizontal Asymptotes. If either lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L, then
x→∞ x→−∞
the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote.

- Vertical Asymptotes. If at least one of the following statements is true

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞,
x→a+ x→a− x→a+ x→a−

then the line x = a is a vertical asymptote.

If f (a) is not defined, but a is an endpoint of the domain of f (x), then

you should check whether or not lim f (x) or lim+ f (x), is infinite.
x→a− x→a
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- Oblique Asymptotes. In case f (x) is a rational function, if

lim [f (x) − (mx + b)] = 0,

x→∞

then the line y = mx + b (m 6= 0) is an oblique asymptote.

E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease

Compute f 0 (x) and find
- the intervals on which f 0 (x) > 0 (f is increasing)
- the intervals on which f 0 (x) < 0 (f is decreasing).
Here the Increasing-Decreasing Test is used.

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 F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values
- Find the critical points of f (x) (those points c where f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c)
does not exist).

- Then use the First Derivative Test. If f 0 changes at c from + to −,

then f (c) is a local maximum. If f 0 changes at c from − to +, then f (c)
is a local minimum.

Although it is usually preferable to use the First Derivative Test, you

can use the Second Derivative Test. If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) 6= 0, then
f 00 (c) > 0 implies that f (c) is a local minimum, whereas f 00 (c) < 0
implies that f (c) is a local maximum.

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 G. Concavity and Points of Inflection
Compute f 00 (x) and use the Concavity Test. The curve is concave
upward where f 00 (x) > 0, and concave downward where f 00 (x) < 0.
Inflection points occur where the direction of concavity changes.

H. Sketch the Curve

- Using the information in items A - G to draw the graph.
- Sketch the asymptotes in D as dashed lines.
- Plot the intercepts, maximum/minimum, and inflection points.
- Make the curve pass through these points, rising and falling
according to E, with concavity according to G, and approaching the
asymptotes in D.
- If additional accuracy is required near any point, you can compute the
value of its derivative. The tangent indicates the direction in which the
curve proceeds.
CALCULUS I - AY2023-24 52 / 94
Exercise
x3
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x2 + 1

Answer.

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

CALCULUS I - AY2023-24 54 / 94
In this section, we study several applied optimization problems, which
ask for the best, or optimal, value of a given function.

More precisely, the following questions can be asked:

What are the dimensions of a rectangle with fixed perimeter
having maximum area?

What are the dimensions for the least expensive cylindrical can of
a given volume?

How many items should be produced for the most profitable

production run?

etc.
Our aim is to use derivatives to solve a variety of optimization
problems in mathematics, physics, economics, and business.

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To solve these applied optimization problems, we should follow the
following steps:
Understand the problem: Read the problem carefully, until you
understand it. What are the given quantities? What are the given
conditions? What is the unknown to be optimized?

Draw a diagram: Draw a diagram. Label any part that may be

important to the problem.

Introduce variables: Assign a symbol to the quantity that is to be

maximized or minimized (let’s call it Q for now). Also select
symbols (a, b, c, . . . , x, y ) for other unknown quantities and label
the diagram with these symbols (Use initials as suggestive
symbols, for example, A for area, h for height, t for time).

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Working steps:
- Express Q in terms of some of the other symbols. If Q has been
expressed as a function of more than one variable, use the given
information to find relationships (in the form of equations) among
these variables. Then use these equations to eliminate all but one
of the variables in the expression for Q.

- Q is then expressed as a function of one variable x, say, Q = f (x).

Write the domain of this function in the given context.

- Find the absolute maximum or minimum value of f (x). In particular,

if the domain of f (x) is a closed interval, then the Closed Interval
Method can be used.

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Example
A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular
field that borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river.
What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area?

Solution. In order to get a feeling for what is happening in this problem,

let’s experiment with some specific cases. Figure below shows three
possible ways of laying out the 2, 400 ft of fencing.

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Let x and y be the depth and width of the rectangle (in feet). Then the
area A can be expressed in terms of x and y :

A = xy .

We hope to express A as a function of just one variable, so we

eliminate y by expressing it in terms of x. That is,

2x + y = 2, 400 =⇒ y = 2400 − 2x.

Then we can have the expression for the area A as following

A = xy = x(2, 400 − 2x) = 2, 400x − 2x 2 .

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Conditions for x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 200 (why?). Then the function to maximize
is
A = 2, 400x − 2x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.200,

whose critical points are

A0 (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ 2, 400 − 4x = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 600.

The maximum value of A must occur either at critical points or at an

endpoints of the interval. So we compare

A(0) = 0, A(600) = 720, 000, A(1, 200) = 0,

and hence the Closed Interval Method gives the maximum value as
A(600) = 720, 000. Hence, y = 2, 400 − 2 ∗ 600 = 1, 200.

So the rectangular field should be 600 ft deep and 1, 200 ft wide.

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

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Let us have a look at the limit
ln x
lim .
x→1 x − 1

The limit is not obvious, because both numerator and denominator

0
approach 0 and is not defined.
0
In general, if we have a limit of the form

f (x)
lim ,
x→a g(x)

where both f (x) → 0 and g(x) → 0 as x → a, the limit may or may not
0
exist. This form is called an indeterminate form of type .
0

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We already know the following:
For rational functions, we can cancel common factors:

x2 − x x(x − 1) x 1
lim 2
= lim = lim = .
x→1 x − 1 x→1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x→1 x + 1 2

For the trigonometrical limit

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

ln x
But both do not work for the limit lim .
x→1 x −1

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Moreover, when we calculate the horizontal asymptote for
ln x
F (x) = , we need to know
x −1
ln x
lim .
x→∞ x − 1

It isn’t obvious how to evaluate this limit, because both numerator and
denominator become ∞ as x → ∞.

In general, if we have a limit of the form

f (x)
lim ,
x→a g(x)

where both f (x) → ∞ (or −∞) and g(x) → ∞ (or −∞), the limit may
∞
or may not exist. This form is called an indeterminate form of type .
∞

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L’Hospital’s Rule applies to these indeterminate forms.
L’Hospital’s Rule
Suppose f and g are differentiable and g 0 (x) 6= 0 on an open interval I
that contains a (except possibly at a). Suppose that

lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0,

x→a x→a

or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞.
x→a x→a

0 ∞
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type or ). Then
0 ∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

if the limit on the right-hand side exists (or is ∞ or −∞).

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Note.
L’Hospital’s Rule says that the limit of a quotient of functions is
equal to the limit of the quotient of their derivatives. It is especially
important to verify the conditions regarding the limits of f (x) and
g(x) before using L’Hospital’s Rule.

L’Hospital’s Rule is valid for one-sided limits and for limits at infinity
or negative infinity. That is, “x → a" can be replaced by any of the
symbols x → a+ , x → a− , x → ∞, or x → −∞.

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Example
Find
ln x
lim .
x→1 x − 1

Solution. We have

lim ln x = ln 1 = 0 and lim (x − 1) = 0.

x→1 x→1

0
Therefore, the limit is an indeterminate form of type .
0
Applying L’Hospital’s Rule, we get

ln x (ln x)0 1/x 1

lim = lim 0
= lim = lim = 1.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 (x − 1) x→1 1 x→1 x

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If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ∞ (or −∞), then it isn’t clear what the
x→a x→a
value of lim [f (x)g(x)], if any, will be.
x→a
This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞.

We can deal with it by writing the product fg as a quotient:

f g
fg = or fg = .
1/g 1/f

0
This converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of type or
0
∞
, so that we can use L’Hospital’s Rule.
∞

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Example
Evaluate
lim x ln x.
x→0+

Solution. The given limit is indeterminate. Because as x → 0+ , the first

factor (x → 0+ ), while the second factor (ln x → ∞).
1
Since x = , we have 1/x → ∞ as x → 0+ . Use L’Hospital’s Rule
(1/x)

ln x 1/x
lim+ x ln x = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ (−x) = 0
x→0 x→0 1/x x→0 −1/x 2 x→0

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 x
Note. Another possible way is to write lim+ x ln x = lim+ .
x→0 x→01/ ln x
However, if we apply L’Hospital’s Rule, we get a more complicated
expression than the one we started with.

In general, when we rewrite an indeterminate product, we try to

choose the option that leads to the simpler limit.

If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞ , then the limit

x→a x→a

lim [f (x) − g(x)]

x→a

is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞. Again there is a

contest between f (x) and g(x).

We try to convert the difference into a quotient (for instance, by using a

common denominator, or rationalization, or factoring out a common
0 ∞
factor), so that we have an indeterminate form of type or .
0 ∞
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Example
Compute
lim (sec x − tan x).
x→(π/2)−

Solution. Since sec x → ∞, tan x → ∞ as x → (π/2)− , the limit is

indeterminate.

Use a common denominator,

 
1 sin x
lim (sec x − tan x) = lim −
x→(π/2)− x→(π/2)− cos x cos x
1 − sin x − cos x
= lim = lim = 0.
x→(π/2)− cos x x→(π/2) − sin x
−

Note that the use of L’Hospital’s Rule is justified, because 1 − sin x → 0

and cos x → 0 as x → (π/2)− .

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Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit

lim [f (x)]g(x) .
x→a

1 lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, type 00

x→a x→a
2 lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = 0, type ∞0
x→a x→a
3 lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = ±∞, type 1∞
x→a x→a
These three cases can be treated either by taking the natural
logarithm:
y = [f (x)]g(x) → ln y = g(x) ln f (x),
or by writing the function as an exponential:

y = [f (x)]g(x) → y = eln y = eg(x) ln f (x) .

In either method, we have the indeterminate product g(x) ln f (x), which

is of type 0 · ∞.
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Example
Calculate
lim (1 + sin 4x)cot x .
x→0+

Solution. As x → 0+ , we have 1 + sin 4x → 1 and cot x → ∞, so the

given limit is indeterminate (type 1∞ ). Let y = (1 + sin 4x)cot x , we have
ln(1 + sin 4x)
ln y = cot x ln(1 + sin 4x) = .
tan x
Use L’Hospital’s Rule,
4 cos 4x
ln(1 + sin 4x)
lim ln y = lim+ = lim+ 1+sin2 4x = 4.
x→0+ x→0 tan x x→0 sec x

To find limit of y , we use the fact that y = eln y :

lim (1 + sin 4x)cot x = lim+ y = lim+ eln y = e4 .

x→0+ x→0 x→0

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

CALCULUS I - AY2023-24 74 / 94
Let’s consider the equation 48x(1 + x)60 − (1 + x)60 + 1 = 0, which we
can find an approximate solution by using a graphing device.

We see that besides the solution x = 0, there is another one between

0.007 and 0.008. Zooming in shows that the root is approximately
0.0076. If we need more accuracy we could zoom in repeatedly.

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• Newton’s method

Question. How can we find such approximate solutions?

Consider the tangent line L to the curve y = f (x) at the point
(x1 , f (x1 )) and look at the x-intercept of L, labeled x2 .

The idea behind Newton’s method is that the tangent line is close to
the curve and so its x-intercept, x2 , is close to the root r .

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Newton’s Method
Moreover, x2 can be easily calculated from tangent line

y − f (x1 ) = f 0 (x1 )(x − x1 ),

by setting y = 0. Namely,
f (x1 )
0 − f (x1 ) = f 0 (x1 )(x2 − x1 ) =⇒ x2 = x1 − , if f 0 (x1 ) 6= 0.
f 0 (x1 )
We use x2 as a second approximation to r .

Next we repeat this procedure with x1 replaced by the second

approximation x2 , using the tangent line at (x2 , f (x2 )).
This gives a third approximation:
f (x2 )
x3 = x2 − , if f 0 (x2 ) 6= 0.
f 0 (x2 )

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If we keep repeating this process, we obtain a sequence of
approximations x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . as shown in Figure.

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In general, if the n-th approximation is xn and f 0 (xn ) 6= 0, then the next
approximation is given by

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f 0 (xn )

If the numbers xn become closer and closer to r as n becomes large,

then we say that the sequence converges to r and we write

lim xn = r .
n→∞

Remark. It should be noted that the Newton’s method may fail if an

improper initial approximation x1 is used.

In this case, we need to find another initial value.

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Example
Find, correct to six decimal places, the root of the equation cos x = x.

Solution. We first rewrite the equation in standard form:

cos x − x = 0.

Therefore we let f (x) = cos x − x. Then f 0 (x) = − sin x − 1, and hence

Newton’s equation becomes
cos xn − xn cos xn − xn
xn+1 = xn − = xn + (n ≥ 1).
− sin xn − 1 sin xn + 1

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In order to guess a suitable value for x1 , we sketch the graphs of
y = cos x and y = x as shown in Figure.

It appears that they intersect at a point whose x-coordinate is

somewhat less than 1, so let’s take x1 = 1 as a convenient first
approximation.

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Then, remembering to put our calculator in radian mode, we get

x2 ≈ 0.75036387
x3 ≈ 0.73911289
x4 ≈ 0.73908513
x5 ≈ 0.73908513

Since x4 and x5 agree to more than six decimal places (eight, in fact),
we conclude that the root of the equation, correct to six decimal
places, is 0.739085.

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Remark. Instead of using the rough sketch to get a starting
approximation for Newton’s method as we did in the example above,
we could have used the more accurate graph that a calculator or
computer provides.

Figure below suggests that we use x1 = 0.75 as the initial

approximation. Then Newton’s method gives

x2 ≈ 0.73911114
x3 ≈ 0.73908513
x4 ≈ 0.73908513

and so we obtain the same answer as before, but with one step fewer.

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Outline

1 Maximum and Minimum Values

2 The Mean Value Theorem

3 Derivative Tests

4 Curve Sketching: a self-study

5 Applied Optimization Problems

6 L’Hospital’s Rule

7 Newton’s Method

8 Antiderivatives

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We have studied how to find the derivative of a function and how to
use it to solve a wide range of problems.

However, there are many problems that require us to recover a

function from it known derivative (for instance, from its rate of change).

We now study this topic.

Definition. A function F is called an antiderivative of a function

on some interval I if

F 0 (x) = f (x), for all x ∈ I.

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For example, consider the function f (x) = x 2 . It is not difficult to find an
1
antiderivative of f (x): if F (x) = x 3 , then F 0 (x) = x 2 = f (x).
3
1
But we can notice that the function G(x) = x 3 + 100 also satisfies
3
G0 (x) = x 2 . Therefore both F (x) and G(x) are antiderivatives of f (x).
1
In fact, any function of the form H(x) = x 3 + C, where C is an
3
arbitrary constant, is an antiderivative of f (x).
We have the following important result.
Theorem
If F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x) on an interval I, then the most
general antiderivative of f on I is

F (x) + C,

where C is an arbitrary constant.

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• Table of antiderivative formulas

Each formula in the table is true because the derivative of the function
in the right column appears in the left column.
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• Antiderivative linearity rules

Other derivative rules also lead to corresponding antiderivatives rules.

In particular, we can add and subtract antiderivatives and multiply
them by constants.

Thus we have the following table.

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Antiderivatives are particularly useful in analyzing the motion of an
object moving in a straight line. We know if the object has position
function s(t), then the velocity function is v (t) = s0 (t).

This means that the position function is an antiderivative of the velocity

function.

Likewise, since the acceleration function is a(t) = v 0 (t), the velocity

function is an antiderivative of the acceleration.

So if the acceleration and the initial values s(0) and v (0) are known,
then the position function can be found by antiderivative rules twice.

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Example
A ball is thrown upward with a speed of 15 m/s from the edge of a cliff
140 m above the ground. Find its height above the ground after t sec.
When does it reach its maximum height? When does it hit the ground?

Solution. The ball moves upward, so we choose the positive direction

to be upward.
At time t the distance above the ground is s(t) and the velocity v (t) is
decreasing. Therefore, the acceleration must be negative and we have
dv
a(t) = = −9.8
dt
Taking antiderivatives, we have
v (t) = −9.8t + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
Furthermore, since v (0) = 15, we have 15 = 0 + C, that is C = 15.
Thus v (t) = −9.8t + 15.
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The maximum height is reached when v (t) = 0, that is, after
15/9.8 ≈ 1.53 seconds.
Since s0 (t) = v (t), we use antiderivative rules again to obtain

s(t) = −4.9t 2 + 15t + D, , where D is an arbitrary constant.

Using the condition s(0) = 140, we have 140 = 0 + D, that is D = 140.

Thus s(t) = −4.9t 2 + 15t + 140.
The expression for s(t) is valid until the ball hits the ground. This
happens when s(t) = 0, that is, when

4.9t 2 − 15t − 140 = 0.

Solving this quadratic equation, we obtain

√
15 ± 2969
t= ≈ 7.1 sec (we ignore the negative value)
9.8
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• Indefinite integrals

In mathematics, there is a special symbol for denoting the collection of

all antiderivatives of a function.

Definition. The collection of all antiderivatives of f is called the

indefinite integral of f w.r.t. x, and is denoted by
Z
f (x) dx.

Z
The symbol is an integral sign
The function f is the integrand of the integral
x is the variable of integration.

CALCULUS I - AY2023-24 92 / 94
Note. After the integral sign in the notation above, the integrand
function is always followed by a differential to indicate the variable of
integration.

By this, we can write

Z
dx = x + C,
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C,
etc.

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END OF CHAPTER 3

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