Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

 Cauchy’s Mean Value

Theorem generalizes Lagrange’s Mean Value
Theorem. This theorem is also called
the Extended or Second Mean Value Theorem. It
establishes the relationship between the derivatives
of two functions and changes in these functions on a
finite interval.
Fig.1 Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857)
Let the functions f(x) and g(x) be continuous on an
interval [a,b], differentiable on (a,b), and g′(x)≠0 for
all x∈(a,b). Then there is a point x=c in this interval
such that
f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(c)g′(c).
Proof.
First of all, we note that the denominator in the left
side of the Cauchy formula is not
zero: g(b)−g(a)≠0. Indeed, if g(b)=g(a), then by Rolle’s
theorem, there is a point d∈(a,b), in
which g′(d)=0. This, however, contradicts the
hypothesis that g′(x)≠0 for all x∈(a,b).
We introduce the auxiliary function
F(x)=f(x)+λg(x)
and choose λ in such a way to satisfy the
condition F(a)=F(b). In this case we get
f(a)+λg(a)=f(b)+λg(b),⇒f(b)−f(a)=λ[g(a)−g(b)],⇒λ=−f(b)
−f(a)g(b)−g(a).
and the function F(x) takes the form
F(x)=f(x)−f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)g(x).
This function is continuous on the closed
interval [a,b], differentiable on the open
interval (a,b) and takes equal values at the
boundaries of the interval at the chosen value
of λ. Then by Rolle’s theorem, there exists a
point c in the interval (a,b) such that
F′(c)=0.
Hence,
f′(c)−f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)g′(c)=0
or
f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(c)g′(c).
By setting g(x)=x in the Cauchy formula, we can
obtain the Lagrange formula:
f(b)−f(a)b−a=f′(c).
Cauchy’s mean value theorem has the following
geometric meaning. Suppose that a curve γ is
described by the parametric
equations x=f(t), y=g(t), where the parameter t ranges
in the interval [a,b]. When changing the
parameter t, the point of the curve in Figure 2 runs
from A(f(a),g(a)) to B(f(b),g(b)). According to the
theorem, there is a point (f(c),g(c)) on the
curve γ where the tangent is parallel to the chord
joining the ends A and B of the curve.

Figure 2.

 Solved Problems
Click a problem to see the solution.
Example 1
The function f(x) is differentiable on the
interval [a,b], where ab>0. Show that the following
equality1a−b∣∣∣abf(a)f(b)∣∣∣=f(c)−cf′(c)holds for this
function, where c∈(a,b).
Example 2
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=x4 and g(x)=x2 on the
interval [1,2].
Example 3
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=x3 and g(x)=arctanx on the
interval [0,1].
Example 4
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=cosx and g(x)=sinx on the
interval [a,b].
Example 5
Show that at x≠0 the following inequality holds:
1−x22<cosx.
Example 1.
The function f(x) is differentiable on the
interval [a,b], where ab>0. Show that the following
equality1a−b∣∣∣abf(a)f(b)∣∣∣=f(c)−cf′(c)holds for this
function, where c∈(a,b).
Solution.
Note that due to the condition ab>0, the
segment [a,b] does not contain the
point x=0. Consider the two
functions F(x) and G(x) having the form:
F(x)=f(x)x,G(x)=1x.
For these functions, the Cauchy formula is written in
the form:
F(b)−F(a)G(b)−G(a)=F′(c)G′(c),
where the point x=c lies in the interval (a,b).
Find the derivatives:
F′(x)=(f(x)x)′=f′(x)x−f(x)x2,G′(x)=(1x)′=−1x2.
Substituting this in the Cauchy formula, we get
f(b)b−f(a)a1b−1a=cf′(c)−f(c)c2−1c2,⇒af(b)−bf(a)aba−ba
b=−cf′(c)−f(c)c21c2,⇒af(b)−bf(a)a−b=f(c)−cf′(c)
The left side of this equation can be written in terms
of the determinant. Then
1a−b∣∣∣abf(a)f(b)∣∣∣=f(c)−cf′(c).
Example 2.
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=x4 and g(x)=x2 on the
interval [1,2].
Solution.
The derivatives of these functions are
f′(x)=(x4)=4x3,g′(x)=(x2)=2x.
Substituting the functions and their derivatives in
the Cauchy formula, we get
f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(c)g′(c),⇒b4−a4b2−a2=4c32c,⇒(b2
−a2)(b2+a2)b2−a2=2c2,⇒c2=a2+b22,⇒c=±√a2+b22.
We take into account that the boundaries of the
segment are a=1 and b=2. Consequently,
c=±√12+222=±√52≈±1,58.
In this case, the positive value of the square
root c=√52≈1,58 is relevant. It is evident that this
number lies in the interval (1,2), i.e. satisfies the
Cauchy theorem.
Example 3.
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=x3 and g(x)=arctanx on the
interval [0,1].
Solution.
Calculate the derivatives of these functions:
f′(x)=(x3)′=3x2,g′(x)=(arctanx)′=11+x2.
Substitute the functions f(x), g(x) and their
derivatives in the Cauchy formula:
f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(c)g′(c),⇒b3−a3arctanb−arctana=3c
211+c2,⇒b3−a3arctanb−arctana=1+c23c2.
For the values of a=0, b=1, we obtain:
13−03arctan1−arctan0=1+c23c2,⇒1−0π4−0=1+c23c2,⇒
4π=1+c23c2,⇒12c2=π+πc2,⇒(12−π)c2=π,⇒c2=π12−π,⇒
c=±√π12−π.
Given that we consider the segment [0,1], we choose
the positive value of c. Make sure that the point c lies
in the interval (0,1):
c=√π12−π≈√3,148,86≈0,60.
Thus, Cauchy’s mean value theorem holds for the
given functions and interval.
Example 4.
Check the validity of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
for the functions f(x)=cosx and g(x)=sinx on the
interval [a,b].
Solution.
For these functions the Cauchy formula is written as
f(b)−f(a)g(b)−g(a)=f′(c)g′(c),⇒cosb−cosasinb−sina=(cosc
)′(sinc)′,⇒cosb−cosasinb−sina=−sinccosc=−tanc,
where the point c lies in the interval (a,b).
Using the sum-to-product identities, we have
−2sinb+a2sinb−a22cosb+a2sinb−a2=−tanc,⇒−tana+b2=−
tanc,⇒c=a+b2+πn,n∈Z.
In the context of the problem, we are interested in
the solution at n=0, that is
c=a+b2.
As you can see, the point c is the middle of the
interval (a,b) and, hence, the Cauchy theorem holds.
Note that the above solution is correct if only the
numbers a and b satisfy the following conditions:
{cosb+a2≠0sinb−a2≠0,⇒{b+a2≠π2+πnb−a2≠πk,⇒{a+b≠
π+2πnb−a≠2πk,⇒{a≠π2+πnb≠π2+πk,
where n,k∈Z.
Example 5.
CShow that at x≠0 the following inequality holds:
1−x22<cosx.
Solution.
We introduce the functions
f(x)=1−cosx,g(x)=x22
and apply the Cauchy formula on the
interval [0,x]. As a result, we get
f(x)−f(0)g(x)−g(0)=f′(ξ)g′(ξ),⇒1−cosx−(1−cos0)x22−0=s
inξξ,⇒1−cosxx22=sinξξ,
where the point ξ is in the interval (0,x).
The expression sinξξ(ξ≠0) in the right-hand side of
the equation is always less than one. Indeed, this
follows from Figure 3, where ξ is the length of the arc
subtending the angle ξ in the unit circle, and sinξ is
the projection of the radius-vector OM onto the y-
axis. In this case we can write
1−cosxx22=sinξξ<1,⇒1−cosx<x22or1−x22<cosx.

Figure 3.

The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

Lagrange’s mean value theorem (MVT) states that if

a function f(x) is continuous on a closed
interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open
interval (a,b), then there is at least one point x=c on
this interval, such that
f(b)−f(a)=f′(c)(b−a).
This theorem (also known as First Mean Value
Theorem) allows to express the increment of a
function on an interval through the value of the
derivative at an intermediate point of the segment.
Proof.
Consider the auxiliary function

F(x)=f(x)+λx.
We choose a number λ such that the
condition F(a)=F(b) is satisfied. Then
f(a)+λa=f(b)+λb,⇒f(b)−f(a)=λ(a−b),⇒λ=−f(b)−f(a)b−a.
As a result, we have

F(x)=f(x)−f(b)−f(a)b−ax.
The function F(x) is continuous on the closed
interval [a,b], differentiable on the open
interval (a,b) and takes equal values at the endpoints
of the interval. Therefore, it satisfies all the
conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Then there is a
point c in the interval (a,b) such that
F′(c)=0.
It follows that

f′(c)−f(b)−f(a)b−a=0
or

f(b)−f(a)=f′(c)(b−a).
Fig.1 Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813)
Geometric interpretation

Lagrange’s mean value theorem has a

simple geometrical meaning. The chord passing
through the points of the graph corresponding to the
ends of the segment a and b has the slope equal to
k=tanα=f(b)−f(a)b−a.
Then there is a point x=c inside the
interval [a,b], where the tangent to the graph is
parallel to the chord (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Physical interpretation

The mean value theorem has also a clear physical

interpretation. If we assume that f(t) represents the
position of a body moving along a line, depending on
the time t, then the ratio of
f(b)−f(a)b−a
is the average velocity of the body in the period of
time b−a. Since f′(t) is the instantaneous velocity, this
theorem means that there exists a moment of
time c, in which the instantaneous speed is equal to
the average speed.
Lagrange’s mean value theorem has many
applications in mathematical analysis,
computational mathematics and other fields. Let us
further note two remarkable corollaries.
Corollary 1
In a particular case when the values of the
function f(x) at the endpoints of the segment [a,b] are
equal, i.e. f(a)=f(b), the mean value theorem implies
that there is a point c∈(a,b) such that
f′(c)=f(b)−f(a)b−a=0,
that is, we get Rolle’s theorem, which can be
considered as a special case of Lagrange’s mean
value theorem.
Corollary 2
If the derivative f′(x) is zero at all points of the
interval [a,b], then the function f(x) is constant on
this interval. Indeed, for any two points x1 and x2 in
the interval [a,b], there exists a point c∈(a,b) such
that
f(x2)−f(x1)=f′(c)(x2−x1)=0⋅(x2−x1)=0.
Consequently,

f(x1)=f(x2).

 Solved Problems

Click a problem to see the solution.

Example 1
A thermometer was taken from a freezer and placed
in the boiling water. It took 22 sec for the
thermometer to rise from −10∘C to 100∘C. Determine
the average rate of temperature change.
Example 2

Check the validity of Lagrange’s mean value theorem

for the functionf(x)=x2−3x+5on the interval [1,4]. If
the theorem holds, find a point c satisfying the
conditions of the theorem.
Example 3

Let f(x)=√x+4. Find a point c that satisfies the Mean

Value Theorem for the function on the interval [0,5].
Example 4

The position of a particle is given by the

function s(t)=2t2+3t−4. Find the time t=c in the
interval 0≤t≤4 when the instantaneous velocity of the
particle equals to its average velocity in this interval.
Example 5

Check the validity of Lagrange’s mean value theorem

for the functionf(x)=x−1x−3on the interval [4,5].
Example 6

Find all points c satisfying the conditions of the MVT

for the function f(x)=x3−x in the interval [−2,1].
Example 7
 Given the function f(x)=1x. Find all values of c that
satisfy the Mean Value Theorem for f(x) on the
interval [1,4].
Example 8

Find the point C(ξ,η) on the curve y=x3, where the

tangent is parallel to the chord connecting the
points O(0,0) and A(2,8) (Figure 4).
Example 9

Suppose that f(2)=1 and f′(x)≤5 for all values of x.

1. Determine a lower bound for f(−2).
2. Determine an upper bound for f(5).
Example 10

Let f(x)=x3−x. Find all numbers c that satisfy the

Mean Value Theorem for f(x) on the interval [−3,3].
Example 11

Given the function f(x)=x3−2x2−x+1. Find all points

of c satisfying the conditions of the Mean Value
Theorem for the function on the interval [−2,2].
Example 12

Let f(x)=x−2x+2. Find all values of c that satisfy the

Mean Value Theorem for the function on the
interval [−1,2].
Example 13
Compose the Lagrange formula for the quadratic
function f(x)=ax2+bx+c for arbitrary values
of x and Δx.
Example 14

The function f(x) is everywhere continuous and

differentiable. Prove that if the function f(x) has two
real roots, then its derivative f′(x) has at least one
root.
Example 15

The function f(x) is continuous and differentiable on

the interval [2,10]. It is known that f(2)=8 and the
derivative on the given interval satisfies the
condition f′(x)≤4 for all x∈(2,10). Determine the
maximum possible value of the function at x=10.
Example 16

The function f(x) is continuous and differentiable on

the interval [−2,6]. It is known that f(−2)=4 and the
derivative on the interval satisfies the
condition f′(x)≤3 for all x∈(−2,6). Determine an upper
bound of the function at the right endpoint x=6.
Example 1.

A thermometer was taken from a freezer and placed

in the boiling water. It took 22 sec for the
thermometer to rise from −10∘C to 100∘C. Determine
the average rate of temperature change.
Solution.
The average rate of temperature change ΔTΔt is
described by the right-hand side of the formula given
by the Mean Value Theorem:
ΔTΔt=T(t2)−T(t1)t2−t1=100−(−10)22=11022=5∘Csec
Example 2.

Check the validity of Lagrange’s mean value theorem

for the functionf(x)=x2−3x+5on the interval [1,4]. If
the theorem holds, find a point c satisfying the
conditions of the theorem.
Solution.
The given quadratic function is continuous and
differentiable on the entire set of real numbers.
Hence, we can apply Lagrange’s mean value
theorem. The derivative of the function has the form

f′(x)=(x2−3x+5)′=2x−3.
Find the coordinates of the point c:
f′(c)=f(b)−f(a)b−a,⇒2c−3=(42−3⋅4+5)−(12−3⋅1+5)4−1,⇒
2c−3=9−33=2,⇒2c=5,⇒c=2,5.
You can see that the point c=2,5 lies in the
interval (1,4).
Example 3.
Let f(x)=√x+4. Find a point c that satisfies the Mean
Value Theorem for the function on the interval [0,5].
Solution.
The function is continuous on the closed
interval [0,5] and differentiable on the open
interval (0,5), so the MVT is applicable to the
function.
The derivative has the form

f′(x)=(√x+4)′=12√x+4.
Find the coordinates of the point c:
f′(c)=f(b)−f(a)b−a,⇒12√c+4=√5+4−√0+45−0,⇒12√c+4=
15,⇒√c+4=52,⇒c+4=254,⇒c=94=2.25
It can be seen that the point c=2.25 belongs to the
open interval (0,5).
Example 4.

The position of a particle is given by the

function s(t)=2t2+3t−4. Find the time t=c in the
interval 0≤t≤4 when the instantaneous velocity of the
particle equals to its average velocity in this interval.
Solution.
The function s(t) satisfies the conditions of the Mean
Value Theorem, so we can write
s′(c)=s(b)−s(a)b−a,
where a=0, b=4.
Take the derivative:
s′(t)=(2t2+3t−4)′=4t+3.
Substituting this in the formula above, we get

4c+3=40−(−4)4,⇒4c+3=11,⇒4c=8,⇒c=2.
Answer: c=2.
Example 5.

Check the validity of Lagrange’s mean value theorem

for the functionf(x)=x−1x−3on the interval [4,5].
Solution.
This function has a discontinuity at x=3, but on the
interval [4,5] it is continuous and differentiable.
Therefore, the mean value theorem is applicable
here. Find the derivative:
f′(x)=(x−1x−3)′=(x−1)′(x−3)−(x−1)(x−3)′(x−3)2=1⋅(x−3)
−(x−1)⋅1(x−3)2=x−3−x+1(x−3)2=−2(x−3)2.
Using the Lagrange formula, we get:

f′(c)=f(b)−f(a)b−a,⇒−2(c−3)2=f(5)−f(4)5−4.
The values of the function at the endpoints are

f(4)=4−14−3=3,f(5)=5−15−3=2.
Then

−2(c−3)2=2−35−4,⇒−2(c−3)2=−1,⇒(c−3)2=2.
In this case only the positive square root is valid.
Hence,
c−3=√2,⇒c=3+√2≈4,41.
Thus, the point at which the tangent to the graph is
parallel to the chord lies in the interval (4,5) and has
the coordinate c=3+√2≈4,41.