MH1100 Calculus I

Handout 10 - Application of Differentiation I

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Synopsis

Application of Differentiation
Maximum and Minimum Values

The Mean Value Theorem

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Application

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Maximum and Minimum Values

Let’s first explain exactly what we mean by maximum and minimum

values. We see that the highest point on the graph of the function f (x)
shown in the figure is the point (3, 5).

In other words, the largest value of f (x) is f (3) = 5. Likewise, the smallest
value is f (6) = 2.
We say that f (3) = 5 is the absolute maximum of f (x) and f (6) = 2 is
the absolute minimum.
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Maximum and Minimum Values

In general, we use the following definition

Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f (x). Then f (c) is the

absolute maximum value of f (x) on D, if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in
D.

absolute minimum value of f (x) on D, if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in D.

An absolute maximum or minimum is sometimes called a global maximum

or minimum. The maximum and minimum values of f (x) are called
extreme values of f (x).

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Maximum and Minimum Values
The figure below shows the graph of a function f (x) with absolute
maximum at x = d and absolute minimum at x = a. Note that (d, f (d))
is the highest point on the graph and (a, f (a)) is the lowest point.

If we consider values of x near b (for instance, if we restrict our attention

to the interval (a, c) ), then f (b) is the largest values in the interval and is
called a local maximum value of f (x).
Likewise, f (c) is called a local minimum value of f (x). The function f (x)
also has a local minimum at x = e.
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Maximum and Minimum Values

In general, we have the following definition.

The number f (c) is a

local maximum value of f (x) if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x is near c.

local minimum value of f (x) if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is near c.

To be more specific, if we say that something is true near c, we mean that

it is true on some open interval containing c.

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Maximum and Minimum Values

For instance, in the figure below, we see that f (4) = 5 is a local minimum
because it is the smallest value of f on the interval I . It is not the
absolute minimum, because f (x) takes smaller values when x is near 12.
In fact f (12) = 3 is both a local minimum and the absolute minimum.
Similarly, f (8) = 7 is a local maximum, but not the absolute maximum
because f (x) takes larger values near 1.

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Maximum and Minimum Values

For function f (x) = cos x, it has infinitely many both local and absolute
maximum values f = 1, since cos(2nπ) = 1 for any integer n and
−1 ≤ cosx ≤ 1 for all x.

Since cos(2n + 1)π = −1, function f (x) = cos x also has infinitely many
both local and absolute minimum values f = −1.

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Maximum and Minimum Values
The following theorem gives conditions under which a function is
guaranteed to possess extreme values.
The Extreme Value Theorem
If f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f (x) attains an
absolute maximum value f (c) and an absolute minimum value f (d) at
some number c and d in [a, b].

The Extreme Value Theorem is illustrated in the figure below,

Again, a function can attain extreme values more than once.

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Maximum and Minimum Values
Figures below show that a function may not have extreme values, if either
hypothesis (continuity or closed interval) is omitted from the Extreme
Value Theorem.

Left Figure: This function has no maximum value. The function is not
continuous on the interval. The range of f (x) is [0, 3), it can never
attains the value 3.
Right Figure: This function has neither a maximum nor a minimum value.
The function is continuous on the open interval (0, 2), and the range of
the function is (1, ∞).
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Maximum and Minimum Values

The Extreme Value Theorem does not tell us how to find these extreme
values. However, we can start by looking for local extreme values.

The above figure shows the function f (x) has a local maximum at x = c
and a local minimum at x = d. It appears that at the maximum and
minimum points, the tangent lines are horizontal thus have slope 0.
We know that the slope of the tangent line is exactly the derivative at that
point, thus we should have f 0 (c) = 0 and f 0 (d) = 0.

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Maximum and Minimum Values

Fermat’s Theorem
If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if f 0 (c) exists, then
f 0 (c) = 0.

Prove: Suppose f is a local minimum at c. From its definition, there exists

h, when x is in the domain (c − h, c + h), we have f (x) ≥ f (c). Therefore,

f (x) − f (c) f (x) − f (c)

≥0 for (x > c); ≤ 0 for (x < c);
x −c x −c
f (x) − f (c) f (x) − f (c)
lim+ ≥ 0; lim ≤0
x→c x −c x→c − x −c
Since the limit exists at x = c, so we have f 0 (c) = 0.
The same idea can be used to prove the result for local maximum.

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Maximum and Minimum Values

If f 0 (c) = 0, can we have f (x) takes either local minimum or maximum at

x =c ?
For example, f (x) = x 3 at x = 0. We have f 0 (x) = 3x 2 and f 0 (0) = 0, but
f (x) has no maximum or minimum at 0 as show in the figure below.

The condition f 0 (0) = 0 simply means that the curve y = x 3 has a

horizontal tangent at (0, 0).

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Maximum and Minimum Values

If f (x) takes a local minimum or maximum at x = c, can we have

f 0 (c) = 0?

For example, function f (x) = |x| has its (local and absolute) minimum
value at x = 0, but f 0 (0) does not even exist.

There may be an extreme value even when f 0 (c) does not exist.
The above examples show that we must be careful when using Fermat’s
Theorem. In general, the converse of Fermat’s Theorem is false.
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Maximum and Minimum Values

However, Fermat’s Theorem and the above examples do suggest that we

should start looking for extreme values of f (x) at number c, where
f 0 (c) = 0 or where f 0 (c) does not exist. Such numbers have a special
name.
A critical number of a function f (x) is a number c in the domain of f (x)
such that either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.

In terms of critical numbers, Fermat’s Theorem can be rephrased as

follows.
If f (x) has a local maximum or minimum at x = c, then c is a critical
number of f (x).

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Maximum and Minimum Values

Now we are ready to find the absolute maximums or minimums of a

continuous function on a closed interval.
We note that absolute maximums (or minimums) occur only at local
maximums (or minimums) or at endpoints of the interval, thus the
following three-step procedure always works.
The Closed Interval Method
To find the absolute maximum and mininum values of a continuous
function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
Step 1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
Step 2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
Step 3. The largest of these values from Step 1 and 2 is the absolute
maximum values; the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum
value.

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Maximum and Minimum Values

Example

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function

f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 1 − 1/2 ≤ x ≤ 4.

Solution Find critical numbers,

f 0 (x) = 3x 2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2)

Since f 0 (x) exists for all x, the only critical numbers are x = 0 and x = 2.
We have f (0) = 1 and f (2) = −3.
The values of f (x) at the endpoints are f (−1/2) = 1/8 and f (4) = 17.
Comparing these four values, we can see that the absolute maximum value
is f (4) = 17, and the absolute minimum value is f (2) = −3.

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3.2 The Mean Value Theorem

Mean Value Theorem is essential to Calculus. But to arrive at the Mean

Value Theorem, we need the following result.

Rolle’s Theorem: Let f be a function that satisfies the following three

hypotheses:
1 f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
2 f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
3 f (a) = f (b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b), such that f 0 (c) = 0.

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The Mean Value Theorem

Case I f (x) = k, a constant. [Figure (a)]

Then f 0 (x) = 0, so the number c can be taken as any number in (a, b).

Case II f (x) > f (a), for some x in (a, b).[Figure (b) and (c)]
By Extreme Value Theorem, f has a global maximum value in [a, b]. Since
f (a) = f (b), it must attain this global maximum value at a number c in
the open interval (a,b). Then f has a local maximum at c, f is also
differentiable at c. Therefore f 0 (c) = 0 by Fermat’s Theorem.

Case III f (x) < f (a), for some x in (a, b).[Figure (c) and (d)]
Same as Case II.
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The Mean Value Theorem

Example

Prove that the equation x 3 + x− 1 = 0 has exactly one real root.

Solution First we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that a root
exists. Let f (x) = x 3 + x− 1. Then f (0) = −1 < 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0.
Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous, so the Intermediate Value
Theorem states that there is a number c between 0 and 1 such that
f (c) = 0. Thus the given equation has a root.

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The Mean Value Theorem

To show that the equation has no other real root or roots, we use Rolle’s
Theorem and argue by contradiction.

Suppose that it had two roots a and b, then f (a) = f (b) = 0. Since f is a
polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b]. Thus, by
Rolles Theorem, there is a number c between a and b such that f 0 (c) = 0.

But f 0 (x) = 3x 2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all x (since x 2 ≥ 0 ), so f 0 (x) can never be

0. This gives a contradiction.

Therefore the equation can’t have more than one real root. That is the
equation has exactly one real root.

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The Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem can be directly used to prove the Mean Value Theorem.

The Mean Value Theorem: Let f be a function that satisfies the

following hypotheses:
1 f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
2 f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b)−f (a)
f 0 (c) = b−a

or, equivalently

f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c) (b − a)

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The Mean Value Theorem
Before proving this theorem, we can interpret its geometrical meaning.
f (b)−f (a)
The slope of the secant line AB is mAB = b−a .
The Mean Value Theorem indicates there exists a point (c, f (c)), and
f 0 (c) = f (b)−f
b−a
(a)
.

Imaging fix the curve (by ion metal), and rotate point B counterclockwise
until f (a) = f (b), i.e, mAB = 0. From Rolle’s theorem, we will have
f 0 (c) = 0, i.e., f 0 (c) = mAB .
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Prove of the Mean Value Theorem
We define a new function,
f (b) − f (a)
h(x) = f (x) − f (a) − (x − a)
b−a
The new function satisfies h(a) = h(b) = 0, and h0 (x) = f 0 (x) − f (b)−f
b−a
(a)

We can use the Rolle’s Theorem, as we have

(1) h(x) is continuous on [a, b];
(2) h(x) is differentiable on (a, b);
(3) h(a) = h(b)
Therefore we can find a c in (a, b), such that h0 (c) = 0, which is to say
f (b) − f (a)
0 = h0 (c) = f 0 (c) − ,
b−a
so we have
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = or f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a)
b−a
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The Mean Value Theorem

To illustrate the Mean Value Theorem, we can consider

f (x) = x 3 − x, a = 0, b = 2.

Since f (x) is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable for all x, so

it is certainly continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2). Therefore,
by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c in (0, 2) such that

f (2) − f (0) = f 0 (c)(2 − 0)

Now f (2) = 6, f (0) = 0 and f 0 (x) = 3x 2 − 1, we have

6 − 0 = (3c 2 − 1) 2 = 6c 2 − 2

which gives c 2 = 43 , that is, c = ±√23 . But c must lies in the region (0, 2),
so c = √23 .

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The Mean Value Theorem
Figure 6 illustrates this calculation:

The tangent line at this value of c is parallel to the secant line OB.
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The Mean Value Theorem
Example

Suppose that f (0) = −3 and f 0 (x) ≤ 5 for all values of x. How large can
f (2) possibly be?

Solution As f is differentiable (and therefore continuous) everywhere,

Mean Value Theorem can be used on the interval [0, 2]. There exists a
number c such that:
f (2) − f (0) = f 0 (c)(2 − 0)

f (2) = f (0) + 2f 0 (c) = −3 + 2f 0 (c)

We have f 0 (x) ≤ 5 for all x, so we have f 0 (c) ≤ 5, thus 2f 0 (c) ≤ 10. And
we have
f (2) = −3 + 2f 0 (c) ≤ −3 + 10 = 7
The largest possible value for f (2) is 7.
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The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on

(a, b).

Prove Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in (a,b) and x1 < x2 . Since f is
differentiable on (a, b), it must be differentiable on (x1 , x2 ) and continuous
on [x1 , x2 ]. By the Mean Value Theorem, we have a number c, such that c
is in (x1 , x2 ) and
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f 0 (c)(x2 − x1 )
Since f 0 (x) = 0 for all x, we have f 0 (c) = 0, and

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 0 or f (x2 ) = f (x1 )

Therefore f has the same value at any two numbers x1 and x2 . This
means that f is constant on (a,b).

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The Mean Value Theorem

Corollary If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f − g is

constant on (a, b); that is, f (x) = g (x) + c, where c is constant.

Prove Let F (x) = f (x) − g (x), then

F 0 (x) = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x) = 0

for all x in (a, b).

Thus, from the above Theorem, F (x) is a constant. Therefore f (x) − g (x)
is constant.

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The Mean Value Theorem

Note
Care must be taken in applying the above Theorem. For example,

x  1 ∀x > 0
f (x) = =
|x|  −1 ∀x < 0

The domain of f is D = {x |x 6= 0} and f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in D. But f is

obviously not a constant function.

This does not contradict the Theorem, because D is not an interval!!

Notice that f is constant on the interval (0, ∞) and also on the interval
(−∞, 0).

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