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Extreme Values
Introduction
When using a function to model for a scientific process, we typically describe a relationship between an
independent variable (often something we can manipulate) and a dependent variable (the output of the
process). In many cases we are interested in the settings of the independent variable that achieve the
largest (or smallest) output of the dependent variable.

For concreteness, consider the fact that the growth rate of a kelp is strongly dependent on the rate of
flow of the water in which it grows. It was observed that the growth rate is lowest for very slow and very
fast flow rates; an intermediate flow rate produced the highest growth rates.

If we could describe this relationship using a function, we could then determine the expected growth
rates for various rates of water flow. We might expect one rate of flow to maximize the growth rate.
That is, there is some rate (neither too slow nor too fast) that is ideal for kelp growth. This would
correspond to a maximum value of the model function.

The following function that exhibits the observed kelp growth rate behaviour:

1 2
−( )(R−100) +1
100
G(R) = e

where G(R) is the growth rate in mm/day and R is the amount of water flowing through the system in
L/day.

Can we determine a value for R that maximizes the growth rate? The maximum growth rate occurs at a
flow rate R for which the function achieves an extreme value. This lesson will describe a general process
for determining the extreme (maximum and minimum) values achieved by functions.

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Global and Local Extrema

Consider a continuous function f (x)  defined on a closed interval.

By inspection, we can identify the largest value this function achieves over this interval: The point
labelled a. We call this point the global maximum or absolute maximum of the function over this
interval.

Definition - Absolute/Global Maximum:

Suppose f (x)  is a continuous function defined on a closed interval I = [a, b]. If c ∈ I is a point such
that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I , then f (c) is a global (or absolute) maximum of f (x) on I .

Note that a function can have multiple absolute maxima over a given interval. For instance, the function
g(x) = sin(x) exhibits a global maximum over each period.

Definition - Absolute/Global Minimum:

Suppose f (x) is a continuous function defined on a closed interval I = [a, b]. If c ∈ I is a point such
that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I , then f (c) is a global (or absolute) minimum of f (x) on I .

Identification of global extrema can be challenging. As we will see, the derivative allows us a straight-
forward approach to identify local extrema: Points at which a function's output value is greater (or
smaller) than all other output values in an immediate neighbourhood.

Definition - Local Maximum:

Suppose f (x) is a continuous function defined on a closed interval I = [a, b]. If c ∈ I is a point such
that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I  near c, then f (c) is a local maximum of f (x) on I .

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Definition - Local Minimum:

Suppose f (x) is a continuous function defined on a closed interval I = [a, b]. If c ∈ I is a point such
that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I  near c, then f (c) is a local minimum of f (x) on I .

Maxima and minima are collectively referred to as extrema.

Consider the identity function f (x) = x. The domain of this function is R , the set of real numbers. On
that interval, it has neither a global maximum nor a global minimum. (Recall that ∞ is not a number,
nor is it achieved as an output of the function. It cannot qualify as an extreme value.)

In contrast, consider the restriction of f (x) to the closed interval I = [−1, 3] . On this interval, the
function has both a global minimum (−1 ) and a global maximum (3), occurring at the left and right
endpoints of the interval respectively.

Now consider the restriction of f (x) to the open interval I = (−1, 3) . On this open interval, f (x)
achieves neither a global maximum nor a global minimum. In this case, the range is bounded. We can
identify a least upper bound on the function values (i.e., 3), but this does not qualify as a global
maximum because it is not in the range of the function (i.e., there is no input value x ∈ I  for which
f (x) = 3 ).

It is a fact that a continuous function defined on a bounded closed interval always achieves both a global
maximum value and a global minimum value. (This result is formally referred to as the Extreme Value
Theorem.) Note that this theorem does not imply that continuous functions cannot achieve global
maxima or minima on open intervals. (For example, f (x) = x2 has a global minimum of zero on any
open domain containing x = 0.)

Fermat's Theorem

Definition - Critical Point:

For a function f (x)  defined on an interval I = [a, b] , a value c ∈ I is a critical point of f (x) if either
f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist.
′ ′

Fermat's Theorem states that local extrema can only occur at critical points or at the endpoints of the
interval. Because the global extrema must be, in particular, local extrema, we have the following.

Global Extrema and Closed Intervals:

If a function f (x) on a closed interval I = [a, b] has a global extremum (maximum or minimum) at
a point c ∈ I , then one of the following must be true:

1. f (c) = 0 .
′

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2. ′
f (c) is undefined.

3. c is an endpoint of the interval (i.e., c = a or c = b).

Now, we describe an algorithm for determining global extrema.

Definition - The Closed Interval Method:

Let f (x) be a continuous function defined over a closed interval I = [a, b]. The global extrema
(maximum and minimum values) can be determined using the following steps.

1. Determine the derivative f (x) .

′

2. Determine all critical points (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) that lie within the interval I .

3. Evaluate f (x)  at the critical points and the endpoints (i.e., at each of a, b, and (c1 , . . . , cn )).

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4. Compare: The largest output value obtained from the previous step is the global
maximum; the smallest output value is the global minimum.

Extreme Values:
Examples and Exercises

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Example 1: Closed Interval Method

Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f (x) = 10 − 2 sin(x) + x over the
interval [0, 2π].

Solution:

The function f (x) is continuous over the specified interval (it is a combination of functions that are
continuous everywhere), so we can follow the closed interval method.

1. First, we determine the derivative:

′
f (x) = 0 − 2 cos(x) + 1

= −2 cos(x) + 1

2. This derivative is defined everywhere, so the critical points occur only when the derivative is zero
(i.e., f ′ (x) = 0):

−2 cos(x) + 1 = 0

1 = 2 cos(x)

1
cos(x) =
2
π 5π
x = ,
3 3

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Example 1: Closed Interval Method (2)

3. Next, we evaluate the function at the endpoints and the critical points:

f (0) = 10

f (2π) = 10 + 2π ≈ 16.3
π π
–
f ( ) = 10 − √3 + ≈ 9.32
3 3

5π – 5π
f ( ) = 10 + √3 + ≈ 17
3 3

π 5π
4. Comparing values, we conclude that f ( ) ≈ 9.32 is the global minimum and f ( ) ≈ 17 is
3 3

the global maximum of f (x) on [0, 2π] .

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Example 2: Global Maxima and Minima

Determine the global maxima and minima of 2

g(x) = ln (x − 5x + 8) on the interval [0, 6] . Report
these values accurate to two decimal places.

Solution:

We first determine whether the function is continuous over the given interval. This will be true if the
quadratic x2 − 5x + 8 is strictly positive and greater than zero (and therefore in the domain of ln (x)).
The quadratic formula yields the following value of x:
−−−−−−
5 ± √25 − 32
x =
2

This value has no real solutions. Therefore, the quadratic is either always positive or always negative
(i.e., the graph lies entirely above or below the x-axis). Substituting x = 0 confirms it is always
positive. So, the closed interval method applies.

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Example 2: Global Maxima and Minima (2)

1. Determine the derivative:
2x − 5
′
g (x) =
2
x − 5x + 8

2. Identify critical points (i.e., ′

g (x) = 0 ):

2x − 5
= 0
2
x − 5x + 8

5
x =
2

Because we previously determined that the quadratic formula has no real solutions, the

denominator of the first term can never be zero, so the derivative is defined everywhere.

3. Evaluate the endpoints and critical points:

g(0) = ln (8) ≈ 2.08

g(6) = ln (36 − 30 + 8) = ln (14) ≈ 2.64

g(2.5) = ln (1.75) ≈ 0.56

4. We conclude that g(6) ≈ 2.64 is the global maximum and g(2.5) ≈ 0.56 is the global minimum.

Exercise 1: Labelling Extreme Values

Consider the following graph.

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For each point on the graph (labelled a through e ), describe the point using as many of the following
terms as apply:

global maximum

local maximum

local minimum

global minimum

Answers:

Point a:   global and local m…  

Point b:   local minimum

Point c:   local maximum

Point d :   global and local mi…

Point e :   local maximum

Feedback

Point a is the global maximum; therefore, it is also a local maximum. Point d is the global minimum;
therefore, it is also a local minimum. Considering local neighbourhoods around the points b, c, and e , we
conclude that b is a local minimum while c and e are local maxima.

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Exercise 2: Labelling Extreme Points

Consider the following graph.

For each point on the graph (labelled a through f ), describe the point using as many of the following
terms as apply:

global maximum

local maximum

local minimum

global minimum

Answers:

Point a:  Local Maximum

Point b:  Local Minimum

Point c:  Global and Local Ma…

Point d :  Local Minimum

Point e :  Local Maximum  

Point f :  Global and Local Mi…  

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Feedback

Point c is both a global and local maximum. Point f is both a global minimum and a local minimum.
Point a is a local maximum.

Exercise 3: Closed Interval Method

Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of f (x) = −x2 (x − 4)(x + 4) on the interval
[−2, 4]. Report the largest and smallest output values (but not the input x -value(s) where they occur).

Enter your answers to the nearest integer.

Absolute Maximum:    64   

Absolute Minimum:     0   

Feedback

As a polynomial, f (x) is continuous on the provided interval. Therefore, the closed interval method
applies.

1. Determine the derivative:

2
f (x) = −x (x − 4)(x + 4)

2 2
= − x (x − 16)

2 4
= 16x − x

Next, we can determine the derivative:

′ 3
f (x) = 32x − 4x

2
= −4x(x − 8)

2. Identify critical points (i.e., f (x) = 0):

′

2 – –
x = 0 or (x − 8) = 0 ⟹ x = 2√ 2 or x = −2√ 2

–
Only two of these critical points, x = 2√ 2 and x = 0, are in the specified interval. The third (
–
x = −2√ 2) is irrelevant to the task at hand.

3. Evaluate endpoints and critical points:

f (0) = 0
–
f (2√ 2) = 64

f (−2) = 48

f (4) = 0

–
4. We notice that f (2√2) = 64 is the global maximum, whereas f (0) = 0 and f (4) = 0 are both
global minima of f (x) on [−2, 4].
 

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