CANALS AND

CANAL
STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION:
The irrigation water is conveyed from reservoir to flow through an open channel of
trapezoidal shape kwon as Canal. The canal may be excavated or constructed in embankment.
It is cheapest mode of conveying water.

PARTS OF CANAL SYSTEM:

• Head works
• Main canal
• Branch canal
• Major distributary
• Minor distributary
• Water courses of field channels
CLASSIFICATION OF CANAL:
The canals are classified according to:

A. THEIR ALIGNMENT AS:

1. Contour canal
2. Ridge canal
3. Slide-slop canal

B. THEIR ORIGIN AND CAPACITY AS : (Relative importance in network and discharge)

4. Main canal > 30 cumec
5. Branch canal - 5 to 30 cumec
6. Major distributary – 0.25 to 5 cumec
7. Minor distributary < 0.25 cumec up to 0.05 cumec
8. Field canal < 0.05 cumec
C. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE FUNCTION OF CANAL:
1. Irrigation canal
2. Carrier canal
3. Feeder canal
4. Navigation canal
5. Power canal
CANAL ALIGNMENT :
 CONTOUR CANAL :
The canal generally follows a contour except for necessary longitudinal slop main
canal in the head reach. It can irrigate on one side only.
 RIDGE CANAL :
The canal is aligned along a natural watershed known as ridge. These canal
usually take off from the contour canal it irrigate both side. C.D works can be avoided
therefore more economical.
 SIDE SLOPE CANAL:
In this alignment, the canal is aligned across the contour. No C.D. works
are required. These canal have steep bed slope and hence lining are necessary to
prevent erosion.
TYPICAL SECTION OF CANAL :
There are three section of canal
1. Full banking
2. Full cutting
3. Partial cutting

1. FULL BANKING (When C.B.L. is above G.L.)

2. FULL CUTTING (When F.S.L is below G.L.)
C. PARTIAL CUTTING (When C.B.L. is below G.L. but F.S.L is above G.L.)
IP = Inspection path
SR = service road
BS = Boundary stone

All dimension in Metre

BALANCING DEPTH OF CANAL:
When the quantity of earthwork in cutting at a particular section is equal to the
quantity of earthwork in filling, the canal section will be economical. For a given cross
section, there is only one particular depth for which the cutting is equal to filling, such a
depth is known as Balancing depth. The concept of balancing depth is useful in aligning a
contour canal.

dc

BALANCING DEPTH
PROCEDURE OF CALCULATING THE BALANCING
DEPTH:
CANAL STRUCTURE:
• Any structure constructed to regulate the discharge, full supply level or velocity in
a canal is known as a regulation work.
• Such a structure is necessary for the efficient working and safety of an irrigation
channel.
• The various regulation works may be categorised as under:
A. Head regulator / head sluice
B. Cross regulator
C. Canal fall
D. Canal escape
E. Canal outlet
A. HEAD REGULATORS AND CROSS REGULATORS :

• Head regulator and cross-regulator regulate the supplies the off-taking channel and the
parent channel respectively.
• The distributary head regulator is provided at the head of the distributary and controls
the supply entering the distributary.
• It is a necessary link between the parent channel and the distributing channel.
• A distributary head is a regulator, a metre of supply and a silt selective structure.
• A cross-regulator is provided on the main canal at the ds of the off-take to head up the
water level and to enable the off-taking channel to draw the required supply.
FIG: HEAD REGULATOR
FIG : CROSS REGULATOR
FUNCTION OF HEAD REGULATOR:

1. They regulate or control the supplies to the off-taking channel.

2. They serve as a meter for measuring the discharge entering into the off-taking
canal
3. They control the silt entry in the off-taking canal.
4. They help in shutting off the supplies when not needed in the off-taking canal,
or when the off taking channel is required to be closed for repairs
FUNCTIONS OF CROSS-REGULATOR:

1. The effective regulation of the whole canal system can be done with help of cross-
regulator.
2. During the periods of low discharges in the parent channel the cross-regulator raises
water level of the u/s and feeds the off take channel in rotation.
3. It helps in closing the supply to the d/s of the parent channels, for the purposes of
repairs etc.
4. They help in absorbing fluctuation in various sections of the canal system, and in
preventing the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches.
5. Incidentally, bridges and other communication works can be combined with it.
 B. CANAL FALL:

A fall is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal to lower

down its water level and destroy the surplus energy liberated from the falling
water which may otherwise scour the bed and banks of the canal.
 TYPES OF CANAL FALL:

1. OGEE FALL:

• The Ogee fall was first constructed

by Sir Proby Cautley on the Ganga
Canal.

• This type of fall has gradual convex

and concave curves, with an aim to
provide a smooth transition and to
reduce disturbance and impact.
2. RAPID FALL:

• A rapid fall Such falls were provided on

Western Yamuna Canal and were
designed by Licut. R.F. Croften
• Such a fall consists of a glacis sloping
at 1 vertical to 10 to 20 horizontal.
• The long glacis assured the formation
of hydraulic jump.
• The gentle slope admitted timber
traffic. Hence, the full worked
admirably.
• However, there was very high cost of
construction
3. STEPPED FALL:

• Stepped fall was a next

development of the rapid fall.
• One such type was provided at
the tail of main canal escape
of Sards Canal.
• The cost of this fall was also
too high
4. NOTCH FALL:

• Soon after the development of stepped

fall, the efficiency of vertical impact on
the floor for energy dissipation came to
be recognized.
• The vertical fall came in the field along
with the cistern. However, with greater
discharges, vertical fall gave trouble.
• Hence, these were superseded for a time
by the notch fall.
• The trapezoidal notch fall was first
designed by Ried in 1864.
5. VERTICAL DROP FALL:

• In the vertical drop fall, the nappe

impinges clear into the water cushion
below.
• In the earlier types of vertical falls, the
dimensions of cistern were put in
arbitrarily in light of experience of the
designers.
• Another device in the form of grid was
usually used in the cistern intercepting
the dropping jet of water.
• The Sarda type fall developed on the
Sarda Canal Project in U.P and C.D.O.
type fall developed in Punjab are some
of the recent types of vertical drop
falls.
6. GLACIS TYPE FALL:

• The glacis type of fall utilised the

standing wave phenomenon for
dissipation of energy.
• The glacis fall may be straight glacis
type, parabolic glacis type, commonly
known as the Montague type.
• The straight glacis fall may be with
baffle platform and baffle wall.
• In such a case, the formation of jump
takes place on the baffle platform.
• This type was first developed by Inglis
and is called Inglis fall.
 LOCATION OF CANAL FALL:

The location of a fall is decided from the following considerations

 For the canal which does not irrigate the area directly the fall should be located from the
considerations of economy in cost of excavation of the channel with regard to balancing
depth and the cost of the falls itself.
 For a canal irrigating the area directly a fall may be provided at a location where the
FSL outstrips the ground level, but before the bed of the canal comes into filling. After
the drop, the FSL of the canal may be below the ground level for 1/2 to 1/4 kilometre.
 The location of the fall may also be decided from the consideration of the possibility of
combining it with a regulator or a bridge or any other masonry works.
 A relative economy of providing large number of small falls vs small number of big
falls should be worked out. The provision of small number of big falls results in
unbalanced earthwork, but there is always some saving in the cost of the fall structure.
 C. CANAL OUTLETS
• An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the distributing
channel to a water course of field channel.
• Thus, outlet is a sort of head regulator for the field channel delivering
water to the Irrigation fields.
• The responsibility of maintenance of the distributing channel and the
whole canal network lies with Government, while that of the field
channels lies with the farmer.
• The outlet is the connecting medium for the two.
A Canal Outlet Should Fulfil The Following Requirements :

• The outlet should be strong, with no moving parts liable to be damaged or requiring
periodic attention and maintenance.
• It should be so designed that the farmer cannot temper with its functioning and any
interference from him should be easily detectable.
• Since a large number of outlets are fixed on a distributing channel, the most essential
requirement is that it should be cheap.
• The design should be simple so that it can be constructed or fabricated by local masons or
technicians.
• It should be possible for the outlet to work efficiently with a small working head.
• The outlet should draw its fair share of silt carried by the distributing channel.
• From the farmer's point of view, the outlet should give a fairly constant discharge.
TYPES OF OUTLETS

Outlet may be classified under the following the heads:

1. Non modular Outlet
2. Semi-modular or Flexible Module
3. Rigid Module.
1. NON- MODULAR OUTLET :

A non-modular outlet is the one in which the discharge depends upon the difference
in level between the water levels in the distributing channel and the water course. The
discharge through such an outlet varies in wide limits with the fluctuations of the water level
in the distributing and the field channels. The common examples under this category are :
submerged pipe outlet, masonry sluice and orifices, and wooden shoots.
2. SEMI-MODULAR OR FLEXIBLE MODULE:

A flexible outlet or semi module is the one in which the discharge is affected
by the fluctuations in the water level of the distributing channel while the
fluctuations in the water levels of the field channel do not have any effect on its
discharge. The various outlets in common use that fall under this category are pipe
outlet : Kennedy's gauge outlet, Crump's open flume outlet and pipe-cum-open flume
outlet

KENNEDY'S GAUGE OUTLET

3. RIGID MODULE:

A rigid module is the one which maintains constant discharge, within

limits, irrespective of the fluctuations in the water levels in the distributing
channel and/or field channel .The most common outlet that falls under this
category is the Gibb’s rigid module.
• The three common types of rigid modules, having no moving parts are:
1. Gibb's rigid module.
2. Khanna's rigid module.
3. Foote module.
 GIBB'S MODULE:

• The outlet was designed by A.S.Gibb's, formerly Executive Engineer, Punjab Irrigation.
• The figure shows plan and the section of the Gibb's module.
• The essential feature of the outlet is an eddy chamber, semi-circular in plan, round which
water flows giving rise to a free vortex flow.
• Water enters through an inlet pipe having bell mouth entry and is directed to the eddy
chamber through a 180° rising pipe in which free vortex flow is developed.
 D. CANAL ESCAPE
• A canal escape is a structure constructed on an irrigation canal for the purpose of
wasting some of its water. Depending upon the purpose, there can be three types of
escapes:
(1) Canal scouring escape,
(2) Surplus escape,
(3) Tail escape
• The scouring escape is constructed for the purpose of scouring off excess silt from
time to time. Escapes are also constructed to dispose off excess supplies of the parent
channel.
• Excess supplies in the canal take place either during heavy rains or due to the closure
of canal outlet by the farmers. In that case, the escapes save the d/s section of the
canal from overflow of banks.
FIG 1: TAIL ESCAPE

FIG 2 : SCOURING ESCAPE

CROSS DRAINAGE
WORKS
INTRODUCTION:
• A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge of a natural stream across a
canal intercepting the stream.
• When a canal is to be taken to the watershed, it crosses number of natural streams in the
distance between the reservoir to the watershed.
• Once the canal is taken to the watershed, no cross-drainage works are normally necessary
except when the canal leaves the watershed for some distance forming a loop.
• However, when the canal is aligned as a contour canal, a number of cross-drainage works
are necessary. A cross-drainage work is generally a very costly item, and should be avoided
as far as possible by
I. Diverting one stream into another, or
II. Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams.
TYPES OF CROSS DRAIGE WORKS:
(1) CD Work carrying canal over the drainage:

• In this type of C.D. Work, the canal is carried over the natural drain. The advantage of
such arrangement is that the canal, running perennially, is above the ground and is open
to inspection. Also, the damage done by floods is rare.
• However, sometimes during heavy floods the foundation can be scoured, or the
waterway of the drain may be chocked with trees etc.
• This is the usual type of work constructed when the drain is very big in comparison to
the section of the canal. The structures that fall under this type are
 Aqueduct
 Syphon aqueduct
(2) C.D. Work carrying drainage over the canal:

• In this type of C.D. work, drainage is carried over the canal.

• The advantage of this type is that the CD. works them selves are less liable to
damage than the earth-work of the canal.The major disadvantage of this work is that
the perennial canal is not open to inspection.
• Also, if the silt is deposited in the barrels of the work, it is difficult to clear it out.
• The structures that fall under this type are:
 Super passage
 Canal syphon
(3) C.D. work admitting the drainage water into the canal:

In this type of work, the canal water and the drainage water are permitted to
intermingle with each other. The only advantages of this type of work is its low initial
cost.
Such type of works have the following Disadvantages :
• Regulation of such a work is difficult and requires additional staff.
• The canal has to be designed to carry the increased too discharge of the drain.
• The faulty regulation of gates may damage the canal.
• There is additional expenditure of silt clearance.
Following are the structures under this type C.D. Work:
1. Level crossing
2. Inlet and outlets.
FIG: LEVEL CROSSING
FIG : INLET
SELECTION OF SUITABLE TYPE OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORK:
The factors which affect the selection of the suitable type of cross-drainage works are
I. Relative bed levels and water levels of the canal and the drainage,
II. Size of the canal and the drainage.

The following considerations are important:

• When the bed level of the canal is much above the H.FL of the drainage, so that
sufficient headway is available for floating rubbish etc, and also for the structural
elements of the work, an aqueduct is the obvious choice. Similarly, if the bed level of
the drain is well above the FSL of the canal, super-passage is provided.
• The necessary headway between the canal bed level and the drainage H.F.L. can be
increased by shifting the crossing to the d/s of the drainage. If, however, it is not
possible to chi the canal alignment, or if such a shifting does not give sufficient
headway between the two levels, a syphon aqueduct may be provided Thus, in the
case of syphon aqueduct, the H.F.L of the drain above the bed of the canal.
• When the canal bed level is much lower, but the ESL of the canal is higher
than the bed level of the drainage, a canal syphon is preferred.
• When the drainage and the canal cross each other practically at the same
level, a level crossing may be preferred. This type of work is avoided as far
as possible.
CANAL
LINING
INTRODUCTION
• Lining means providing a thin covering of 2.5 to 15 cm thickness to the bed
and sides of canal.
• The material used for lining are bricks, stones precast concrete blocks,
reinforced cement concrete, asphalt, clay mixtures etc.
NECESSITY:

Lining of canal is necessary :

• To minimise the seepage losses in canal,
• To increase the discharge in canal section by increasing the velocity.
• To prevent erosion of bed and side due to high velocities.

• To reduce maintenance of canal.

ADVANTAGES OF LINING:

The main advantages derived by canal lining are mentioned below:

1. The lining of canals prevents seepage loss and thus more area can be irrigated by the
water so saved. The cost of irrigation is therefore reduced.
2. The lining of canal is an important anti-water logging measure as it reduces seepage
to the adjoining land.
3. The lining provides a smooth surface. The rugosity coefficient, therefore, decreases.
The resistance to flow also decreases and hence the velocity of flow in the lined canal
increases.
4. The increased velocity minimises the losses due to evaporation.
5. The increased velocity helps to provide a narrow cross- section for lined channels.
6. Higher velocity helps in providing a flatter hydraulic gradient or bed slope. Thus
better command can be obtained.
7. Higher velocity prevents silting of channel.
8. Lining makes the banks more stable in light textured.
9. Lining reduces maintenance costs and possibility of breaching due to increased
stability of section.
10. Lining of a canal prevents or reduces weed growth.
11. Lining of a canal increases available head for power generation as a flatter
gradient can be provided.
12. Canal lining assures economical water distribution.
13. Canal lining prevents water to come in contact with harmful salts during transit.
DISADVANTAGES OF CANAL LINING:

The canal lining has certain disadvantages although the advantages far out-
weigh the meagre disadvantages. The disadvantages of canal lining are mentioned
below:

1. Canal lining requires a heavy initial investment.

2. Lining being permanent, it is difficult to shift the outlets very often.
3. It is very difficult to repair the damaged lining.
4. A lined channel section is without a berm. The additional safety provided by the
berm for vehicular and pedestrian traffic is therefore, absent in a lined channel
SUITABILITY OF CANAL LINING:

A canal lining material, to be suitable, should have the following

properties…….

• The material used for lining should provide complete water tightness.
• The material used should have low coefficient of rugosity so as to make the
section hydraulically more efficient.
• The material chosen for canal lining should be strong and durable.
• The lining should not have a very high initial cost. Subsequent maintenance
cost of canal lining should be very low.
• The material med should be able to resist growth of weeds and attack of
burrowing animals
• The material used should be unaffected by tramping of castles.
• The material should withstand high velocity
• The material should permit construction of required slope easily.
TYPES OF LINING:

The following are the important types of concrete lining used in India:

(a)Hard surface type lining:

1. Cement concrete lining (b) Earth type lining:
2. Shotcrete lining 8. Soil cement lining
3. Precast concrete lining 9. Clay puddle lining
4. Cement mortar lining. 10. Sodium carbonate lining
5. Brick lining
6. Stone blocks, or undressed (c) Buried and protected membrane type lining:
7. Asphaltic lining 11. Prefabricated light membrane lining
12. Bentonite soil and clay membrane
lining
13. Road oil lining
LINING MATERIALS:
1) CEMENT CONCRETE : Plain cement concrete from 5 to 10 cm thickness depending on the size
of canal and sub-grade conditions has excellent hydraulic properties it is usually cast in-situ or
precast. The joints are sealed with bitumen compound.
2) SHOTCRETE LINING: A mixture of cement mortar (cement : sand 1:4) is applied pneumatically
under pressure in thickness of 2.5 to 6.5 cm and cured.
3) LIME CONCRETE : Lime, surkhi power and sand can be used as a ling material.
4) BURNT CLAY TILES : Burnt clay tiles either in single layer or double have also been popularly
used as lining.
5) SOIL CEMENT LINING: A mixture of cement and soil 1:4 to 1:6 is suitable when the soil is
pervious and sandy, Portland cement is mixed with the top 10 to 15 cm depth of sub-grade soil and
water is added. If properly compacted it reduces the seepage.
6) BRICK OR STONE LINING : Brick lining consists of single or double layer of brick masonry to
30 cm thick. The cement mortar (1:6) is used for its construction. Undressed stone blocks are also
set in mortar and used as lining Dressed stone lining is effective but costly.
7) THE VARIOUS OTHER MATERIALS USED FOR LINING ARE: (i)Impervious clay blanket,
(ii) Asphalt lining, (ii) Buried membrane of polythenevinyl and P.V.C., (iv) Road oils, chemicals
etc.
MAINTENANCE OF CANALS:
Proper and regular maintenance of canals is very essential for their efficient and
economical functioning.
Following are the various reasons which may attribute to the in-efficiency of the
canal system
1. Silting of canals
2. Weed growth
3. Surface deterioration of service roads
4. Breaching of canals due to weak banks
5. Overtopping of canal hanks
The following maintenance operations are generally carried out in irrigation
canals:

1. Removal of silt deposits from canal bed.

2. Controlling the weed growth.
3. Maintaining the service roads
4. strengthening of canal hanks
5. Plugging of canal breaches.
A. Removal of silt deposits from canal bed.

(a) During closure period of the canal, the site is removed by manual labour. If the sitting
is too much it can be removed by doing the canal for this purpose only.

(b) By increasing the velocity of canal water by addition of more water in it

(c) By dredging the silt by dredgers.

() Providing silt ejectors in canal to remove the silt.

B. Controlling Weed Growth:
The weeds and plants should be removed from the canals from time to time for
increasing the efficiency of the canal. The removal of weeds and plants in done manually
during maintenance work Increasing the velocity of canal water weed growth can be
controlled up to certain level. All spots where the weed growth has taken place should be
located and the weed should be physically removed from roots.

C. Maintenance of Service Roads:

Almost all inspection canal roads are unmetalled. They are maintained along
immigration channels to facilitate inspection of irrigation works and canals. The canal
road way is inspected after heavy rains and ordinary repairs shall be taken in hand

D. Strengthening of canal banks :

Banks are strengthened by Two methods
1. Silting
2. Berm Formation
 COMPARISION BETWEEN WEIR AND BARRAGE:
SR NO. PAREMETER WEIR BARRAGE

1. Function Ponding of water with or without gate Ponding with gates

(raising crest)
2. Afflux High Less

3. Control on flood No control Better control

Inflow and outflow control
4. Maintenance Low cost and simple Difficult and costly (requires
skill labour)
5. suitability Steep slope / flat Very flat longitudinal slope
Less silt carried by the river Catchment having heavy charge
of silt

6. Control on silt removal No or very less Better control due to gate

7. Initial cost less High
T H AN K
Y O U