NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS
Presented by:
Engr. Franz D. Santos
Overview

1 Course Requirements

2 Introduction

3 Historical Development

4 Fluid Classification
 MECHANICS OF FLUID (FLDMEOH)

• 1st Term, A.Y. 2018-2019

• Wednesday, Friday 2:20 PM – 11:00 AM
• CIV 152
• Room 404 JMB
• 2 UNITS
 Course Description
• The course will provide the student with a
fundamental background in the behavior of
fluids (liquids and gases) under all conditions
of rest (static) and motion (dynamic).It covers
fluid properties, hydrostatics, fluid dynamics,
dimensional analysis and similitude, and
energy and momentum principles.
• COURSE PREREQUISITE:
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies (Strength of
Materials)
Course Requirements & Grade
Computations
Periodical Exam : 40%
Class Standing : 60%
❑Quiz 70%
❑Seatwork 15%
❑Assignment 15%
❑Final Rating = 50% Midterm Grade + 50%
Final Grade
❑NOTE: Exams, Quizzes, Seatworks and
Assignments are all based 0, 60 PASSING!.
 Reference Books
• Fluid Mechanics by Frank White
• Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics by DIT Gillesania
• Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Khosravy
• Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics by DIT Gillesania
• Engineering Fluid Mechanics by T. Al-Shemmeri
• Basics of Fluid Mechanics by Genick Bar-Meir
 Course Outline
MIDTERM TOPICS FINAL TERM TOPICS
Introduction
Buoyancy and Stability
-Distinction among Fluid Mechanics,
- Archimedes’ Principles
Hydraulics, and Hydrology
- - Statical Stability of Floating Bodies
-Historical Development
Fluid Concept
-Fluid Definition and Fluid Types
- Continuum Hypothesis Stress on Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
- Dimensions, Units and Physical Quantities
- Fluid Properties
Fluid Statics
- Relative Equilibrium of Liquids
- Pressure and Its Variation in a Static
- Rectilinear Translation
Fluid
- Rotating Vessel
- Manometry and other Measurements
Hydrostatic Forces on Immersed Surfaces
- Hydrostatic Forces on Plane & Curves Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Areas
Dams
Boundary Layers – Laminar, Transitional and
- Types of Dams
Turbulent Flows
- Analysis of Gravity Dams
• Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous
mechanics which deals with the study of all
fluids under static and dynamic situations.
• Fluid statics - mechanics of fluids at rest
• Kinematics - deals with velocities and
streamlines w/o considering forces or energy
• Fluid dynamics - deals with the relations
between velocities and accelerations and
forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion
• Fluid Mechanics vs Hydraulics vs Hydrology
– Hydraulics can be construed as applied Fluid mechanics.
– Hydraulics deals primarily with water.
– Fluid mechanics approach is more mathematical and
employs basic principles of science.
– Hydrology is the study of space, time, and frequency
distribution of the quantity and quality of waters of the
earth encompassing their occurrence, movement,
distribution, circulation, storage, exploration, and
development.
– Hydrology deals with water in all forms and its occurrence.
– A sharper contrast among three subjects is the spatial
scales commonly employed by them.
• Hydraulics – deals with the application of fluid mechanics
to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or
oil. It includes problems such as flow of liquids through
pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams,
pumps, water turbines, and w/ other devices for the
control or use of liquids.
• Gas dynamics – deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gasses
through nozzles at high speeds.
• Aerodynamics – deals with the flow of gases, especially
air, over bodies such as aircraft, rockets and automobiles
at high or lor low speeds.
 The Concept of a Fluid
• From the view point of fluid mechanics, all matter
consists of only two states: fluid and solid.
• A solid can resist a shear stress by a static
deformation; a fluid cannot.
• The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long
as the shear is applied. Thus, fluid cannot return to
its original state after deformation.
• Fluid flow under their own weight and take the
shape of any solid body w/ w/c they’re in contact.
• Rheology – is the study of materials showing dual
behaviors; under certain limits; it behaves like solid
and under others behaves like fluid.
 The Concept of a Fluid
• The fluid is divided into 2 categories: liquids &
gases.
Liquids Gases
Occupy definite volumes Will expand to occupy any
containing vessel.
Composed of relatively close- Gas molecules are widely
packed molecules w/ strong spaced w/ negligible cohesive
cohesive forces, tends to forces, a gas is free to expand
retain its volume until it encounters confining
walls.
Will form a free surface in a Cannot form a free surface
gravitational field if unconfined and when left to itself w/out
from above. confinement , a gas forms an
atmosphere w/c is essentially
hydrostatic.
 The Concept of a Fluid
Continuum view of Fluids
• Convenient to assume fluids are continuously
distributed throughout the region of interest. That
is, the fluid is treated as a continuum.
• the number of molecules within the smallest region
of interest (a point) are sufficient that all fluid
properties are point functions (single valued at a
point).
• This continuum model allows us to not have to deal
with molecular interactions directly. We will account
for such interactions indirectly via viscosity .
• Mean free path (  ) – Average distance a molecule
travels before it collides with another molecule.
 Types of a Fluid
Fluids

Ideal Real
Fluids Fluids

Newtonian Non
Fluids Newtonian
Fluids
Pseudoplastic Bingham
Fluids Fluids
Delatant
Fluids
 Types of Fluid

Ideal Fluids Real Fluids

Assumed to have no Exhibit infinite viscosities
viscosity (hence no
resistance to shear)
Incompressible Compressible
Have uniform velocity when Non uniform velocity
flowing distribution when flowing
No friction between moving Experience friction during
layers of fluid flow
No eddy currents or Turbulence in flow
turbulence
 Types of Fluid
• Incompressible fluids – fluids that do not undergo
significant changes in density as they flow. Generally,
liquids are incompressible.
• Compressible fluids – fluids that undergo significant
changes in density as they flow. (Gas)
• Newtonian Fluid – will deform at different rates under
the action of the same applied shear stress. Examples
are water, air & gasoline.
• Non-Newtonian Fluid - Fluid in which shear stress is not
directly proportional to deformation rate are non-
Newtonian flow: toothpaste and Lucite paint.
 Types of Fluid
Viscous vs. Inviscid Regions of flow
• Regions where frictional effects are significant
are called viscous regions. They are usually
close to solid surfaces.
• Regions wher frictional forces are small
compared to inertial or pressure forces are
called inviscid.
 Types of Fluid
Laminar vs. Turbulent
• Laminar flow : highly ordered
fluid motion w/ smooth
streamlines.
• Turbulent : highly disordered
fluid motion; fluid particles
intersect each other.
• Transitional flow: a flow that
contains both laminar and
turbulent regions.
 The Concept of a Fluid

• Dimension is the measure by which a physical

variable is expressed quantitatively.
• A unit is a particular way of attaching a
number to the quantitative dimension.
• Prefixes are used in conjunction with units.
Prefix
 System of Units

• In 1872 an international meeting in France proposed

a treaty called the Metric Convention, which was
signed in 1875 by 17 countries including the United
States.
• It was an improvement over British systems because
its use of base 10 is the foundation of our number
system, learned from childhood by all.
• To standardize the metric system, a General
Conference of Weights and Measures attended in
1960 by 40 countries proposed the International
System of Units (SI).
 Fluid Properties
• Density (ρ)– is a mass per unit of volume.
m
=
V
• Can also be computed from the ideal gas law:
𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
• Specific volume (Vs) – is the volume occupied
by a unit mass of fluid. It is the reciprocal of
density V 1
Vs = =
m 
 Fluid Properties

• Unit weight or specific weight (γ)– weight

per unit volume. W
=
V
W = weight (N or lbs) and V = volume (m3 or ft3)
And also,  = g
Where: g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2)
Weight (W) = mass x gravitational acceleration
Weight (W) = mg
 Fluid Properties

• The density and specific weight of water do

vary slightly with temperature; the
approximate relationships are:
( 𝑻 − 𝟒 )𝟐
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝑶 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 −
𝟏𝟖𝟎

( 𝑻 − 𝟒 )𝟐
𝜸𝑯𝟐𝑶 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 −
𝟏𝟖

• Temperature in the equations above is

measured in degrees Celsius.
 Fluid Properties
• Specific gravity (sg) – (or relative density) is a
unitless ratio of a fluid’s density to some
standard reference density. It is also referred as
relative density. For liquids and solids, the
reference density is water at 4oC.
fluid fluid
sg = =
water water
Note: The standard values of the density and specific
weight of water @ 4°C for Physicists and 15.6°C for
engineers are the ff:
For water ρ= 1.94 slug/ft3 or 1000 kg/ m3; γ= 9.81 kN/
m3 or 62.4 lb/ ft3
 Fluid Properties
• Absolute or Dynamic viscosity (µ) – is the property
of fluid that can be thought as the internal stickiness
of a fluid; that is due to its resistance to shearing
stress. Thus, a measure of fluid’s resistance to shear
or angular deformation
• An early viscosity unit in the cgs system is the poise
(abbreviated P), or g/(cm s), named after J. L. M.
Poiseuille, a French physician who performed
pioneering experiments in 1840 on water flow in
pipes. The viscosity of water (fresh or salt) at 293.16
K = 20°C is approximately 0.01 P.
 Fluid Properties


=
dV / dy

Where: µ= dynamic viscosity in Pa-sec; dV = change in

velocity; dy = distance between the plates;
𝜏= shear stress in Pascal or lb/ft2
Note:
• 1 Poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2
• 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa-sec or 1 Pascal second = 10 poise
 Fluid Properties

• Kinematic viscosity (ν) – the ratio of the dynamic

viscosity of the fluid to its density. It is a quantity in
which no force is involved.

=

Where µ= dynamic viscosity in Pa-sec and ρ= density
• Note: Unit of kinematic viscosity is in m2/sec and
• 1 Stoke (St) = 1 cm2/sec
 Fluid Properties

Unit Conversion
Force (Weight) 1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 lbf = 444,800
dynes
Mass 1 slug = 14.59 kg
Dynamic 1 lb-sec/ft2 =
viscosity 478.78 poise
Kinematic 1 ft2/sec = 929
viscosity Stoke
 Fluid Properties

• Compressibility – (β) – or coefficient of

compressibility, is the fractional change in the
volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure
in a constant temperature process.
𝛥𝑉
− 1
𝛽= 𝑉𝑜 =
𝛥𝑝 𝐸𝐵

• Where: ΔV = change in volume, Vo = original

volume; change in pressure; EB = bulk modulus
of elasticity in N/m2 or Pascal
 Fluid Properties

• Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (EB) commonly used to

characterize the compressibility of fluids. It is the
reciprocal of coefficient of compressibility. Unit of
this dimension is in Pascal.

• Where: ΔV = change in volume, Vo = original volume;

change in pressure; EB = bulk modulus of elasticity in
N/m2 or Pascal
 Fluid Properties

• Celerity (c) - is pressure wave disturbances in

fluids; also known as acoustical or sonic
velocity.
𝐸𝐵
• 𝑐= for rigid pipes
𝜌

𝐸𝐵
• 𝑐= 𝐸𝐵 𝐷 for non-rigid pipes
𝜌 [1+ ]
𝐸𝑡
 Fluid Properties

• Where :Eb = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid

(for water EB= 2.25 GPa @ 30° C)
• E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall in
Pascal (Pa)
• t = pipe thickness c = celerity
• ρ = density of fluid (kg/cu.m) d = pipe
diameter
 Fluid Properties

• Mach number is the ratio of the velocity of a

fluid to the velocity of sound in that fluid.
• It was named after Ernst Mach (1838-1916),
an Austrian physicist and philosopher.
• Example: Aircraft in flight, its Mach number is
equal to the velocity of the airplane relative to
the air divide by velocity of the sound in air at
that altitude.
 Fluid Properties

• Mach Number, M = V/c is a good indicator of

whether or compressibility effects are
important.
Mach Number, M Indication
M < 0.3 Incompressible
0.3 < M < 0.8 Subsonic, no shock
waves
0.8 < M < 1.2 Sonic (transonic)
1.2 < M < 5 Supersonic
M>5 Hypersonic
 Mach Number
Mach Number Indication Definition
Incompressible fluids –
fluids that do not undergo
significant changes in
M < 0.3 Incompressible density as they flow.
Generally, liquids are
incompressible.

0.3 < M < 0.8 Subsonic No shock waves

Velocity is equal to speed
M=1 Sonic of sound or celerity

0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic Shock waves

Flow with speed above
the speed of sound,
1.2 < M < 5 Supersonic
1,225 km/h at sea level,
is said to be supersonic
M >> 5 Hypersonic
 Fluid Properties

Mach Number
–Alternatively, it can be expressed with
the density an the bulk modulus of
elasticity as
ρ
𝑀=𝑉
𝐸𝐵
 Fluid Properties

Mach angle (α)

– A Mach wave propagates across the flow at
the Mach angle.
– Mach angle is the reciprocal of Mach
number.
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 1
sin 𝛼 = =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀
 Fluid Properties
Cauchy number
• a dimensionless value useful for analyzing
fluid flow dynamics problems where
compressibility is a significant factor.
• is the ratio between inertial and the
compressibility force in a flow and can be
expressed as V
C=
2

EB
• Where V = flow velocity (m/s); ρ = density and EB = bulk
modulus of elasticity (Pa)
• Cauchy Number (C) = M2
 Fluid Properties
Surface Tension
• Surface tension is a force within the surface layer of a
liquid that causes the layer to behave as an elastic sheet.
• The force in dynes required to break a film of length 1
cm.
𝐹𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜎= =
𝐿 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• Surface tension will form a drop of liquid to a sphere
since the sphere offers the smallest area for a definite
volume.
• Surface tension (𝜎) is in units of dyne/cm or N/m
• 1 dyne/cm = 0.001 N/m = 1 erg/cm2
• Water at 20℃ has a surface tension of 72.8 dynes/cm
Surface Tension
 Fluid Properties

Surface Tension
• Contact-angle effects at liquid-gas-solid
interface. If ϴ < 90°, the liquid “wets” the
solid; if ϴ > 90°, the liquid is nonwetting.
 Fluid Properties
Capillarity (Capillary Action)
• The ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upward
against the force of gravity.
• The height of a liquid in a tube due to capillarity can be
expressed as
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
• ℎ=
𝜌𝑔 𝑟
• Where: h = height of liquid; 𝜎 = surface tension; ϴ =
angle of contact; ρ= density; g = acceleration due to
gravity and r = radius of tube.
 Fluid Properties
Capillarity (Capillary Action)
• Three main variables that determine whether a liquid
possesses capillarity:
– Cohesive force - It is the intermolecular bonding of a
substance where its mutual attractiveness forces them to
maintain a certain shape of the liquid.
– Adhesive force – forces of attraction between unlike
molecules occur.
– Surface tension – formation of impenetrable surface on
the body of water due to cohesive forces.
• Decreased surface tension increases capillary action
 Fluid Properties

Capillarity
• The capillary height
increases inversely with
tube radius R and is
positive if ϴ < 90°
(wetting liquid) and
negative (capillary
depression) if ϴ > 90°.
 Fluid Properties
Streamline, pathline, streakline, timeline and streamtubes
• Fluid mechanics is a highly visual subject. The patterns of
flow can be visualized in numerous ways.
• Four basic types of line patterns are used to visualize
flow:
1) Streamline – is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity
vector at a given instant.
2) Pathline – is the actual path traversed by a given fluid
particle. This is generated by injecting a dye into the
fluid and following its path by photography or other
means
 Fluid Properties
Streamline, pathline, streakline, timeline and streamtubes
3) Streakline - is the locus of particles which have
earlier passed through a prescribed point.
- concentrates on fluid particles that have gone
through a fixed station or point. At some instant of time
the position of all these particles are marked and a line
is drawn through them.
4) Timeline - is a set of fluid particles that form a line at
a given instant.
- is generated by drawing a line through adjacent
particles in flow at any instant of time
Streamlines and streamtubes
Pathlines and Streaklines
 Sample Problems
1. Oil has a total mass of 870 kg and a volume of 1.04
m3. Compute the (a) Density of oil (b) Unit weight of
oil (c) specific gravity of oil and (d) the oil’s specific
volume.
2. A liquid which is compressed in a cylinder has a
volume of 1 liter at 1 MPa and a volume of 995 cm3
at 2 MPa. What is its bulk modulus? Compute also
the compressibility value of liquid?
3. The kinematic viscosity and relative density of a
certain liquid are 4.22 x 10-5 m2/s and 1.3
respectively. Calculate the viscosity of this liquid.
 Sample Problems
4. If the velocity of flow in a 500 mm diameter cast
iron non-rigid pipe with modulus of elasticity of
8.30 GPa be changed in 0.3 second from 0.5 m/s to
0 m/s by closing a valve 300 m from a reservoir,
what probable sonic velocity is expected if the pipe
has a thickness of 15 mm and bulk modulus of
elasticity of water is 2.10 GPa?
5. A clean tube has an internal diameter 3 mm is
immersed in Mercury with a surface tension of 0.48
N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid can assumed
to be 130°. What would be the level of the liquid in
the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid
outside the tube.
 Sample Problems
6. If a force of P = 2 N causes the 30-mm diameter shaft
to slide along the lubricated bearing with a constant
speed of 0.5 m/s, determine the viscosity of the
lubricant and the constant speed of the shaft when the
force P = 8 N. Assume the velocity distribution is linear
and that the gap between the bearing and the shaft is 1
mm.
 Seatwork
The 0.15 m wide plates passes between two layers of
oil A and B, having viscosities 0.03 Pa-sec for oil A and
0.01 Pa-sec for oil B. Determine the force P required to
move the plate at a constant speed of 6 mm/s. Neglect
any friction at the end supports assuming the velocity
profile to be linear.
 PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS:
FLUID PRESSURE
Pressure – force per unit of area exerted by a liquid of gas on a body
or surface.
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞, 𝑭
𝐏=
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚, 𝑨
Common Units:
Pascal, psi (lb/sq.in), psf (lb/sq.f), atmosphere (atm), kg/sq.cm etc.

Note: For standard atmospheric pressure, use 1 atmosphere.

1 atm 101.325 KPa

1 atm 14.7 psi
1 atm 760 Torr
1 atm 760 mmHg
1 bar 1x105 Pa
 FLUID PRESSURE
Pascal’s Law
“The pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the
container”.

Gage, Atmospheric, and Absolute Pressure

Gage Pressure – this is the pressure above or below the atmosphere that can
be measured by pressure gages and manometers.
Some Pressure Measuring Devices:
U-Tube Manometer – used to measure small pressure differences.
Bourdon Gage Pressure – used to measure higher pressure differences.
Atmospheric Pressure – is the pressure at any point on the earth’s surface
from the weight of air above it.
Vacuum – is the region of space where the pressure is less than the normal
atmospheric pressure (760mmHg).
Absolute Pressure – is the pressure above the absolute zero or vacuum.
 FLUID PRESSURE
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
 FLUID PRESSURE
Variations in Pressure
Considering any two points (say 1 and 2), whose difference in elevation is
h, the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous
fluid at rest is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (𝛾) to the
vertical distance (h) between the points.

𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝜸𝒉

In finding the pressure at a specific point with a known depth, h, it is equal

to the product of the unit weight of the fluid (𝛾) and the depth (h).

𝑷 = 𝜸𝒉
 FLUID PRESSURE
Pressure Below Layers of Different Fluids

Considering a tank filled with fluids of different

unit weights with air at the top under a certain
gauge pressure, the pressure at the bottom
can be computed by:

𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝑷𝑨 + 𝜸𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝜸𝟑 𝒉𝟑

Note: If the pressure of the air on top is given

to be absolute, reduce first and proceed in
gage pressure calculation.
 FLUID PRESSURE
Pressure Head
It is the height “h” of a column of a homogeneous fluid of unit weight 𝛾 that will
produce an intensity of pressure P.

𝑷
𝒉=
𝜸

Head conversions
To convert the pressure head (height) of any liquid to another liquid, the
following can be used:

𝑺𝑨 𝜸𝑨
𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨 𝝆𝝆𝑨 or 𝒉𝑩 = 𝒉𝑨
𝑺𝑩 𝑩 𝜸𝑩
 FLUID PRESSURE
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A fluid with specific weight 8 kN/cu. m. is standing at a

height of 3 m. Another fluid (specific weight 9 kN/cu.
m.) is poured and the total height of the two liquids is 8
m.
a. Determine the height at the interface and at the bottom
of the container.
b. If the standard atmospheric conditions applies,
determine the pressure at the bottom of the container.
 FLUID PRESSURE
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. Determine the pressure at points A, B, C and D.

 FLUID PRESSURE
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3. The U-tube shown has a 1-cm diameter and contains

mercury as shown. If 20 cu. cm of water is poured into the
righthand leg, what will the free-surface height in each leg
be after the sloshing has died down?
 FLUID PRESSURE
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
4. Pressure gages, such as the Bourdon gage in the
figure are calibrated with a deadweight piston. If the
Bourdon gage is designed to rotate the pointer 10
degrees for every 2 psig of internal pressure, how many
degrees does the pointer rotate if the piston and weight
together total 44 newtons?
 FLUID PRESSURE

SEATWORK

The pressure gage A reads

1.5 kPa (gage). The fluids
are at 20°C. Determine the
elevations x and y, in
meters, of the liquid levels
in the open piezometer
tubes B and C.
 Fluid Pressure Measurement:
MANOMETERS
Manometer – is a tube usually bent in a form of a tube, containing liquid of
known specific gravity.

SIGN CONVENTION:
Upward – negative (-)
Downward – positive (+)

In terms of pressure head

𝑷𝑨 𝑷𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑷𝑩
+ ෍ =
𝜸 𝜸 𝜸

In terms of pressure 𝑷𝑨 + σ 𝑷𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑷𝑩

Where: Pressure can be calculated by P = 𝜸h

 MANOMETERS
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. For the inverted manometer shown, if Pb – Pa = 97 kPa,
what must the height H be in cm?
 MANOMETERS
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. Calculate the pressure
difference between A and
B
Next Topic: Hydrostatic Pressure