INTRODUCTION TO FLUID

MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision,
and significant digits, and recognize the importance
of dimensional homogeneity in engineering
calculations.

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1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by Fluid mechanics deals with liquids
considering fluids at rest as a special and gases in motion or at rest.
case of motion with zero velocity.
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Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that
can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.

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What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block placed between
When a constant shear force is two parallel plates under the influence of a shear
applied, a solid eventually stops force. The shear stress shown is that on the
deforming at some fixed strain rubber—an equal but opposite shear stress acts
on the upper plate.
angle, whereas a fluid never
stops deforming and
approaches a constant rate of
strain.
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Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
The normal stress and shear stress at
re-establish a horizontal free the surface of a fluid element. For
surface. fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.

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In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas does

not form afree surface, and
it expands to fill the
entire available space.

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Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in
a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual
molecules move about at random in the gas phase.

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Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach:

Does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to
analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach:
Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual molecules.
On a microscopic scale, pressure is
determined by the interaction of individual
gas molecules. However, we can measure
the pressure on a macroscopic scale with a
pressure gage.

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Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively in the

design of artificial hearts. Shown here is the
Penn State Electric Total Artificial Heart.

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1–2 ■ A BRIEF HISTORY
OF FLUID MECHANICS

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay pipe A mine hoist powered by a

section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter. reversible water wheel.
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Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the onset of
turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard at the University of
Manchester in 1975.

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The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.

Old and new wind turbine technologies

north of Woodward, OK. The modern
turbines have 1.6 MW capacities.

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1–3 ■ THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop at
The development of a velocity
profile due to the no-slip condition the surface because of the no-slip
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. condition.
Boundary layer: The
flow region adjacent to
the wall in which the
viscous effects (and
thus the velocity
gradients) are
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface. significant.
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1–4 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
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Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
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Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density
of flowing fluid remains nearly
constant throughout (e.g., liquid
flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of
fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Schlieren image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon
Ma = 1 Sonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow

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Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that
alternates between being
laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate.
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Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced to
flow over a surface or in a pipe
by external means such as a
pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.

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Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil at

Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is a
long-exposure (time-averaged) image.
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Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady
flow, and (b) long exposure picture of the same flow.
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One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its
velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in certain Flow over a car antenna is
directions can be small relative to the approximately two-dimensional
variation in other directions and can be except near the top and bottom of
ignored. the antenna.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in
the flow direction, V = V(r). 24
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 1–5 ■ SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
System: A quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.

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 Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume.
It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit. 27
1–6 ■ IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS
AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are
called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L,
time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or
fundamental dimensions, while others such as
velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are called
secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based
on a decimal relationship between the various units.
English system: It has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this system are
related to each other rather arbitrarily.

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Some SI and English Units

Work = Force ´ Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all

1 J = 1 N∙m branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

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 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
150 kgf on earth
will weigh only 25
lbf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

mass at sea level.
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A typical match yields about one Btu (or
one kJ) of energy if completely burned.
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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
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 Every unity conversion ratio (as well
as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
unity conversion ratios.
Always check the units in your
calculations.

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 A quirk in
the metric
system of
units.
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1–7 ■ MATHEMATICAL MODELING
OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally
(testing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the
actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental error. However, this
approach is expensive, time-consuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the
advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are
subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and
idealizations made in the analysis.

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Modeling in Engineering
Why do we need differential equations?
The descriptions of most scientific
problems involve equations that relate
the changes in some key variables to
each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal or
differential changes in variables, we
obtain differential equations that provide
precise mathematical formulations for
the physical principles and laws by
representing the rates of change as
derivatives.
Therefore, differential equations are
used to investigate a wide variety of
problems in sciences and engineering.
Do we always need differential
equations? Many problems encountered
in practice can be solved without
resorting to differential equations and Mathematical modeling of
the complications associated with them.
physical problems.
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 Complex model
(very accurate )
vs.
Simple model
(not-so-accurate)
Simplified models are often used
in fluid mechanics to obtain
approximate solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across which is
imposed a sudden change in
pressure. The helicopter's body is
modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the
essential features of the overall air
flow field in the vicinity of the
ground.

The right choice is usually the

simplest model that yields
satisfactory results. 40
1–8 ■ PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

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A step-by-step approach can greatly
simplify problem solving.

The assumptions made

while solving an
engineering problem must
be reasonable and
justifiable.
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 Neatness and organization are
highly valued by employers.

The results obtained from an

engineering analysis must be
checked for reasonableness.

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1–9 ■ ENGINEERING
SOFTWARE PACKAGES
All the computing power and the
engineering software packages available
today are just tools, and tools have
meaning only in the hands of masters.
Hand calculators did not eliminate the
need to teach our children how to add or
subtract, and sophisticated medical
software packages did not take the place
of medical school training.
Neither will engineering software
packages replace the traditional
engineering education. They will simply
cause a shift in emphasis in the courses
from mathematics to physics. That is,
more time will be spent in the classroom
discussing the physical aspects of the An excellent word-processing
problems in greater detail, and less time program does not make a person a
on the mechanics of solution procedures. good writer; it simply makes a good
writer a more efficient writer.
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EES (Engineering Equation Solver)
(Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or
nonlinear algebraic or differential equations
numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic
property functions as well as mathematical functions.
Unlike some software packages, EES does not solve
engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user.

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1–10 ■ ACCURACY, PRECISION,
AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of one
reading minus the true value. In general,
accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the
closeness of the average reading to the true
value. Accuracy is generally associated with
repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error: The value of one reading minus
the average of readings. In general, precision of
a set of measurements refers to the fineness of
the resolution and the repeatability of the
instrument. Precision is generally associated
with unrepeatable, random errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant and
meaningful.
Illustration of accuracy versus precision. Shooter A is
more precise, but less accurate, while shooter B is
more accurate, but less precise.
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A result with more significant digits
than that of given data falsely implies
more precision.

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An instrument with many digits of resolution (stopwatch c) may
be less accurate than an instrument with few digits of resolution
(stopwatch a). What can you say about stopwatches b and d?

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 Summary
The No-Slip Condition
A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
Classification of Fluid Flows
◦ Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
◦ Internal versus External Flow
◦ Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
◦ Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
◦ Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
◦ Steady versus Unsteady Flow
◦ One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

System and Control Volume

Importance of Dimensions and Units
Mathematical Modeling of Engineering Problems
Problem Solving Technique
Engineering Software Packages
Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits
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