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Chapter 1
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Number Systems
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1.1 The Real Numbers
1. The set (0, 1] contains its least upper bound 1 but not its greatest lower
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bound 0. The set [0, 1) contains its greatest lower bound 0 but not its
least upper bound 1.

2. The set Z ⊆ R has neither a least upper bound nor a greatest lower
bound.
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3. We know that α ≥ a for every element a ∈ A. Thus −α ≤ −a for

every element a ∈ A hence −α ≤ b for every b ∈ B. If b0 > −α is a
lower bound for B then −b0 < α is an upper bound for A, and that is
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impossible. Hence −α is the greatest lower bound for B.

Likewise, suppose that β is a greatest lower bound for A. Define
B = {−a : a ∈ A}. We know that β ≤ a for every element a ∈ A.
Thus −β ≥ −a for every element a ∈ A hence −β ≥ b for every b ∈ B.
If b0 < −β is an upper bound for B then −b0 > β is a lower bound for
A, and that is impossible. Hence −β is the least upper bound for B.
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4. The least upper bound for S is 2.

5. We shall treat the least upper bound. Let α be the least upper bound
for the set S. Suppose that α0 is another least upper bound. It α0 > α
then α0 cannot be the least upper bound. If α0 < α then α cannot be
the least upper bound. So α0 must equal α.
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 2 CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SYSTEMS

6. Certainly S is bounded above by the circumference of C. The least

upper bound of S is π. This exercise cannot work in the rational
number system because π is irrational.
7. Let x and y be real numbers. We know that

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ≤ |x|2 + 2|x||y| + |y|2 .

Taking square roots of both sides yields

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| .

8. We treat the supremum. Notice that, since the empty set has no ele-
ments, then −∞ ≥ x for all x ∈ ∅ vacuously. There are no real numbers
less than −∞, so −∞ is the supremum of ∅.

9. We treat commutativity. According to the definition in the text, we

add two cuts C and D by

C + D = {c + d : c ∈ C, d ∈ D} .

But this equals

{d + c : c ∈ C, d ∈ D}
and that equals D + C.
11. Consider the set of all numbers of the form
j
√
k 2
for j, k relatively prime natural numbers and j < k. Then certainly
each of these numbers lies between 0 and 1 and each is irrational.
Furthermore, there are countably many of them.
* 12. Let x be in the domain of f. Then x is a local minimum, so there are
rational numbers αx < x < βx so that

f(x) ≤ f(t)

for every t ∈ (αx , βx). Thus we associate to each value f(x) of the
function f a pair of rational numbers (αx , βx). But the set of such
pairs is countable. So the set of values of f is countable.
 1.2. THE COMPLEX NUMBERS 3

* 13. Notice that if n − kλ = m − `λ then (n − m) = (k − `)λ. It would follow

that λ is rational unless n = m and k = `. So the numbers n − kλ are
all distinct.
Now let  > 0 and choose an positive integer N so large that
λ/N < . Consider ϕ(1), ϕ(2), . . . , ϕ(N). These numbers are all
distinct, and lie in the interval [0, λ]. So two of them are distance not
more than λ/N <  apart. Thus |(n1 − k1 λ) − (n2 − k2 λ)| <  or
|(n1 − n2 ) − (k1 − k2 )λ| < . Let us abbreviate this as |m − pλ| < .
It follows then that the numbers

(m − pλ), (2m − 2pλ), (3m − 3pλ), . . .

are less than  apart and fill up the interval [0, λ]. That is the definition
of density.

1.2 The Complex Numbers

1. We calculate that
z z ·z |z|2
z· = = = 1.
|z|2 |z|2 |z|2

So z/|z|2 is the multiplicative inverse of z.

2. We calculate that
1 w w z
z/w = z · =z· 2
= z · w/|w|2 = z · 2
= .
w |w| |w| w

3. Write √ iπ/4
1+i= 2e .
We seek a complex number z = reiθ such that
√
z 3 = r3 e3iθ = (reiθ )3 = 2eiπ/4 .

It follows that r = 21/6 and θ = π/12. So we have found the cube root

c1 = 21/6eiπ/12 .
4 CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SYSTEMS
√ √ i9π/4
Now we may repeat this process with 2eiπ/4 replaced by 2e .
We find the second cube root

c2 = 21/6ei9π/12 .
√ iπ/4 √
Repeating the process a third time with 2e replaced by 2ei17π/4,
we find the third cube root

c3 = 21/6 ei17π/12 .

4. We first treat the commutative law for addition. Let z = x + iy and

w = u + iv. Then

z + w = (x + iy) + (u + iv) = (x + u) + i(y + v) .

Now we invoke the commutative law of addition for the real numbers
to write this as

(u + x) + i(v + y) = (u + iv) + (x + iy) = w + z .

Now let us treat the commutative law for multiplication. With z, w

as above, we write

z · w = (x + iy) · (u + iv) = (xu − yv) + i(xv + uy) .

Now we invoke the commutative law for multiplication of real numbers,

as well as the commutative law for addition of real numbers, to rewrite
this as

(ux − vy) + i(uy + xv) = (u + iv) · (x + iy) = w · z .

5. We see that

φ(x + x0) = (x + x0) + i0 = (x + i0) + (x0 + i0) = φ(x) + φ(x0) .

Also

φ(x · x0) = (x · x0) + i0 = (x + i0) · (x0 + i0) = φ(x) · φ(x0) .

1.2. THE COMPLEX NUMBERS 5

6. Since i 6= 0, then either i > 0 or i < 0. If i > 0, then i · i > 0. But

i · i = −1 < 0. Contradiction. If instead i < 0, then −i > 0. Hence
(−i) · (−i) > 0. Thus again −1 > 0 and that is false. So we see that
the complex numbers cannot be ordered.

7. Let
p(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2z 2 + · · · + ak z k
be a polynomial with real coefficients aj . If α is a root of this polynomial
then
p(α) = a0 + a1α + a2α2 + · · · + ak αk = 0 .
Conjugating this equation gives

p(α) = a0 + a1α + a2α2 + · · · + ak αk = 0 .

Hence α is a root of the polynomial p. We see then that roots of p

occur in conjugate pairs.

8. Write
i = 1 · eiπ/2 .
We seek a complex number z = reiθ so that z 2 = 1 · eiπ/2. Thus

r2 e2iθ = 1 · eiπ/2 .

We conclude that r = 1 and θ = π/4. So we have found the square

root
c1 = 1 · eiπ/4 .

We may repeat this construction with 1 · eiπ/2 replaced by 1 · ei5π/2.

We find the second square root

c2 = 1 · e5π/4 .

9. The function ϕ(x) = x + i0 from R to C is one-to-one. Therefore

card(R) ≤ card(C) .

Since the reals are uncountable, we may conclude that the complex
numbers are uncountable.
6 CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SYSTEMS

10. The kth roots of the complex number α 6= 0 are the roots of the poly-
nomial p(z) = z k − α. A polynomial of degree k has k roots. Since
p0 6= 0 except at z = 0, we know that these roots are distinct.

11. The defining condition measures the sum of the distance of z to 1 + i0

plus the distance of z to −1 + i0. If z is not on the x-axis then |z −
1| + |z + 1| > 2 (by the triangle inequality). If z is on the x axis but
less than −1 or greater than 1 then |z − 1| + |z + 1| > 2. So the only z
that satisfy |z − 1| + |z + 1| > 2 are those elements of the x-axis that
are between −1 and 1 inclusive.

12. The k roots of z = reiθ are the k complex numbers

cj = r1/k ei(θ+2jπ)/k , 0 ≤ j ≤ k − 1 . (∗)

We see that these numbers are distinct, and there are k of them. They
all have modulus r1/k , so they all lie on a circle centered at the origin
with radius r1/k . The jthe and (j + 1)th points specified in line (∗)
differ in argument by 2π/k. So they are equally spaced.

14. We write √
−1 − i = 2 · ei5π/4 .
We seek a complex number z = reiθ so that
√
z 2 = r2 ei2θ = 2ei5π/4 .

Therefore r = 21/4 and θ = 5π/8. We have found the square root

c1 = 21/4ei5π/8 .
√ √ i13π/4
Now replacing 2ei5π/4 with 2e , we find a second square root
of the form
c2 = 21/4ei13π/8 .

15. The set of all complex numbers with rational real part contains the set
of all complex numbers of the form 0 + yi, where y is any real number.
This latter set is plainly uncountable, so the set of complex number
with rational real part is also uncountable.
1.2. THE COMPLEX NUMBERS 7

17. The set S = {z ∈ C : |z| = 1} can be identified with T = {eiθ : 0 ≤

θ < 2π}. The set T can be identified with the interval [0, 2π), and that
interval is certainly an uncountable set. Hence S is uncountable.

19. Let p be a polynomial of degree k ≥ 1 and let α1 be a root of p. So

p(α) = 0. Now let us think about dividing p(z) by (z − α1). By the
Euclidean algorithm,

p(z) = (z − α1) · q1 (z) + r1(z) . (∗)

Here q1 is the “quotient” and r1 is the “remainder.” The quotient

will have degree k − 1 and the remainder will have degree less than
the degree of z − α1 . In other words, the remainder will have degree
0—which means that it is constant. Plug the value z = α1 into the
equation (∗). We obtain
0 = 0 + r1 .
Hence the remainder, the constant r1 , is 0.
If k = 1 then the process stops here. If k > 1 then q1 has degree
k − 1 ≥ 1 and we may apply the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra to
q1 to find a root α2. Repeating the argument above, we divide (z − α2 )
into q1 using the Euclidean algorithm. We find that it divides in evenly,
producing a new quotient q2.
This process can be repeated k − 2 more times to produce a total of
k roots of the polynomial p.