CHAPTER 8

THE COMPEX NUMBER

INTRODUCTION:
The system ℂ of complex numbers is the number system of ordinary algebra. It is
the smallest set in which, for example, the equation x² = a can be solved when a is
any element of ℝ. In our development of the set ℂ, we begin with the product set
ℝxℝ. The binary relation “=’’ requires

(a,b) = (c,d) If and only if a = c and b=d

Now each of the resulting equivalence classes contains but a single element.
Hence, we shall denote a class (a,b) rather than as [a,b] and so, hereafter, denote
ℝxℝ by ℂ
8.1 ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION ON ℂ
Addition and Multiplication on ℂ
Addition and Multiplication on ℂ are defined repectively by
(ⅈ) (a,b) + (c,d) = (a + c, b + d)
(ⅈ ⅈ) (a,b) . (c,d) = (ac – bd, ad + bc) ℂ
For all (a,b), (c,d) ϵ ℂ.
The calculations necessary to show that these operations obey A ₁ -A ₄, M ₁ - M ₄,
D₁ - D₂ of chapter 7, when restated in terms of ℂ, are routine and will be left to the
reader. It is easy to verify that (0,0) is the identify element for addition and (1,0) is
the identify element for multiplication; also, that the additive inverse of (a,b) is -
(a,b) = (-a,-b) and the multiplicative inverse of (a,b) ≠ (0,0) is (a,b) ⁻¹ =(a/a² = b²,-
b/a² + b²). Hence, the set of complex numbers have the properties A ₅-A ₆ and M ₅-M ₆
of Chapter 7, restated in terms of ℂ.
We shall show in the next section that ℝ ⸦ ℂ, and one might expect then that ℂ
has all of the basic properties of ℝ. But this is false since it is not possible to
extend (redefine) the order relation “<’’ of ℝ to include all elements of ℂ
 8.2 PROPERTIES OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
The real numbers are a proper subset of the complex numbers ℂ . For, if in ( ⅈ) and ( ⅈⅈ) we take b = d = 0,
we see that the first components combine exactly as do the real numbers a and c. Thus the mapping a←→
(a,0) is an isomorphism of ℝ onto a certain subset {(a,b):a ϵ ℝ ,b = 0} of ℂ .
Definition 8.1: The elements (a,b) ϵ ℂ in which b ≠ 0, are called imaginary numbers and those imaginary
numbers (a,b) in which a = 0 are called pure imaginary numbers.
Definition 8.2: For each complex numbers z= (a,b), we define the complex number ͞͞z = ͞͞͞͞͞͞͞͞͞(͞͞a͞ ,͞b) =(a,-b) to be
the conjugate of z.
Clearly, every real number is its own conjugate while the conjugate of each pure imaginary is its
negative.
there follow easily
Theorem I. The sum (product) of any complex number and its conjugate is a real number.
Theorem II. The squar of every pure imaginary number is a negative real number.
See also Problem 8.2.
The special role of the complex number (1,0) suggests an investigation of another, (0,1). We find

(x,y).(0,1) = (-y,x) for every (x,y) ϵ ℂ

And in particular,
(y,0).(0,1) = (0,1).(y,0) (0,y)
 Moreover, (0,1)² = (0,1).(0,1) = (-1,0)←→ -1 in the mapping above so that (0,1) is a
solution of z² = -1.
Defining (0,1) as the pure imaginary unit and denoting it by i,we have
ⅈ² = -1
And for every (x,y) ϵ ℂ,
(x,y) = (x,0) + (0,y) = (x,0) + (y,0).(0,1) = x + yⅈ
In this familiar notation, x is called the real part and y is called the imaginary part of the
complex number. We summarize:
the negative of z = x + yⅈ is –z = -(x + yⅈ) = -x-y ⅈ
the conjugate of z = x + yⅈ is ͞z = ͞͞x͞͞͞͞ +͞y͞ ⅈ = x-yⅈ
for each z = x + yⅈ, z. ͞z = x² + y² ϵ ℝ
8.3 Subtraction and division on ℂ
Subtraction and division on ℂ are defined by
(ⅈⅈⅈ) z-w = z + (-w), for all z, w ϵ ℂ
(ⅈv) z ÷ w = z.w⁻¹, for all w ≠ 0, z ϵ ℂ
8.4 TRIGONOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
The representation of a complex numbers z by x + yⅈ suggests the mapping
(isomorphism)
x + yⅈ ←→(x,y)
Of the set ℂ of all complex numbers onto the points (x,y) of the real plane. We may
therefore speak of the point P(x,y) or of P(x+ yⅈ) as best suits our purpose at the
moment. The use of a single coordinate, surprisingly, often simplifies many
otherwise tedious computations. One example will be discussed below,another will
be outlined briefly in Problem 8.20.
Consider in Fig. 8-1 the point P(x+ yⅈ) ≠ 0 whose distance r from o is given r =
√x²+y².
 If Ɵ is the positive angle which O P makes the positive x-axis, we have
x = r cos Ɵ, y = r sin Ɵ
whence z = x + yⅈ = r (cos Ɵ + ⅈ sin Ɵ)
difinition 8.3: The quantity r (cos Ɵ + ⅈ sin Ɵ) is called the trigonometric form (polar form) of z.
difinition 8.4: the non-negative real number
r = |z| = √z.͞z = √x² + y²
Is called the modulos (absolute value) of z, and Ɵ is called the anle (amplitude or argument) of z. Now
Ɵ satisfies x = r cos Ɵ, y=r sin Ɵ, tan Ɵ=y/x and any two of these determine Ɵ up to an additive
multiple of 2π. Usually we shall choose as Ɵ the smallest positive angle.(Note: When p is at o, we
have r = 0 and Ɵ arbitrary.)
EXAMPLE 1. Express (a) 1+ ⅈ, (b) - √3+ ⅈ in trigonometric form.
(a) we have r= √1+1= √2 Since tan Ɵ = 1 and cos Ɵ=1/√2, we take Ɵ to be the first quadrant angle
45˚= π/4. thus, 1+ ⅈ= √2(cos π/4+ ⅈ sin π/4).
(b) here r= √3+1=2, tan Ɵ=-1/√3 and cos Ɵ=-½√3. taking Ɵ to be the second quadrant angle 5π/6, we
have
- √3+ ⅈ = 2(cos 5π/6+ ⅈ sin 5π/6)
 It follows that two complex numbers are equal if and only if their absolute values are equal
and their angles differ by an intergral multiple of 2 π, i.e.., are congruent modulo 2π.
THEOREM iii. The absolute value of the product of two complex numbers is the product of their
absolute values, and the angle of the product is the sum of their angles; and
THEOREM iv. The absolute value of the quotient of two complex numbers is the qoutient of their
absolute values, and the angle of the quotient is the angle of the numerator minus the angle of the
denominator.
EXAMPLE 2.
(a) When z ₁=2(cos ¼π + ⅈ sin ¼π )
and z ₂=4(cos ¾π + ⅈ sin ¾π )
we have
z₁. z₂ = 2(cos ¼π + ⅈ sin ¼π ) . 4(cos ¾π + ⅈ sin ¾π )
=8(cos π + ⅈ sin π) = -8
z₂/z₁ = 4(cos ¾π + ⅈ sin ¾π ) ÷ 2(cos ¼π + ⅈ sin ¼π )
= 2(cos ½π +ⅈ sin ½π) =2ⅈ
z₁/z₂ = 2(cos ¼π + ⅈ sin ¼π ) ÷ 4(cos ¾π + ⅈ sin ¾π ) = ½(cos 3π/2 + ⅈ 3π/2) = -½ ⅈ
 (b) When z = 2(cos ⅙π + ⅈ sin ⅙π),
z² = z.z = 4(cos π/3 + ⅈ sin π/3) = 2(1 + ⅈ√3)
and z³ = z².z = 8(cos ½π + ⅈ sin ½π) = 8ⅈ
As a consequence of theorem IV, we have
THEOREM V. Ifn is a positive integer,[r(cos Ɵ + ⅈ sin Ɵ)]ⁿ = rⁿ(cos nƟ + ⅈ sin nƟ)

8.5 ROOTS
The equation zⁿ = p(cos Ø + ⅈ sin Ø)
where n is a positive integer and A is any complex number, will now be shown to have
exactly n roots. If z = r(cos θ + ⅈ sin θ) is one of these, we have by Theorem V,
rⁿ(cos nθ + ⅈ sin nθ) = p(cos Ø + ⅈ sin Ø)
Then rⁿ = p and nθ = Ø + 2kπ(k, an integer)
So that r = p ⅟n and θ = Ø/n + 2kπ/n
 The number of distinct roots are the number of non-cotermal angles of the set {Ø/n +
2kπ/n}. For any positive integer k = nq + m, 0 ͟< m < n, it is clear that Ø/n + 2kπ/n and Ø/n +
2mπ/n are coterminal. Thus, there are exactly n distinct roots, given by

p⅟n[cos(Ø/n + 2kπ/n) + ⅈ sin(Ø/n + 2kπ/n)], k = 0,1,2,3,......n – 1

These n roots are coordinates of n equispaced poins on the circle, centered at the origin, of
radius ⁿ√|Α|. If then z = ⁿ√|Α| (cos θ + ⅈ sin θ) is any one of the nth roots of A, the remaining
roots may be obtained by successively increasing the angle θ by 2π/n and reducing modulo
2π whenever the angle is greater than 2π.
EXAMPLE 3.
(a) One root of z⁴ = 1 is r₁ = 1 = cos 0 + ⅈ sin 0. increasing the angle successively by 2π/4 =
π/2, we find r₂ = cos ½π + ⅈ sin ½π, r₃ = cos π + ⅈ sin π, and r ₄ = cos ³/ ₂π + ⅈ sin ³/ ₂π. Note
that had we begun with another root, say -1 = cos π + ⅈ sin π, we would obtain cos ³/ ₂π + ⅈ
sin ³/₂π, cos 2π + ⅈ sin 2π = cos 0 + ⅈ sin 0, and cos ½π + ⅈ sin ½π. These are, of course, the
roots obtained above in a different order.
(b) One of the roots of z⁶ = -4√3 -4ⅈ = 8(cos 7π/6 + ⅈ sin 7π/6) is
r₁ = √2(cos 7π/36 + ⅈ sin 7π/36
Increasing the angle successively by 2π/6, we have
r₂ = √2(cos 19π/36 + ⅈ sin 19π/36
r₃ = √2(cos 31π/36 + ⅈ sin 31π/36
r₄ = √2(cos 43π/36 + ⅈ sin 43π/36
r₅ = √2(cos 55π/36 + ⅈ sin 55π/36
r₆ = √2(cos 67π/36 + ⅈ sin 67π/36
As aconsequence of Theorem V, we have

THEOREM VI. The n nth roots of unity are

p = cos 2π/n + ⅈ sin 2π/n p², p³, p ⁴,.....pⁿ ⁻¹, pⁿ = 1

8.6 PRIMITIVE ROOTS OF UNITY
DEFINITION 8.5: An nth root z of 1 is called primitive if and only if zᵐ ≠ 1 when 0 < m < n.
Using the results of problem 8.5,it is easy to show that p and p ⁵ are primitive sixth roots of
1, while p², p³, p⁴, p⁶ are not. This illustrates
Theorem VII. Let p = cos 2π/n + ⅈ sin 2π/n. If (m,n) = d > 1, then pᵐ is an n/dth root of 1.
For a proof, see Problem 8.6
Corollary. The primitive nth roots of 1 are those and only those nth roots p, p², p³..... pⁿ of 1
whose exponents are relatively prime to n.

EXAMPLE 4. The primitive 12th roots of 1 are

p = cos π/6 + ⅈ sin π/6 = ½√3 + ½ⅈ
p⁵ = cos 5π/6 + ⅈ sin 5π/6 = -½√3 + ½ⅈ
p⁷ = cos 7π/6 + ⅈ sin 7π/6 = -½√3 + ½ⅈ
p¹¹ = cos 11π/6 + ⅈ sin 11π/6 = -½√3 + ½ⅈ