Geodesy Basics

An Introduction to Concepts and Terms

Ellipsoid
 Geodesy Basics
GEODESY
o Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding three fundamental properties of the Earth:
1. its geometric shape,
2. its orientation in space,
3. and its gravity field — as well as the changes of these properties with time.
o By using GPS, geodesists can monitor the movement of a site 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
 Geodesy Basics

FIGURE OF THE EARTH

o The expression "figure of the earth" has various meanings
in geodesy according to the way it is used and the
precision with which the earth's size and shape is to be
defined.
o The actual topographic surface is most apparent with its
variety of land forms and water areas. This is, in fact, the
surface on which actual earth measurements are made.
 Geodesy Basics
FIGURE OF THE EARTH
o It is not suitable, however, for exact mathematical computations because the formulas
which would be required to take the irregularities into account would necessitate a
prohibitive amount of computations.
o The topographic surface is generally the concern of topographers and hydrographers.
 Geodesy Basics
Flat and Level
o The idea of flat earth, however, is still acceptable for surveys of small areas. Plane-table surveys are
made for relatively small areas and no account is taken of the curvature of the earth.
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Distances
o Geodetic line (Geodesic) – The shortest distance between any two points on an ellipsoid. The geodetic
line is analogous to a great circle arc on a sphere.
o Geodetic line (Geodesic) - Straight line of sight. Azimuth changes with reference to north.
o Loxodrome, also called Rhumb Line, or Spherical Helix, is curved line crossing the meridians of a
sphere at a constant bearing or azimuth.

Loxodromes (Rhumb Lines) spiral inward toward the poles

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Ellipsoid of Revolution
o While the sphere is a close approximation of the true figure of the earth and satisfactory for many purposes, to the
geodesists interested in the measurement of long distances-spanning continents and oceans-a more exact figure is
necessary.
o Since the earth is in fact flattened slightly at the poles and bulges somewhat at the equator, the geometrical figure
used in geodesy to most nearly approximate the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid of revolution.
o The ellipsoid of revolution is the figure which would be obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis.
 Geodesy Basics

Ellipsoid of Revolution
o An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by specifying two
dimensions.
o Geodesists, by convention, use the semimajor axis and flattening.
o The size is represented by the radius at the equator-the semimajor
axis-and designated by the letter, a.
o The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening, f, which
indicates how closely an ellipsoid approaches a spherical shape.
o The difference between the ellipsoid of revolution representing
the earth and a sphere is very small.
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Ellipsoid of Revolution
o The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening, f, which
indicates how closely an ellipsoid approaches a spherical shape.
o The difference between the ellipsoid of revolution representing
the earth and a sphere is very small.
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Geoid
o Variations to the size, shape, and mass distribution of the
earth cause slight variations in the acceleration of gravity (or
the "strength" of gravity's pull).
o A smoothly undulating shape (rising where gravity is high,
sinking where gravity is low).
o "the Geoid," a surface which defines zero elevation. Using
complex math and gravity readings on land, surveyors extend
this imaginary line through the continents.
o This model is used to measure surface elevations with a high
degree of accuracy.

Exaggeration of the shape of the earth

 Geodesy Basics
Geoid
o The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is everywhere equal and to which
the direction of gravity is always perpendicular.
o Closely approximates sea level.
Geodesy Basics
 Geodesy Basics

Geoid
o The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is
everywhere equal and to which the direction of gravity is
always perpendicular.
o Closely approximates sea level.
Geodesy Basics
Geoid – Ellipsoid Relationships
Deflection of the Vertical
o The deflection of the vertical is the departure of a plumb bob's actual pointing from the ellipsoidal normal direction.
o Deflections are used to relate the orientation of a locally-leveled instrument, such as a theodolite, to a spatial
reference frame.
o Important uses of deflection values are corrections to zenith distance (vertical angle) measurements, and the
conversion between astronomic and ellipsoidal azimuths (the Laplace correction).
 Geodesy Basics

Datum
o Datums (sets of data) are the basis for all geodetic
survey work.

o They act as reference points in the same way that

starting points do when you give someone directions.

o An abstract coordinate system with a reference

surface (such as sea level) that serves to provide
known locations to begin surveys and create maps. In
geodesy two types of datums must be considered:
1. There are two main datums in the United States.
Horizontal datums measure positions (latitude and
longitude) on the surface of the Earth,
2. Vertical datums are used to measure land elevations
and water depths.
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 Geodesy Basics
Horizontal Datum
o A collection of specific points on the Earth whose
latitude and longitude have been accurately
determined by NOAA's National Geodetic Survey.
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Horizontal Datums
o 1927 the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the
predecessor of the National Geodetic Survey,
"connected" all of the existing horizontal markers
together and created the North American Datum of
1927 (NAD 27).
o In 1983, NAD 27 was adjusted to remove
inaccuracies and to correct distortions (NAD83).
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General Positioning Precise Positioning

 Geodesy Basics
Vertical Datums
o A vertical datum is technically, a surface of zero elevation to which heights of various points are referred in
order that those heights be in a consistent system.
o More broadly, a vertical datum is the entire system of the zero elevation surface and methods of determining
heights relative to that surface.
o Over the years, many different types of vertical datums have been used. The most dominant types today are
tidal datums and geodetic datums.
o Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a tidal datum which is computed by the National Ocean Service (NOS)

(Datums)
 Geodesy Basics

Vertical Datums
o Vertical datums are determined through a process of surveying known as geodetic leveling, determining the
height differences between points in the ground, known as bench marks.
o These height differences can only yield actual heights at the benchmarks if at least one datum origin point is
chosen to serve as the absolute level of the vertical datum.

Tide gauge
Bench Mark
 Geodesy Basics

Vertical Datums
o In the United States and its territories, NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey is responsible (among other things)
for the definition, access and maintenance of geodetic vertical datums.
o These datums are part of the overall National Spatial Reference System (NSRS).
o At this time, there exist five vertical datums, each for its own area, with two more in the works.
1. North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)
2. American Samoa Vertical Datum of 2002 (ASVD02)
3. Guam Vertical Datum of 2004 (GUVD04)
4. Northern Marianas Vertical Datum of 2003 (NMVD03)
5. Puerto Rico Vertical Datum of 2002 (PRVD02)
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Gravity for the Redefinition of the American Vertical Datum (GRAV-D)

o The old datum, NAVD88, is no longer as accurate as it should be. The old leveling techniques used to create
the datum can cause inaccuracies and make it difficult to update or re-check data as time passes.
o GRAV-D will provide more accurate height data for more places in the United States and territories.
o Using gravity measurements and satellite data also makes it easier to update the datum as land shifts, and to
track those changes over time.

 The gravity-based vertical datum will be accurate at the 2 cm level where

possible for much of the country.
1. A high-resolution “snapshot” of gravity in the US: a predominantly airborne campaign
2. A low-resolution “movie” of gravity changes: primarily a terrestrial campaign and will
mostly encompass episodic re-visits of absolute gravity sites, attempting to monitor
geographically dependent changes to gravity over time.
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Datums – Geometric (3D)

o A geometric datum is a coordinate system for collection of positions relative to an ellipsoid model of the Earth.
o Combines Latitude/Longitude/Ellipsoid height
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New Datums: Replacing NAVD 88 and NAD 83
o National Geodetic Survey - Improvement to the National
Spatial Reference System (NSRS),

o Replace North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) frames and

all vertical datums, including the North American Vertical
Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88), with four new terrestrial reference
frames and a geopotential datum.

o New reference frames will rely primarily on Global Navigation

Satellite Systems (GNSS), as well as on a gravimetric geoid
model resulting from our Gravity for the Redefinition of the
American Vertical Datum (GRAV-D) Project.

o New reference frames will be easier to access and to maintain

than the current NSRS, which relies on physical survey marks
that deteriorate over time.

https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datums/newdatums/WhatToExpect.shtml
Geodesy Basics
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Coordinate Transformation
o https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/NCAT/

o NGS Coordinate Conversion and Transformation Tool

(NCAT) allows users to easily convert between different
coordinate systems and/or transform between different
reference frames and/or datums.

o NCAT will perform three-dimensional (latitude,

longitude, ellipsoid height) coordinate transformations
for horizontal and orthometric height transformations.
Geodesy Basics
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Coordinate Reference Systems

o There are three main types of CRS that we work with:
o the Geodetic,
o the Projected, and
o the Geocentric
 Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF)
Geodesy Basics

Coordinate Reference Systems - Geodetic

o Geodetic coordinate systems can be thought of as a
globe, a whole-earth model.

o The units are angular like degrees as opposed to feet or

meters and are focused on rotation around an axis.

o This type of system gets us close to the shape of the

planet without a lot of distortion.

o But it is not practical for talking about directions,

distances and relative locations.
 Geodesy Basics

Coordinate Reference Systems - Projected

o Think of the projected systems as taking the
round globe and projecting it on to a flat plane.
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Geographic Coordinates
(degrees)
Coordinate Reference Systems - Projected to
Projected Coordinates
o Behave like planar Cartesian systems that allow us to
map x and y on a grid in linear units like feet, meters
(X, Y)
or miles.
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Coordinate Reference Systems – Earth Centered

Earth Fixed (ECEF)
o The third type of system is called geocentric or earth
centered/earth fixed (ECEF).

o This is a model that is based on an origin that is at the center

of the planet (the geocenter) as opposed to the surface.

o Many of these are gravity-based and used for GPS satellite

technology.
 Geodesy Basics

Coordinate Reference Systems – Earth Centered

Earth Fixed (ECEF)
o In this representation, there's a point on the Earth's surface.

Earth Rotational Axis

Its XYZ coordinates are indicated from the center of mass of
the Earth in a three-dimensional Cartesian system.

o For example, you see the longitude, symbolized by lambda

from the Prime Meridian over to a point on the equatorial
plane.

o From there, you see the latitude up to the position of this

point as represented on the ellipsoid, the reference ellipsoid
of the datum.
 Geodesy Basics

Be Aware of Ellipsoid and Datum

o If we're going to have a latitude and longitude derived from
an x, y, and z, we have to specify which ellipsoid and which
datum (they are not the same thing), is involved.

o If we are working with the WGS 84 ellipsoid then we get a

latitude and longitude measured along the WGS84
ellipsoid.

o If we are working with the GRS 80 ellipsoid, we get a

different latitude and longitude for exactly the same point
on the Earth.

o If you change the shape of the ellipsoid, the latitude and

longitude changes.

o Also the latitude and longitude of a point in the ITRF2014

(2010.0) reference frame is different than the latitude and
longitude for the same point in NAD83 2011 (2010.0).
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Be Aware of Ellipsoid and Datum

o The position vector you see here in red from the center of mass up
to the point is different than the black vector that's perpendicular
to the ellipsoid.

o The black vector doesn't go to the center of mass. Also notice that
if we're going to go from the position on the ellipsoid up to the
actual surface of the Earth, we add a height, an ellipsoidal height.

o So, we can identify this position on the Earth's surface by an Earth-

Centered, Earth-Fixed XYZ coordinate, or we can identify the same
point with a geodetic latitude, and longitude, and height.

o These are just different coordinate systems for expressing the

position of the point.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

PRINCIPAL MERIDIAN
o From each initial point, a true north-south line called
a principal meridian (Prin. Mer. or PM)
o Monuments were set for section and quarter section
corners every 40 ch, (1/2 mi) and at the
intersections with all meanderable bodies of water
(streams 3 ch or more in width, and lakes covering
25 acres or more).
o The line was supposed to be within 3’ of the cardinal
direction.
o Two independent sets of linear measurements were
required to check within 20 lk (13.2 ft)/80 ch, which
corresponds to a precision ratio of only 1/400).
o The allowable difference between sets of
measurements is now limited to 7 Ik/80 ch
(precision ratio of 1/1140).
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

BASELINE
o From the initial point, a baseline was extended east
and/or west as a true parallel of latitude to the
limits of the area to be covered.
o As required on the principal meridian, monuments
were set for section and quarter-section corners
every 40 chains and at the intersections with all
meanderable bodies of water.
o Permissible closures were the same as those for the
principal meridian.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude
NP

Parallel

90°
90°
Parallels and Right Angle Lines
Parallel
o Parallels of latitude are parallel with the equator
o A theodolite is leveled over a point using the Divergence right angle line Divergence
direction of gravity. from parallel from parallel
o The pull of gravity is toward the center of mass.
(not necessarily the center of the earth)
o Except at the equator, a right angle turned from a
meridian does not follow a parallel of latitude.
o The right angle line will diverge to the south of the

Earth axis of rotation

parallel.
o The position of parallels are determined using the
line of divergence.
Parallel

SP
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

Solar Method
o Solar method. An observation is made on the Sun
to determine the direction of astronomic north.
o A right angle is then turned off and a line extended
40 chains, where the process is repeated.
o The series of lines so established, with a slight
change in direction every half mile, closely
approaches a true parallel.

Targe
t
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

Tangent Method
o A 90° angle is turned to the east or to the west, as
may be required from an astronomic meridian,
and corners are set every 40 ch.
o At the same time, proper offsets, which increase
with increasing latitudes, are determined and
measured north from the tangent to the parallel.
o The error resulting from taking right-angle offsets
instead of offsets along the converging lines is
negligible.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude
Secant Method
o This method is actually is a modification of the
tangent method in which a line parallel to the
tangent at the 3 mi (center) point is passed through
the 1 and 5 mi points to produce minimum offsets
o The proper bearing angle from the same table is
turned to the east or west from the astronomic
meridian to define the secant, which is then
projected 6 mi.
o Offsets, which also increase with increasing
latitudes, are measured north or south from the
secant to the parallel.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

STANDARD PARALLELS (CORRECTION LINES)

o After the principal meridian and the baseline have been
run, standard parallels (Stan. Par. or SP), also called
correction lines, are run as true parallels of latitude 24 mi
apart in the same manner as was the baseline.
o All 40 ch corners are marked.
o In some early surveys, standard parallels were placed at
intervals of 30, 36, or 60 mi.
o Standard parallels are numbered consecutively north and
south of the baseline.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

GUIDE MERIDIANS
o Guide meridians (GM) are run due north (astronomic)
from the baseline and the standard parallels at intervals of
24 mi east and west of the principal meridian.
o All 40-ch corners are marked.
o Because meridians converge, a closing corner (CC) is set at
the intersection of each guide meridian and standard
parallel or baseline.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

GUIDE MERIDIANS
o The distance from the closing corner to the standard
corner (SC), which was set when the parallel was run, is
measured and recorded in the notes as a check.
o Any error in the 24-mi-Iong guide meridian is put in the
northernmost half mile.
o Guide meridians are numbered consecutively east and
west of the principal meridian; examples are first guide
meridian west and fourth guide meridian east.
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

Quadrangles
o Parallels and meridians form shapes known as Quadrangles.
o Lune - the part of a plane surface bounded by two intersecting
arcs or of a spherical surface bounded by two great circles

North Pole

Lines of Latitude Lines of Longitude

(Parallels) (Meridians)

Quadrangle

South Pole
 Meridians of Longitude and Parallels of Latitude

Quadrangles (PLSS)
o Correction lines and guide meridians, established according Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle
to instructions, created quadrangles in the Public Land
Survey System, are nominal dimensions of 24 mi on a side.

Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle

Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle

Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle Quadrangle

CC - Closing Corner