CHAPTER 3.

BASIC GEODESY

SECTION I. THE GEODETIC SYSTEM

A geodetic system serves as a framework for Gravity pulls perpendicular to the geoid. This means
determining coordinates on the Earth’s surface with that a plumb line lies perpendicular to the geoid and
respect to a reference ellipsoid and the geoid. It consists establishes a vertical direction of measurement. An
of both a horizontal datum and a vertical datum. adjusted level vial is centered when it lies parallel with
the geoid and establishes a horizontal reference at a
specific location. The geoid provides a common
reference for elevation wherever the surface of the
The Geoid geoid intersects a land mass is generally referred to as
approximate MSL.

The geoid is the equipotential surface in the gravity Elevation is the distance between a point on the
field of the Earth that coincides with the undisturbed Earth’s surface and the geoid, measured along a line
mean sea level (MSL) extended through the perpendicular to the geoid (plumb line). Points
continents. It is the zero reference for elevation, a lying outside (above) the geoid have a positive
closed surface of equal gravitational force. It is elevation; points inside (below) the geoid have a
perpendicular to the direction of gravity and closely negative elevation. Elevation can be referred to as
approximates MSL and the extension of MSL through orthometric height or MSL height. Elevation is
the land masses of the Earth. labeled “H”. See figure 3-2.

The geoid is affected by variances in the density, type,

and amount of land mass that push up through the
water or lie below it, causing dips and swells over its
surface, thus conforming to an equal force of gravity
over that surface. The dips and swells are called
undulations. See figure 3-1.

Figure 3-2. Elevation.

Ellipsoid Defining Parameters

An ellipsoid is a surface whose plane sections (cross

sections) are ellipses or circles, or the solid enclosed
by such a surface. It can be more easily identified as a
sphere that is flattened or squashed on the sides or the
Figure 3-1. Undulation. top and bottom. In geodesy, we use an ellipsoid that is
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3-2 MCWP 3-16.7

flattened on the top and bottom; i.e., an oblate or the polar radius. It can also be referred to as the
ellipsoid. The terms ellipsoid and spheroid are short radius of the ellipsoid or one-half of the shortest
interchangeable. See figure 3-3. diameter. It is labeled “b”.

The flattening is the ratio of the difference between

the equatorial and polar radii (semi-major and semi-
minor axes to the equatorial radius (semi-major axis).
It is labeled “f”. It is more commonly expressed as
the inverse of flattening (1/f). Flattening can also be
called ellipticity.

Other defining parameters for ellipsoids are discussed

in NIMA TR 8350.2, Department of Defense World
Geodetic System 1984, and DMA TM 8358.1,
Datums, Ellipsoids, Grids, and Grid Reference
Figure 3-3. Ellipsoid. Systems. Parameters include Earth gravity
information, angular velocity, and eccentricity.
Surveyors do not need to understand these parameters;
An ellipsoid is generally defined by three parameters they are not discussed in this publication.
(or dimensions) that provide the size and ellipticity of
the ellipsoid. See figure 3-4. The three defining parameters discussed above will
not always be available. A user can compute the third
parameter from two known parameters using the
following formulas:

For the semi-minor axis (b) use b = a(1-f)

Example: Geodetic Reference System (GRS)-80

ellipsoid

First, determine f: 1/f = 298.257222101

so f = 0.00335281068118

Second, determine b: b = a(1-f)

a = 6378137 (1 - 0.00335281068118)
b = 6356752.31414
NIMA published value for b is 6356752.3141.

For flattening (1/f) use f = (a-b)/a

Figure 3-4. Defining Parameters.
Example: GRS-80 ellipsoid

The semi-major axis is the distance along the First, determine f: f = (a-b)/a
equatorial plane of an ellipsoid from the center of that f = (6378137 - 6356752.3141)/6378137
plane to its edge or the equatorial radius. It is referred f = 0.00335281068751
to as the long radius of an ellipsoid or one-half of the
largest diameter and is labeled “a”. Second, determine 1/f:
Flattening = 1/0.00335281068751
The semi-minor axis is the distance in a meridional 1/f = 298.257221538
plane from the center of the plane to its closest edge, NIMA published value for 1/f is 298.257222101.
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ________________________________________________________________________ 3-3

These computations may provide a quantity that Once an ellipsoid is fixed by a specific datum, it
differs slightly than the accepted NIMA parameters. becomes a reference ellipsoid.
This is generally due to rounding and is considered
insignificant for many geodetic applications and for all Reference ellipsoids can be local in extent or global. If
artillery survey applications. the ellipsoid resembles only a small region of the
geoid and is fixed to a point on the surface of the
Earth, it is local. If the ellipsoid is fixed to the center
of mass of the Earth and is designed to resemble the
geoid as a whole, then it is global and is called an
Reference Ellipsoid Earth-centered Earth-fixed (ECEF) ellipsoid. See
figures 3-5 and 3-6.
The oblate ellipsoid is used in geodesy because it is a
regularly shaped mathematical figure. Unlike the
geoid, there is no undulation. If the geoid were
Geoid Separation
regularly shaped, there would be no need for an
ellipsoid. We would simply compute surveys Geoid separation is the distance from the geoid to the
referenced strictly to the geoid. Since that is not the reference ellipsoid, measured along a line that is
case, an ellipsoid is defined and then fixed to a perpendicular to the ellipsoid. It is positive when the
specific location (usually located on the surface of geoid lies outside the ellipsoid; negative when the
the geoid) and orientation that makes it closely geoid lies inside the ellipsoid. Geoid separation is
resemble the surface of the geoid. This is labeled “N” and is also called geoidal height or
accomplished by establishing a horizontal datum. undulation of the geoid. See figure 3-7.

Figure 3-5. Local Reference Ellipsoid. Figure 3-6. ECEF Ellipsoid.

Figure 3-7. Geoid Separation.

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3-4 MCWP 3-16.7

generally considered by surveyors: Vertical and

Ellipsoid Height horizontal. When the term datum is used by itself, it is
usually referring to a horizontal datum. Vertical and
horizontal datums are generally defined separately
Ellipsoid height is the distance from a point on the from each other. For example, horizontal positions in
Earth’s surface to the reference ellipsoid, measured the Korean peninsula may be defined by the Tokyo
along a line that is perpendicular to the ellipsoid. Datum referenced to the Bessel ellipsoid; while
Ellipsoid height is labeled “h” and can be referred to vertical positions are defined by the geoid referenced
as geodetic height. See figure 3-8. to the MSL datum.

Vertical Datums
A vertical datum is a level surface or arbitrary level to
which elevations are referred. Usually, the geoid
(mean low level) is that surface. However, other
vertical datums may include MSL, the level at which
the atmospheric pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury
(1013.2 millibars of mercury {MBS}) or an arbitrary
starting elevation. Vertical datums are usually defined
Figure 3-8. Ellipsoid Height. as a surface of “0” elevation and are also called
altitude datums.

The relationship between ellipsoid height (h), Since it is impossible to determine exactly where the
elevation (H), and geoid separation (N) is shown in the geoid intersects a land mass, it is impossible to use the
formula h= H+N. See figure 3-9. geoid as the actual vertical datum. Historically, tide
gauge measurements were averaged over 19 years to
establish a local MSL. (These MSL datums are very
close to the geoid but not exactly.) For this reason
level lines run from tide gauge marks in different
regions do not connect exactly at the same elevation.
In the United States, the National Geodetic Vertical
Datum (NGVD) of 1929 replaced the MSL 1929 and
has since been updated to the North American Vertical
Datum (NAVD) 1988. This new vertical datum, based
on tide gauge measurements and precise geodetic
leveling, has extended a common vertical network to
most of the continental United States. The NAVD is
Figure 3-9. Relationship between h, H, and N. considered to be within a few meters of the geoid.
There is greater uncertainty in the relationship
between other local vertical datums and the geoid
throughout the world.
Datums
Because of the uncertainty between local MSL datums
and the geoid and unknown exact relationships
A datum is any numerical or geometrical quantity or between those datums, all elevations should be
set of such quantities which may serve as a reference considered to be referenced to the MSL datum to shift
or base for other quantities. Two types of datums are between vertical datums.
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ________________________________________________________________________ 3-5

Horizontal Datums (Geodetic Datums)

A horizontal datum is a set of quantities that fix an
ellipsoid to a specific position and orientation. The
point where the ellipsoid is fixed is called the datum
point. There are two types of datums: surface-fixed
and geocentric.

A surface-fixed horizontal datum is a set of quantities

relating to a specific point on the surface of the Earth Figure 3-11. Geocentric Datum.
that fixes an ellipsoid to a specific location and
orientation with respect to the geoid in that region.
The center of the ellipsoid and the center of mass of Earth is also the datum point. Examples are the World
the Earth do not coincide. Examples are North Geodetic Systems (WGSs). See figure 3-11.
American datum (NAD) 27, Tokyo, and ARC 1950.
See figure 3-10. At least eight constants are required to define a
geocentric datum. Three specify the location of the
origin of the coordinate system; three specify the
orientation of the coordinate system; and two specify
the reference ellipsoid dimensions.

Geocentric datums generally cover a large area of the

world and in some cases are global in extent. The
geoid separation remains relatively small for the
entire region covered by the datum. The WGS
developed by the DMA are global coverage datums;
WGS 84 is the newest and most accurate. A WGS
Figure 3-10. Surface-Fixed Datum. offers the basic geometric figure of the Earth
(ellipsoid) as well as an associated gravity model
(geoid). This is why the geoid separation remains
relatively small over the entire system (generally less
A surface-fixed datum is generally defined by than 102 meters within WGS 84).
five quantities: latitude (φ), longitude (λ), and geoid
height (N) at the datum point; semi-major axis (a), and
either semi-minor axis (b) or flattening (f) of the
reference ellipsoid. A geodetic azimuth is sometimes
Multiple Datum Problems
listed as a defining parameter for a horizontal datum.

A surface-fixed datum can cover very small areas to Over 1,000 datums exist. Practically every island or
very large regions of the Earth. The geoid separation at island group in the Pacific Ocean has its own datum.
the datum point is generally zero. However, as you Many areas are covered by multiple datums. This
move away from the datum point, the geoid separation causes the most concern for surveyors who must
increases, creating the need for a new datum. Often, decide which datum to use and how to convert data
the same ellipsoid fixed to a different location and between them. Mapping products established from
orientation is used. different datums will not match at the neatlines nor
will grid lines meet. Target acquisition assets will
A geocentric horizontal datum specifies that the center provide inaccurate data to firing systems if the target
of the reference ellipsoid is placed at the center of acquisition system is not on the same datum as the
mass of the Earth. This point at the center mass of the firing system.
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3-6 MCWP 3-16.7

The WGS was developed to create a global system

that would alleviate many of these problems. NIMA
will eventually revise all mapping and charting
products to reference WGS 84 as the datum/ellipsoid
for the entire world except for the United States.
Mapping and charting products for the United States
will reference GRS 80 as the ellipsoid and NAD 83 as
the datum.

All datums are defined relative to WGS 84. For this

reason, transformations between datums are
performed from and to WGS 84. When converting Figure 3-12. Origin Shift Parameters.
from surface-fixed datum 1 to surface-fixed datum 2,
first transform datum 1 to WGS 84; then transform the
WGS 84 datum to datum 2.
Five Parameter Model
To develop datum shift parameters, coordinates on
both datums at each of one or more physical locations
must be known. Typically, for shifts from a local This model considers only the relative sizes of the
datum to WGS 84, the WGS 84 coordinates were ellipsoids and the offset differences in their origins.
derived from Doppler satellite observations over The five parameters are the difference in the semi-
points with already existing surface-fixed datum major axes (∆α), the difference in flattening (∆fx104),
coordinates. Several methods of datum transformation and the three origin shift parameters (∆Χ, ∆Υ, ∆Ζ).
are available. The rest of this section discusses them. Origin shift parameters are the coordinates of the
origin of the local reference ellipsoid in the WGS 84
cartesian coordinate system. This model is used in
computing standard Molodensky equations and is
Seven Parameter Model considered accurate to 5 to 10 meters.

This geometric transformation model assumes that the

origins of the two coordinate systems are offset from WGS 72 to WGS 84
each other, that the axes are not parallel, and that there
is a scale difference between the two datums. Data
Formulas transforming between these two geocentric
from at least three well-spaced positions are needed to
datums were created when WGS 84 was developed.
derive a seven parameter geometric transformation.
These formulas are discussed in detail in NIMA TR
The seven parameters come from differences in the
8350.2. Care must be taken when using them to
local and WGS 84 cartesian coordinate. There are
determine the source of the WGS 72 coordinates. If
three axis rotation parameters, a scale change, and
the WGS 72 coordinates were transformed from
three origin shift parameters (∆Χ, ∆Υ, ∆Ζ ). The
original local datum coordinates, then a direct local
origin shift parameters are the coordinates of the datum to WGS 84 transformation is more accurate.
origin of the local reference ellipsoid in the WGS 84
cartesian coordinate system. Use of the seven
parameter method is prescribed by standardization
agreement (STANAG) 2211, Geodetic Datums, NAD 83 to WGS 84
Ellipsoids, Grids, and Grid References, for some
applications in Europe and England. It is considered
more accurate than the five parameter model. See These two datums are considered the same. The GRS
figure 3-12. 80 is the reference ellipsoid for NAD 83. It was
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ________________________________________________________________________ 3-7

developed before WGS 84 and was a factor in accurate than the seven and five parameter models,
upgrading WGS 72. When developing WGS 84, three usually 1 to 3 meters.
of the system’s four defining parameters were made
identical to the parameters used for GRS 80. The only
difference was the gravity model. The two datums are
considered identical in all areas covered by NAD 83 Lateral Shift Method
except for the Aleutian Islands and Hawaii where a
datum transformation is necessary.
When transforming between datums referenced to the
same ellipsoid, a constant shift ( ∆φ, ∆λ ) can be
determined that is adequate for artillery survey
Multiple Regression Equations applications over a small area. For example, both NAD
27 and Puerto Rico datums are referenced to the Clarke
1866 ellipsoid. A shift in latitude and longitude can be
Multiple regression equations (MRE) were developed computed over stations common to both datums, then
to deal with distortion on local datums. Datum shifts applied to stations that need to be transformed. The
were created to reflect regional variations within the lateral shift method produces accurate data for the
coverage area. This method is considered more entire island of Vieques, Puerto Rico.

SECTION II. COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Three-Dimensional Positioning

The location of a point on the surface of the Earth is

generally represented by coordinates. A coordinate
system is a three-dimensional positioning system
represented by a set of three quantities, each
corresponding to angles or distances from a specified
origin. The origin is generally either the center or the
surface of a reference ellipsoid. Three-dimensional
coordinates should not be confused with plane
coordinates that are two-dimensional and are usually
related to a grid system.

Figure 3-13. Coordinate Planes.

Cartesian Coordinates System reference ellipsoid. When the origin is also located at
the center mass of the Earth, it is considered geocentric.

Cartesian coordinates identify the location of a unique The three mutually perpendicular coordinate planes
three-dimensional (x,y,z) position in space. The intersect in three straight lines called coordinate axes.
system consists of the origin and three coordinate The axes intersect at right angles at the origin.
planes. See figure 3-13.
The x-axis lies on the equatorial plane of the reference
The origin is the intersection point of the three ellipsoid at the intersection of the equatorial plane and
coordinate planes and is located at the center of the the plane containing the prime meridian. It is
 ______________________________________________________________________________________________
3-8 MCWP 3-16.7

perpendicular to the plane containing the y- and z-axes.

The x-axis is positive from the origin to the Geographic Coordinates
prime meridian.

The y-axis lies on the equatorial plane of the reference Geographic coordinates are any three-dimensional
ellipsoid, perpendicular to the x-axis. It is coordinate system that specifies the position of a point
perpendicular to the plane containing the x- and z-axes. on the surface of the Earth in terms of latitude (φ),
The y-axis is positive east of the prime meridian. longitude ( λ ), and ellipsoid height (h). It is an
inclusive term that describes geodetic and astronomic
The z-axis corresponds to the rotational axis of the positions. See figure 3-15.
reference ellipsoid (semi-minor axis). It lies
perpendicular to the plane containing the x- and y-axes.
The z-axis is positive from the origin to the North Pole.

The position of a point on the Earth’s surface is

described in terms of x, y, and z coordinates. These
coordinates are distances, usually in meters, from the
plane formed by two axes to the point along a line that
is perpendicular to the plane and parallel to the third
axis. See figure 3-14.

Figure 3-15. Geographic Coordinates.

Figure 3-14. Cartesian Coordinates.

Latitude and longitude are generally represented in
An x coordinate is the length of a line in the x-y degrees or degrees, minutes, and seconds along with a
plane that is parallel to the x-axis and measured from cardinal direction corresponding to a hemisphere on
the y-z plane. the Earth. A position will never have more than 60
minutes in a degree and never more than 60 seconds in
A-y coordinate is the length of a line in the x-y plane
a minute.
that is parallel to the y-axis and measured from the
x-z plane.
Latitude lines are called parallels of latitude. Latitude
A-z coordinate is the length of a line that is parallel to originates at the Equator at 0°. It increases toward the
the z-axis and is measured from the intersection of the North and South Poles to 90°. It is labeled N or + for
x coordinate and the y coordinate to a point on the positions in the northern hemisphere; S or - for
surface of the Earth. The coordinates of the origin positions in the southern hemisphere; i.e. 34°N, +34°,
are (0,0,0). 34°S, -34°. See figure 3-16.
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ________________________________________________________________________ 3-9

between the longitude values of the meridians.

Between the Equator and the poles, the convergence
varies from 0° to the difference in the longitude
values. Because of this, a geodetic azimuth and its
back azimuth will differ by the convergence.

Figure 3-16. Parallels of Latitude.

Longitude lines are called meridians of longitude.

Longitude originates with 0° at the Greenwich
Meridian for most geographic systems; however, some Figure 3-17. Meridians of Longitude.
systems reference other meridians as the 0° origin or
prime meridian. Longitude increases east and west
toward the International Dateline at 180°. In the
eastern hemisphere, longitude is labeled E or +; in the
western hemisphere, it is labeled W or -. For example,
107°E, +107°, 107°W, -107°. In some cases, the
position of a point may include a longitude in excess
of 180° E. These are converted to the standard format
by subtracting the longitude from 360° e.g., 206°E =
154°W. The North and South Poles do not have a
longitude. See figure 3-17.

A network of lines on a map representing parallels of

latitude and meridians of longitude is called a
graticule. A graticule can represent the entire globe or
a small region of the Earth. See figure 3-18.

The inclination of two meridians toward each other is

called convergence of the meridians, or more
commonly convergence. All meridians of longitude
are parallel at the Equator and intersect at the poles.
Convergence of the meridians at the Equator is 0°. At
the poles, the convergence equals the difference Figure 3-18. Graticule.
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3-10 MCWP 3-16.7

Geodetic coordinates are computed and adjusted as

Geodetic Coordinates part of a geodetic network. All the points in the
network are common to all the other points in that
network. They are also common to points extending
Geodetic coordinates are the quantities of latitude (φ), and adjusted from that network. Geodetic networks
longitude (λ), and ellipsoid height (H) that define the can be adjusted together to complete a national
position of a point on the Earth’s surface with respect network such as the National Geodetic Reference
to the reference ellipsoid. This type of geographic System (NGRS) in the United States.
coordinate is the most commonly used by surveyors
and cartographers. If the reference ellipsoid is
geocentric; i.e., WGS 84, coordinates are termed
geocentric geodetic coordinates. Astronomic Coordinates
The geodetic longitude of a point on the Earth’s
surface is the angle formed by the intersection of the Astronomic coordinates are those values that define
plane containing the prime meridian (x-z cartesian the position of a point on the surface of the Earth or
plane) and the meridional plane containing the point. the geoid and reference the local direction of gravity.
The geodetic latitude of a point is the angle formed Astronomic coordinates can also refer to the location
by the intersection of the equatorial plane (x-y of a celestial body. Astronomic positions often
cartesian plane) and a line that passes through the establish and define horizontal datums. An ellipsoid is
point and is perpendicular to the reference ellipsoid. oriented so that a line through a point perpendicular to
See figure 3-19. the geoid (vertical) is also perpendicular to the
ellipsoid (normal). The geoid separation is generally
zero at that point. At that point, the geodetic and
astronomic coordinates are the same.

Astronomic latitude is the angle formed by the

intersection of the plane of the celestial equator and
the plumb line (perpendicular to the geoid). It equals
the angle formed by the plane of the observer’s
horizon and the rotational axis of the Earth.
Astronomic latitude results directly from observations
of celestial bodies, uncorrected for the deflection of
the vertical. The term applies only to the position of
points on the Earth. Astronomic longitude is the time
that elapses from the moment the celestial body is over
the Greenwich Meridian until it crosses the observer’s
meridian. It results directly from observations of
celestial bodies, uncorrected for the deflection of the
vertical. See figure 3-20.

Astronomic coordinates are computed independent of

each other. They can be connected by geodetic
Figure 3-19. Geodetic Coordinates. methods and adjusted to a geodetic network.
Marine Artillery Survey Operations ______________________________________________________________________ 3-11

The Prime Meridian

The prime meridian is the meridian of longitude

referenced as 0° for a particular geographic system.
Usually, the term prime meridian is the Greenwich
Meridian. However, figure 3-21 lists several systems
using other meridians of longitude as the prime
meridian for that system. Whenever survey data is
provided in a system not referencing the Greenwich
Meridian as 0° longitude, a simple conversion can be
made by applying the longitude offset to the survey
data longitude.

Angular Measurements
Care must be taken to ensure that if survey data is
Figure 3-20. Astronomic Coordinates. provided covering other nations, including mapping

Amsterdam, Netherlands Reformed Church, West Tower 4° 53’ 01” E

Athens, Greece Observatory, Geodetic Pillar 23° 42’ 59” E

Batavia (Djakarta), Indonesia Old Tidal Guage 106° 48’ 28” E

Bern, Switzerland Old Observatory 7° 26’ 22” E

Brussels, Belgium Observatory 4° 22’ 06” E

Copenhagen, Denmark New Observatory 12° 34’ 40” E

Ferro, Canary Islands (By definition 20° west of Paris) 17° 39’ 46” W

Helsinki, Finland Observatory 24° 57’ 17” E

Istanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia 28° 58’ 50” E

Lisbon Portugal Castelo San Jorge, Observatory 9° 07’ 55” W

Madrid, Spain Observatory 3° 41’ 15” W

Oslo, Norway Observatory 10° 43’ 23” E

Paris, France Observatory 2° 20’ 14” E

Pulkovo, Russia (USSR) Observatory 30° 19’ 39” E

Rome, Italy Monte Mario 12° 27’ 08” E

Stockholm, Sweden Observatory 18° 03’ 30” E

Tirane, Albania First-Order Trig Point 19° 46’ 45” E

Figure 3-21. Astronomic Longitudes of Prime Meridians.

 _____________________________________________________________________________________________
3-12 MCWP 3-16.7

products, that the data is shown or measured in the

correct angular system. Two angular systems show Deflection of the Vertical
coordinate systems on maps and to coordinate survey
points: centesimal and sexagesimal.
Deflection of the vertical at a point is the angular
The unit usually associated with a centesimal system difference between the vertical (plumb line), which is
is the grad (used extensively in Europe and North perpendicular to the geoid, and a line through the point
Africa). A grad is the hundredth part (1/100th) of a that is perpendicular to the reference ellipsoid. This
right angle. One grad equals 100 minutes; 1 minute term can be more accurately referred to as the astro-
equals 100 seconds. Grads are notated by g; centesimal geodetic deflection of the vertical. See figure 3-22.
minutes by c; and centesimal seconds by cc. The entire
number is notated together like 12g8c27cc. Due to the deflection of the vertical in the plane of
the prime vertical (a circle in the east-west direction
The unit usually associated with a sexagesimal system of the observer’s horizon), there is a difference
is the degree. A degree is the ninetieth part (1/90th) of between astronomic and geodetic longitude and
a right angle. One degree equals 60 minutes; 1 minute astronomic and geodetic azimuths. This is called the
equals 60 seconds. Degrees are notated by the symbol laplace condition and is expressed by the laplace
° e.g., 24°; sexagesimal minutes by a ’; e.g., 38’; and equation. The laplace equation yields a correction,
sexagesimal seconds by a “; e.g., 02”. The entire which when subtracted from an astronomic azimuth,
number is notated together like 24° 38’ 02”. will produce a geodetic azimuth.

Figure 3-22. Deflection of the Vertical.