Notes on

Casting Process:

Defintion:

Casting is a method used to create solid metal shapes by pouring molten metal into a
mold. It's great for making complex shapes without weakening the metal, and it's
more ef cient with material compared to cutting metal pieces. Different casting
methods offer options for surface nish, cost, and volume to t different needs. The
methods available can achieve various standards of surface nish, microstructure,
start-up cost, unit cost, and production volume, in order to suit many applications.

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History of Casting:
Casting has been around for thousands of years, dating back to ancient civilizations
like the Egyptians and Greeks. They used simple molds made of pottery or wax to
shape metal into tools, jewelry, and statues. Over time, techniques improved, leading

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to the mass production of items like farm tools and weapons in China around 1000
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BCE.
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During the industrial revolution, casting became a common way to make everyday
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items like tools and parts for machines. New methods, like centrifugal casting and
blowing oxygen into molten metal, made the process more ef cient. Foundries, where
casting takes place, have evolved from manual labor to highly mechanized facilities
with specialized equipment for melting and shaping different metals. These foundries
can handle anything from small-scale production to large quantities of metal parts, but
they're also hazardous places due to high temperatures and dangerous materials.

Parts Involved In Casting Process:

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In casting processes, various components play vital roles:

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 Cores: These shape the internal features of the cast part, allowing for complex
geometries and hollow sections.

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Gating System: Channels and gates regulate the ow of molten material into the
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mold cavity.
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Risers: Additional cavities that compensate for shrinkage during solidi cation,
ensuring the nal part is defect-free.

Venting System: These channels allow trapped air and gases to escape from the mold
cavity, preventing defects.

Molding Flasks: Rigid frames that support and contain the mold during casting.

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Molding Tools: Instruments used for packing, shaping, and re ning the mold to
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ensure accuracy and quality.
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Pouring Equipment: Devices utilized to transfer molten material from the furnace
into the mold cavity safely and accurately.

Cooling and Heating Elements: Elements that manage the solidi cation process and
maintain optimal temperature conditions for casting.

Types of Casting Molds:

Expendable Molds:

- Gravity Molds: This method relies on gravity alone to ll the mold cavity with
molten metal. It's one of the simplest casting methods and is often used for casting
low-melting-point metals like aluminum and zinc.

- Slush Molds: In slush casting, the mold is partially lled with molten metal, which
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is then poured out after a thin shell has formed. This process is ideal for creating
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hollow parts or decorative items with varying thicknesses.

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- Low-Pressure Molds: Low-pressure molding involves injecting molten metal into

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a mold cavity at low pressure. This technique is commonly used for encapsulating
delicate electronic components or producing parts with intricate details.

- Vacuum Molds: Vacuum molding uses vacuum pressure to force heated plastic
sheets onto a mold surface, creating precise shapes. It's commonly used in
industries such as automotive manufacturing and consumer electronics.

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 Permanent Molds:

- Gravity Die Casting: Also known as permanent mold casting, this method uses

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reusable metal molds to produce parts with consistent dimensions and surface

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nish. It's particularly suitable for high-volume production of components like

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automotive parts and household appliances.
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- Composite Molds: Composite molding involves using molds made from materials
like epoxy resin to create patterns for casting. These molds offer durability and
dimensional stability, making them ideal for producing polyurethane patterns for
various applications.

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Types of Casting Processes:

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Sand Casting: Sand casting is one of the oldest and most versatile casting methods. It
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involves packing sand around a pattern to create a mold cavity, which is then lled
with molten metal. Sand casting is widely used for producing large, complex parts in
materials such as iron, steel, and aluminum.

Die Casting: Die casting uses metal dies or molds to produce high-quality, precise
parts with tight tolerances. The process involves injecting molten metal into a mold
cavity under high pressure. Die casting is commonly used for manufacturing
automotive components, consumer electronics, and household appliances.

Gravity Die Casting: Gravity die casting is similar to sand casting but uses
permanent metal molds instead of sand molds. Molten metal is poured into the mold
cavity using gravity alone, resulting in parts with consistent dimensions and minimal
defects.

Pressure Die Casting: Pressure die casting involves injecting molten metal into a
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steel mold cavity at high pressure. This process allows for the production of parts with
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complex shapes and tight tolerances. Pressure die casting is commonly used in
industries such as aerospace, automotive, and electronics.
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Shell Mold Casting: Shell mold casting uses a mixture of sand and resin to create
thin-walled molds, which are then lled with molten metal. This process offers high
dimensional accuracy and surface nish, making it ideal for producing intricate parts
with ne details.

Investment Casting: Investment casting, also known as lost-wax casting, uses wax
patterns to create molds for casting metal parts. The process involves coating the wax
patterns with refractory material, melting away the wax, and then pouring molten

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 metal into the cavity. Investment casting is widely used for producing complex, high-
precision parts in materials such as stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium.

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Plaster Casting: Plaster casting uses plaster of Paris as the molding material for

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casting non-ferrous metals. It's a relatively economical casting process that offers
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good dimensional accuracy and surface nish. Plaster casting is commonly used for
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producing small to medium-sized parts with simple or complex shapes.
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Centrifugal Casting: Centrifugal casting involves rotating a mold or die at high

speed while pouring molten metal into it. This process utilizes centrifugal force to
distribute the metal evenly, resulting in parts with uniform density and grain structure.
Centrifugal casting is often used for producing cylindrical parts such as pipes, tubes,

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and rings.

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Steps Involved in Casting Process:
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Pattern Forming:

- Patterns are replicas of the nal part to be cast, made from wood, metal, or model
board.

- Different types of patterns include solid, two-piece, multi-piece, and match plate
patterns.

- Patterns are used to create the mold cavity into which molten material will be
poured.

Core Forming:

- Cores are used to create internal features of the casting and prevent the metal from
lling certain areas.
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- Core forming involves creating the interior part of the casting using sand or other
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materials.
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Mold Making:

- Mold making involves selecting a suitable mold type based on the application, such
as expendable, permanent, or composite mold casting.

- Different molding processes include sand casting, die casting, investment casting,
etc.

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 Pouring Process:

- Molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through gates and runners designed to
facilitate the ow of liquid metal.

- Gates, runners, and chokes are essential components to ensure proper lling of the

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mold cavity.
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Solidi cation Process:
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- Once the mold cavity is lled, the molten metal begins to solidify, either through
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natural cooling or forced circulation to dissipate heat.

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- Solidi cation is a crucial step in the casting process to ensure the desired shape and
properties of the nal part.

Solidi cation time is a critical parameter in the casting process that directly in uences
the properties and quality of the nal cast product. It's the time taken from when the
molten metal is poured into the mold until it solidi es completely. Understanding and
calculating solidi cation time is crucial for controlling the casting process, avoiding
defects, and ensuring the integrity of the cast part.

Formula for Solidi cation Time:

The most commonly used formula for estimating the solidi cation time (Ts) is given
by Chvorinov's Rule, which can be stated as:
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(A)
2
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Ts = C ×
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Where:
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- Ts = Solidi cation time

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- V= Volume of the casting

-A = Surface area of the casting
- C= Mold constant (material and mold speci c constant)
- V/A = Volume-to-surface area ratio of the casting
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The ratio A is crucial because it represents how quickly a given volume of metal can
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lose heat through its surface area. A higher A ratio means a longer solidi cation time,
as it takes longer for heat to be conducted away from a larger volume relative to its
surface area.

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 Understanding the Components:

- Volume (V): This represents the total volume of molten metal in the casting. Larger
volumes will inherently take longer to solidify.

- Surface Area (A): This is the total surface area of the molten metal exposed to the

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mold, through which heat is dissipated.
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- Mold Constant (C): This constant varies depending on the metal being cast and the
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material of the mold. It encompasses factors like thermal conductivity, speci c

heat, and the heat transfer coef cient between the mold and metal.

Signi cance of the Formula:

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Chvorinov's Rule helps in predicting the solidi cation time based on the geometry of
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the casting and the material properties of the metal and mold. By adjusting the shape
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(thus changing A ) or changing the material (affecting C), foundries can control the
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solidi cation process to reduce defects like shrinkage cavities, improve mechanical
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properties, and achieve more uniform microstructures.

Understanding and applying Chvorinov's Rule allows for the optimization of casting
parameters, design adjustments for complex parts, and the selection of appropriate
casting materials and methods to meet speci c requirements.

Working Terminologies in Casting Process:

- Flask, cope, and drag: Components of the mold framework used to contain and
support the mold during casting.

- Core: Internal component used to create hollow spaces within the casting.
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- Vents: Openings in the mold to allow gases to escape during casting.

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- Riser: Reservoir of molten metal used to compensate for shrinkage during

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solidi cation.
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- Runner: Passageway for controlling the ow of molten metal into the mold cavity.

- Sprue: Channel through which molten metal ows into the mold cavity.

- Parting Line: Boundary separating the cope and drag sections of the mold.

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 Casting defects:

In the casting process, defects can occur due to various factors such as design aws,
material properties, process parameters, and environmental conditions. These defects
can adversely affect the quality, integrity, and functionality of the nal cast part. Here

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are some of the most common types of defects in casting:
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Porosity: Porosity refers to the presence of voids or gas pockets within the casting. It
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can occur due to entrapped air or gases released during solidi cation.
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Types of porosity include:

- Gas Porosity: Caused by the entrapment of gases like hydrogen or nitrogen during
solidi cation. It appears as spherical or elongated voids.

- Shrinkage Porosity: Forms as the result of insuf cient feeding of liquid metal to
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compensate for solidi cation shrinkage. It often appears as rounded or irregularly
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shaped voids near thick sections or isolated areas.

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- Microporosity: Microscopic voids dispersed throughout the casting due to

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improper metal composition or cooling rate. It may not be visible to the naked eye
but can affect mechanical properties.

Shrinkage Defects: Shrinkage defects occur when the casting contracts during
solidi cation, leading to localized or general dimensional changes.

Types of shrinkage defects include:

- Shrinkage Cavity: Forms when insuf cient molten metal is available to

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compensate for solidi cation shrinkage. It appears as a void or depression on the

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surface of the casting.

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- Shrinkage Porosity: As mentioned earlier, shrinkage porosity can result from

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inadequate feeding during solidi cation, leading to internal voids.

Inclusions: Inclusions are foreign particles or impurities present in the casting, which
can weaken the material and reduce its mechanical properties.

Types of inclusions include:

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 - Oxide Inclusions: Formed by the reaction of molten metal with oxygen in the
atmosphere or with refractory materials in the mold. They appear as dark or
discolored spots on the casting surface.

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- Sand Inclusions: Result from sand particles becoming trapped in the mold cavity
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or core material during casting. They appear as sandy patches or nodules on the
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surface.
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- Slag Inclusions: Caused by the entrapment of slag or ux residues from the

melting process. They appear as irregularly shaped, shiny or dull spots on the

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casting surface.

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Cold Shut: Cold shut defects occur when two streams of molten metal fail to fuse
together during casting, resulting in incomplete lling of the mold cavity.
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- It appears as a line or seam on the casting surface where the metal did not properly
bond.

Misruns and Incomplete Fill: Misruns occur when the molten metal fails to
completely ll the mold cavity, resulting in incomplete castings.

- It can happen due to insuf cient pouring temperature, inadequate gating design, or
improper metal ow.

Hot Tears: Hot tears, also known as hot cracks or solidi cation cracks, occur during
the cooling and solidi cation phase of the casting process.

- They appear as cracks or fractures in the casting due to internal stresses caused by
uneven cooling rates or restrained thermal contraction.

Metal Penetration: Metal penetration defects occur when molten metal in ltrates the
sand mold or core material, resulting in rough or uneven casting surfaces.
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- It can happen due to excessive pouring pressure, low mold permeability, or

inadequate mold coatings.
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Surface Finish Defects: Surface nish defects include rough surfaces, pits, scratches,
or dents on the casting surface, which can be caused by mold erosion, metal oxidation,
or inadequate mold surface preparation.

Preventing and minimizing these defects requires careful control and optimization of
casting parameters, such as mold design, pouring temperature, metal composition, and
solidi cation conditions. Additionally, proper inspection and quality control measures

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 are essential to identify and rectify defects early in the casting process, ensuring the
production of high-quality castings.

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Advantages of Casting Process:

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- Smooth nish and tight tolerances.
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- Faster production with affordable tooling.

- Ability to produce a wide range of sizes and shapes.

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- Suitable for creating intricate and complex shapes.

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- Affordable method for producing various mechanical characteristics.
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Disadvantages of Casting Process:

- High possibility of faults and dif culty in xing aws.

- Less accurate dimensions compared to precision machining processes.

- Labor-intensive, especially in processes like sand casting.

Applications of Casting Process:

- Used in industries such as aerospace, automotive, construction, and defense to

produce a variety of parts and components.
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- Commonly employed in the production of ornaments, house decor, and continuous

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forging of metals.
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- Metals like steel, copper, aluminum, and their alloys are continuously cast for
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rolling, extruding, or forging purposes.

Overall, casting is a versatile manufacturing process with widespread applications

across various industries due to its ability to produce complex shapes, cost-effectively
and ef ciently.

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