Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Lecturer Notes

Text Books
1. Manufacturing technology - by P.N.Rao, Tata McGraw Hill publication.
2. Welding Technology by R.A. Little, TMH
3. Manufacturing Science by A.Ghosh and A K Malick, EWP

Reference Books
1. Fundamentals of metal casting technology by P.C. Mukherjee, Oxford PIBI.
2. Mechanical Metallurgy by Dieter, Mc-Graw Hill
3. Processes and Materials of Manufacture by R.A Lindberg, Prentice hall (India)
4. A Text Book of Production Engineering by P.C.Sharma, S.Chand

Module: I (Foundry)

There are four basic manufacturing processes for producing desired shape of a
product. These are casting, machining, joining (welding, mechanical fastners, epoxy,
etc.), and deformation processes.
• Casting process exploit the fluidity of a metal in liquid state as it takes shape
and solidifies in a mould. It’s the primary manufacturing process.
• Machining processes provide desired shape with good accuracy and
precision but tend to waste material in the generation of removed portions.
• Joining processes permit complex shapes to be constructed from simpler
components and have a wide domain of applications.
• Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of metals, which is their
ability to flow plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their
properties. With the application of suitable pressures, the material is moved to
obtain the desired shape with almost no wastage. The required pressures are
generally high andthe tools and equipment needed are quite expensive. Large
production quantities are often necessary to justify the process.
Metal Casting Process:
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of
the products for which it’s called basic manufacturing process.
Steps to be followed for a casting operation:

a) Making mould cavity

b) Liquefy or melt the material by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

c) Liquid or molten metal is poured into a prepared mould cavity

d) allowed to solidify
e) product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape More
attention should be given on the following for successfulcasting operation:
(i)Preparation of moulds of patterns (ii)Melting and
pouring of the liquefied metal
(iii) Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
(iv) Defects and inspection
Advantages of casting process:

• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be
made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining,
forging, and welding, can be minimized.
• Possible to cast both ferrous and non ferrous materials
• Tools are very simple and expensive
• Useful for small lot production
• Weight reduction in design
• No directional property
• There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can
only be processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations:-

• Accuracy and surface finish are not very good for final application
• Difficult to remove defects due to presence of moisture
• Metal casting is a labour intensive process
• Automation: a question

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Application:-
Cylindrical bocks, wheels, housings, pipes, bells, pistons, piston rings,machine tool
beds etc.

Typical sand mould

Mould Section and casting nomenclature

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Important casting terms

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as:
drag – lower moulding flask,cope
– upper moulding flask,
cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

Sand mould ready for pouring

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with
the help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up
the mould.
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Bottom board – Board used to start mould making (wood)
Backing sand – used and burnt sand
Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the
molten metal is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. Chaplets:
Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings
as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Steps in making sand castings:
The basic steps in making sand castings are,
(i) Pattern making,
(ii) Core making,
(iii) Moulding,
(iv) Melting and pouring,
(v) Cleaning

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Pattern making – Pattern is the replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the
mould cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of
either wood or metal.
-The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as
moulding sand, surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint
provides the mould cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.
If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to
form these cavities.
Pattern Materials:- In genral materials – wood, metals & plastics
Wood-
Adv:- Easy availability, Low weight, Easily shaped, Cheap, Care to betaken
Disadv:- Moisture absorption, Distortion, Dimensional change, seasoningExample –
Pine, Teak, Deodar
Others – plywood boards and particle boards
Reason – Availability in various thicknesses Higher
strength
No need for seasoning
Use – Used for flat type and no three dimensional contour shapesLarge scale
casting
Choice of pattern materials depends on

• Size of casting
• No. of castings to be made from pattern
• Dimensional accuracy required
A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The excessdimension is
known as Pattern allowance.
Pattern allowance => shrinkage allowance, machining allowance

• Shrinkage allowance: It will take care of contractions of a castingwhich

occurs as the metal cools to room temperature.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid
state to solid state. Riser which feed the liquid metal to the casting is provided in
the mould to compensate for this.
Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume caused when metal looses temperature in
solid state. Shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns to account for this.
Shrink rule is used to compensate solid shrinkage depending on the material
contraction rate.

The shrinkage allowance depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion of the

material (α). A simple relation indicates that higher the value of α, more is the shrinkage
allowance.

Machining allowance: It will take care of the extra material that will be removed to
obtain a finished product. In this the rough surface in the cast product will be removed.
The machining allowance depends on the size of the casting, material properties,
material distortion, finishing accuracy and machining method.
Machining allowances of various metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Cast iron Up to 12 0.12
12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25
Cast steel Up to 6 0.12
6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Non ferrous Up to 8 0.09
8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
Draft –
Vertical faces of the pattern are to be made tapered to reduce the chances of damage to
the mould cavity. It varies with the complexity of the job. Innerdetails require more
allowance than outer. This allowance is more for hand moulding than machine
moulding.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Typical Draft Allowances

Pattern having draft allowance on vertical surfaces

Shake allowance –
This is a negative allowance. Applied to those dimensions which areparallel to
parting plane.
Distortion allowance –
Metals just solidified are very weak, which may be distorted. This allowanceis given to
the weaker sections like long flat portion, U & V sections, complicated casing, thin &
long sections connected to thick sections.

The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are
caused on account of unequal cooling of different sections of the casting and hindered
contraction.

TYPES OF PATTERNS:-
Various types of patterns depends on - Complexity of the job
- No of castings required
- Moulding procedure adopted
(a) Single piece or solid pattern – Inexpensive and simplest oneSingle
piece, Simple job,
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
Useful for Small scale production
Pattern will be entirely in the drag
One surface is flat and at the parting lineUsed
for very small scale production

(b) Split or two piece pattern – Used for intricate castingSplit

along the parting line

Used where depth of job is too high Aligned

with dowel pins fitted to cope
(c) Gated pattern – Gating and runner system are integrated with thepattern
Improves productivity
(d) Cope and drag pattern - Similar to split pattern
For cope and drag, separately attached gating system to metal plateHeavy and
inconvenient for handling
Useful for Continuous production
(e) Match plate pattern – Similar to cope and drag patterns with gatingand
risering system mounted on a single matching plate
Pattern and match plate are made up of metal (Al) Useful for
small casting with high dimensional accuracySuitable for large
scale production
Gating system is attached to the match plate
Expensive
(f) Loose piece pattern – Withdrawing of the pattern from the mould is
difficult,Useful for highly skilled job, Expensive
(g) Follow board pattern – Used for structurally weak portionsBottom
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
board is modified as follow board
(h) Sweep pattern – Useful for axi-symmetrical and prismatic shapeSuitable
for large scale production
(i) Skeleton pattern – Stripes of wood are used for building final patternSuitable for
large casting
Core making Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus the void space is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the
casting.

Core and core print: - Cores are used to make holes, recesses etc. incastings
- So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the coreinside the
mould cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added
projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mould on which the sand core rests
during pouring of the mould.
- The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it cansupport
the weight of the core during the casting operation.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

MOULDING MATERIALS
Different types of moulding materials are
-moulding sand
-system sand (backing sand )
-rebonded sand
-facing sand
-parting sand
-core sand
Choice of moulding materials depends on processing properties.
Properties_-
1) Refractoriness- Ability to withstand high temperature of molten metal sothat it does
not cause fusion
Refractory materials - silica, zirconia, alumina
2) Green strength- Moulding sand containing moisture is known as greensand. The
strength of the green sand is known as green strength.

3) Dry strength- When moisture is completely expelled from the moulding sand, it is
known as dry sand and the strength of the sand is the dry strength.
4) Hot strength- After moisture elimination, the sand is exposed to higher temperature
of molten material. Strength of sand to hold the shape of mould cavity at this higher
temperature is known as hot strength.
5) Permeability – Moulding sand is porous, so it escapes gases through it.This gas
evolution capability of moulding sand is known as permeability. Other properties include
collapsibility, reusable, good thermal conductivityetc.
MOULDING SAND COMPOSITION-
Main ingredients of moulding sand are silica grain (SiO2), Clay (binder) and moisture (to
activate clay and provide plasticity)
Moulding sand properties:-
The properties of moulding sand depends upon the variables like –

• sand grain shape and size

• Clay types and amount

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
• moisture content
• method of preparing sand mould

Melting & casting Quality

Melting is a major factor which controls the quality of casting. The different methods for
melting foundry alloys are pit furnace, open hearth furnace, rotary furnace and cupola
furnace etc. The choice of furnace dependsamount & type of alloy.

CUPOLA:-
It consists of a cylindrical steel shell with its interior lined with heat resisting fire bricks.
There is a drop door at the bottom after closing which proper sand bed could be
prepared. This sand bed provides proper refractory bottom for molten metal & coke.
Above the sand bed, there is a metal tapping hole which will be initially closed with clay
known as ”bot”. Opposite& above the metal tapping hole, there is a slag hole where slag
is trapped. Above the slag hole, there is a wind box which is connected to air blowers.
Air enters to the cupola through the tuyeres. Above the charging platform, there is a
charging hole through which charge is put into the cupola. The charge consists of the
pig iron, scrap iron, coke and fluxes.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Schematic diagram of a cupola

Operation:-
First the drop door at the bottom is closed. Sand bed with slope towardstap hole is
rammed. Coke bed of suitable height is prepared above the sand bed and is ignited
through the tap hole. After proper ignition, alternate layers of charge, flux & coke are fed
through the charge door. Then the charge is allowed to soak in the heat and the air blast
is turned on. Within 5 to 10mins, the molten metal is collected through the tap hole.
When enough metal is collected in the well of the cupola, the slag is drained off through
the slag hole. Then the molten metal is collected in the ladles and is transported to the
moulds with a minimum time loss.
Fluxes are added in the charge to remove the oxides & other impurities present in the
metal. The flux commonly used is lime stone (CaCO3) in a

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

proportion of 2 to 4% of the metal charge. Others fluxes used are dolomite, sodium
carbonate, calcium carbide. Flux reacts with oxides to form compounds having low
melting point and lighter so that it will float on the metal pool.
Charge calculations:-
Carbon:- When charge comes through the coke bed, some amount of carbon is picked
up by the metal depending on the temperature and the time when the metal is in
contact with the coke. It is of the order of 0.15% carbon.
Silicon:- It is Oxidised in the cupola and there will be a loss of 10% silicon. It may be as
high as 30%. To increase the silicon content, ferrosilicon is added to the metal.
Manganese:- There is a loss of 15 to 20% manganese during melting process. The
content of manganese can be increased by the addition of ferromanganese.
Sulphur- There will a sulphur pick up in a range of 0.03 to 0.05%.
Other furnaces:
Other furnaces include

• Open hearth furnace

• Rotary furnace
• Crucible furnace
• Immersion heated furnace

Based on the source of heating, they can be classified as

• Electrical heating furnace (arc, resistance or induction)

• Fossil full fired furnace (solid, oil/gaseous fuel)

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE:

For heavy steel castings, the open hearth type furnace with electric arc/oil fired would be
suitable. These furnaces are suitable for ferrous materials. It consists of a bowl shaped
bottom known as hearth lined with refractory bricks and granular refractory material.
Heat is directly transferred to the charge by electric arc from the electrodes. Tilting
mechanism forward is used for metal tapping and backward is for deslagging.
INDUCTION FURNACE:
This type of furnace is suitable for all types of materials. The heat source is isolated from
charge and slag. The flux gets necessary heat directly from the charge instead of the
heat source. The stirring effect of electric current would cause fluxes to be entrained in
the melt.

Induction Furnace

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Defects in sand castings

Sand blow and Pinholes: defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas
cavities caused by release of mold gases during pouring. It is present just below the
casting top surface. Low permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the
sand mold are the usual causes. Sand wash: surface dip that results from erosion of the
sand mold during pouring. This contour is formed in the surface of the final cast part.
Scab: It is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and
gets embedded in the casting surface.

Penetration: surface defect that occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold
as the fluidity of liquid metal is high, After solidifying, the casting surface consists of a
mixture of sand and metal. Harder ramming of sand mold minimize this defect.
Mold shift: defect caused by displacement of the mold cope in sideward direction
relative to the drag. This results in a step in the cast product at the parting line.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Core shift: displacement of core vertically. Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal.
Mold crack: ‘fin’ like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is
very less, and a crack develops, through which liquid metal can seep.

Misruns: castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. This occurs
because of (1) low fluidity of the molten metal, (2) low pouring temperature, (3) slow
pouring, (4) thinner cross-section of the mold cavity. Cold Shuts: This defect occurs
when two portions of the metal flow together but no fusion occurs between them due to
premature freezing. Cold shots: forming of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in
the casting. Proper pouring procedures and gating system designs can prevent this
defect.
Shrinkage cavity: cavity in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal present in the last
region to freeze. It is sometimes called as ‘pipe’. Proper riser design can solve this
problem.
Microporosity: network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by
localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal.
Inoculation is a common and necessary practice used in foundries that produce gray
and ductile iron castings. Often performed just prior to pouring, inoculation refers to a
procedural step undertaken to improve the solidified structure of the metal, and
therefore its mechanical properties. The process:

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

* promotes the formation of small and uniformly dispersed Type A graphite in gray iron
and increases the nodule count in ductile iron. Type A graphite of the correct size
provides the best mechanical properties of the iron;
* minimizes the formation of primary iron carbides (also called chill or white iron)
Degassing processes There are 3 methods of degassing which are in practice
i) Ladle degassing
ii) Stream degassing
iii) Circulation degassing

CONTINUOUS CASTING:
In this process the liquid steel is poured into a double walled bottomless water
cooled mould where a solid skin is quickly formed having a thickness of 10 to 25 mm
and a semi solid skin emerges from open mould bottom which will be further
solidified by water sprays. Molten metal is collected in a ladle and is kept over a
refractory lined intermediate pouring vessel called tundish and then poured into
water cooled vertical copper mould of 450 to 750 mm long. Before starting casting, a
dummy starter bar will be kept at the mould bottom. After starting casting process, as
the metal level rises to a height, the starter bar will be withdrawn at equal rate that of
the steel pouring rate. Initially metal freezes on to the starter bar as well as periphery
of the mould. Solidified shell supports the steel liquid as it moves downwards. The
steel shell is mechanically supported by rollers as it moves down through the
secondary cooling zone with water.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Continuous casting plant

use of dummy starter bar at the start of continuous casting process

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

SQUEEZE CASTING:
It was first developed in Russia. It is a combination of casting and forging process. First
the punch and die are separated. The furnace holds the liquid metal at a requisite
temperature. Then the metal is put into the die cavity and the punch is lowered to its
place forming a tight seal. The metalis under a pressure of 50 to 140 mpa and looses
heat rapidly because of the contact with the metallic die. Once the casting is solidified,
the punch is retracted.
Adv: very low gas entrapment.
Lower shrinkage cavity.
Lower die costs. High
quality surface.
Application: Mg, Al, Cu alloy

Investment casting In this casting process, a pattern made of wax is coated with a
refractory material to make the mold surface, after which the wax is melted away while
pouring the molten metal. “Investment” means “to cover completely” which refers to
the coating of the refractory material
around the wax pattern. This is a precision casting process. Using this wecan make
castings of high accuracy with intricate details.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Wax patterns are first made

• several patterns can be attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree, if
required
• the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material and latercovered
with thick coating to make the rigid full mold
• Heating of mold in inverted position to melt the wax and permit it to drip
out of the cavity
• the mold is preheated to a high temperature so that contaminants areeliminated
from the mold
• the molten metal is poured and it solidifies
• the mold is removed from the finished casting

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Welding and cutting

Fabrication is often known as secondary manufacturing process as the method relies on

the raw material obtained from the manufacturing process like extrusion and rolling.
Fabrication is a process of joining two or more elements to make a single part. Most
common examples are aircraft, ship bodies, bridges, building trusses, welded machine
frames, sheet metalparts, etc.
Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Classification of Joining Processes

Different Welding Processes

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

A particular fabrication method depends on number of factors

• Type of assembly
Permanent, semi permanent or temporary
Joining those obtained by bolts or screws and can be disassembled whenever
necessary are temporary in nature. Rivets are semi-permanents fastening devices that
involve making holes in the mating parts. Here joints can be separated by destroying the
rivet without harming the parent elements.
• Materials being joined
Steel, cast irons, aluminium, similar or dissimilar metals

• Type of service required

Assembly subjected to heavy loading, impact loading, high temperatures Principle of
welding: The welding process is a complex process thatinvolves heat and liquid-metal
transfer, chemical reactions. A gradualformation of the welded joint is obtained
through liquid-metal depositionand subsequently there is a transformation from cooling
into the solid state.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Brazing Brazing is a coalescence of a joint with the help of a filler metal whose liquidus
temperature is above 4500 and is below the solidus temperature of base metal. In
brazing the base metal is not melted. Dissimilar metals can be joined by brazing. Except
aluminium and magnesium, brazing can join almost all metals. Brazed joint is not useful
for high temperature welding because of the low melting temperature of the filler metal.
Here the filler metal reaches the joint by capillary action, it is necessary to control the
clearance between two parts. The temperature at which filler metal is entering the joint
is also important. Too much clearance doesn’t allow capillary force to draw the filler
metal into the joint and also insufficient clearance may be too small to allow the filler
metal to give rise to an effective strength.
Soldering
Soldering is the method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal
whose liquidus temperature is below 4500.The joint design used for soldering is similar
to that of brazing as in both cases filler metals enter the joint by capillary action. Like
brazing, soldering also needs solvent cleaning, acid pickling and mechanical
cleaning of the joint surface. In order to remove the oxides from the joint surface for
avoiding filler metal from oxidizing, fluxes are generally used in soldering.
General Considerations:
Types of joints
Different types of welding joints are classified as butt, lap, corner, tee and edge joints.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Tensile strength of butt joint depends upon the contact area. In case of lap joint,
depending upon the strength requirement, the bonding area chosen. But the limitation of
lap joint is that the thickness of joint increases for overlapping of the parts.
For small thickness, Straight edge joints are done and for that edge is prepared in such
a way that heat of welding can penetrate the entire depth.To facilitate the process, the
joint is widened.

• For very thick plates, the welding needs to be done from both sides.
• The V- joint is easier to make and the amount of extra metal to be filled in the
joint increases greatly with an increase in the thickness.
• A U joint is preferable when t
• Groove preparation

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

GAS WELDING
Gas welding is also named as oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW).Gas welding derives heat
from the combustion of fuel gas such as acetylene in combination with oxygen. The
process is a fusion welding process wherethe joint is completely melted to obtain the
fusion. Necessary considerations for gas welding
Fuel Gases
Fuel gas for Gas welding used is acetylene due to its high temperature inthe flame.
Thereby the gas welding may be known as oxy-acetylene welding (OAW).
Following table shows the useful fuel gases for gas welding with theircalorific
values and temperatures.
Table.1. Chemica l Heat Flame
Characteristics Formula content,MJ/m3 temperature,0C
of fuel gases
Gas
Primary Secondary Total
Acetylene C2H2 18.97 36.03 55 3100
Propylene C3H6 16.38 71.62 88 2500
Propane C2H8 9.38 83.62 93 2450
Methyl C3H4 21.00 70.00 91 2927
acetylene
propadien
e
Hydrogen H2 - - 10 2390
Natural CH4+H2 0.41 36.59 37 2350
gas
Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel–gas welding andcutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame.
The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

(b) The principle of the oxyfuel–gas welding process.

(a) General view of, and (b) cross section of, a torch used in oxyacetylene welding. The
acetylene valve is opened first. The gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot light. Then the
oxygen valve is opened and the flame adjusted. (c) Basic equipment used in oxyfuel–gas
welding. To ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene fittings are left handed,
whereas those for oxygen are right handed. Oxygen regulators usually are painted
green and acetylene regulators red.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process: (a) before and

(b) after. Note the formation of a flash at the joint; later the flash can betrimmed
off.

The acetylene valve on the torch is opened slightly with the help of a rictionspark lighter.
The acetylene valve is opened to get the required flow of cetylene. The oxygen valve is
slowly opened till the intermediate flame feather of the reducing flame.
• The choice of torch size depends upon the thickness of metal to bejoined.
• Torch should be held at an angle of 30 to 50 degrees from thehorizontal
plane.
• Torch movement either oscillatory or circular.
• Torch tip should be positioned above the metal plate so that the whitecone is at a
distance of 1.5 to 3.0mm from the plate.
• For forehand welding the torch is moved in the direction of tip.
Electric arc welding

Arc welding
Arc welding processes uses the heat generated by an electric arc to melt the
faying surfaces of the base metal in order to develop a weld joint.
Manual metal arc welding
In this process, the heat is generated by an electric arc between basemetal and a
consumable electrode. As the electrode movement is manually controlled hence
it is termed as manual metal arc welding. This process is extensively used for
depositing weld metal because it

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is easy to deposit the molten weld metal at right place where it is required and it
doesn’t need separate shielding. This process is commonly used for welding of
the metals, which are comparatively less sensitive to the atmospheric gases. This
process can use both AC and DC. The constant current DC power source is
invariably used with all types of electrode (basic, rutile and cellulosic) irrespective
of base metal (ferrous and non-ferrous). However, AC can be unsuitable for
certain types of electrodes and base materials. Therefore, AC should be used in
light of manufacturer’s recommendations for the electrode application. In case of
DC welding, heat liberated at anode is generally greater than the arc column and
cathode side. The amount of heat generated at the anode and cathode may differ
appreciably depending upon the flux composition of coating, base metal, polarity
and the nature of arc plasma. In case of DC welding, polarity determines the
distribution of the heat generated at the cathode and anode and accordingly the
melting rate of electrode and penetration into the base metal are affected.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG)
Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc is an inert gas shielded arc
welding using a non-consumable electrode. This electric arc is produced by the
passage of current trough a conductive ionizedinert gas that provides shielding of
the electrode, molten weld pool and solidifying weld metal from contamination by
the atmosphere. The process may be used with or without the addition of filler
metal using metal rods. (a) The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly
known as TIG ( for tungsten–g inert-gas) welding. (b) Equipment for gas tungsten-
arc welding operations.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

This is also known as Metal inert-gas arc welding (MIG) because it utilizes a
consumable electrode. There are other gas-shielded arc- welding processes utilizing
consumable electrodes such as flux-cored arc welding, all of which coming under MIG.
It’s quite suitable for thicker sheets because filler metal requirement in welding process
makes gas-tungsten arc welding (GTAW or TIG ) difficult to use, which is more suitable
for thin sheets. (a) Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly
known as MIG (for metal inert-gas) welding. (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc
welding operations.
The consumable electrode is in the form of wire reel fed at a constant rate

through the feed rollers. The welding torch is connected to the gas supply
cylinder, which provides the necessary inert gas. The electrode and the work
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
piece are connected to the welding power supply. The power supply is always of
the constant voltage type. The current from the welding machine is changed by
the rate of feeding of

electrode wire. Normally, DC arc-welding machine are used for GMAW with
electrode positive (DCEP). The DCEP increases the metal- deposition rate and
also provides a stable arc and smooth electrode metal transfer. With DCEN the
arc become highly unstable and also results in spatter. But special electrodes
having calcium and titanium oxide mixtures as coatings are found to be good
for steelwith DCEN.

Sometimes the mixtures of gases such as argon-helium, argon-carbon dioxide, argon-

oxygen are used for special applications. Shielding gases should always flow in a
laminar manner without causing any turbulence because turbulence causes weld
contamination. The gas flow rates to be used depend upon the thickness of the sheet
being welded, the position of the weld as well as the base material.
ELECTRODES
The electrode wire comes generally in the form of coils and of normal sizes may be of
the order of 0.5 to 3.2 mm. Depending upon the base material, various wire
compositions are available. For steels, electrodes wire having deoxidizers are used
because, the deoxidizers help in the reduction of oxidation of the weld metal as well as
the porosity. The electrode wire is produced by wire drawing, and uniform diameter
throughout otherwise the arc may saunter.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
It is used for faster welding jobs. It is possible to use larger welding electrodes (12 mm)
as well as very high currents (4000 A) so that very high metal deposition rates of the
order of 20 kg/h or more can be achieved with this process. Also, very high welding
speeds (5 m/min) are possible in saw. Some submerged arc welding-machines are able
to weld plates of thicknesses as high as 75 mm in butt joint in a single pass. Though it
can weld very small thickness, of the order of 1 mm, it is very economical for larger
welds only. Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and
equipment. The un-fused flux is recovered and reused.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

PLASMA ARC WELDING

Plasma is the state of matter present in between electrodes in any arc. In this part, gas
is ionized to make it a conductor of electric current. - PAW uses a non- consumable
tungsten electrode and a shielding gas such as argon, helium or a mixture of both with
hydrogen. - Plasma torch:- Pure argon gas is allowed through the inner orifice
surrounding the tungsten electrode to form plasma gas. The constraining nozzle
squeezes the gas to form a concentrated and straight arc and also increases the heat
contained per unit volume of the arc (~110000C).Ionization of the arc occurs througha
low current pilot arc between electrode and constricting nozzle. This initiates the PAW
arc. Due to constriction the plasma gas attains a very high temperature and also
provides a low resistance path to initiate the

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

welding arc between electrode and work piece. This is called transferred arc. Inert
shielding gas is allowed to flow through outer gas nozzle which protects the weld
metal.Higher ampere rating Constant current or drooper type of dc power supplies are
used as power sources. Electrode is taken as negative.PAW is done by”key hole”
technique. Due to high temperature the base metal beneath the arc melts completely
forming a thin keyhole. With the advancement of the torch the metal melted ahead
(down hand welding position) flows into the keyhole. Thus the keyhole travels
continuously along the torch direction. Advantages:- Because of arc concentration heat
input can be properly controlled and the heat affected zone around the weld metal is
small. - Uniform deep penetration can be obtained. - Greater distance between
electrode tip and work piece makes use of filler metal rodeasier without contamination of
electrode. Higher metal deposit rate. Disadvantages:- Expensive frequent replacement
requirement of nozzle. Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a) transferred and
(b) non- transferred. Deep and narrow welds can be made by these processes at high
welding speeds.

THERMIT WELDING
In thermit welding, weld metal is melted externally using exothermic heat generated by
chemical reactions and the melt is supplied between thecomponents to be joined.
ELECTROSLAG WELDING

In electroslag welding weld metal is melted by electrical resistance heating and then it is
allowed to cool very slowly for solidification similar to that of casting.
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in which coalescence is produced by
heating the work piece due to impingement of the

37
Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

concentrated electron beam of high kinetic energy on the work piece. Asthe electron
beam impinges the workpiece, kinetic energy of the electron beams converts into
thermal energy resulting in melting and even evaporation of the work material.

Schematic of an electron beam gun used in EBW

LASER BEAM WELDING PROCESS

Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a fusion joining process that produces coalescence of
materials with the heat obtained from a concentrated beam of coherent, monochromatic
light impinging on the joint to be welded. In the LBM process, the laser beam is directed
by flat optical elements, such as mirrors and then focused to a small spot (for high
power density) at the work piece using either reflective focusing elements or lenses. It
is a non- contact process, requiring no pressure to be applied. Inert gas shielding is
generally employed to prevent oxidation of the molten puddle and filler metals may be
occasionally used. The Lasers which are predominantly being used for industrial
material processing and welding tasks are the Nd- YAG laser and 1.06 μm wavelength
CO2 laser, with the active elements most commonly employed in these two varieties of
lasers being the neodymium (Nd) ion and the CO2 molecules respectively.

Cutting

Material can be cut with the use of a heat source that melts and removes anarrow zone
in the workpiece.
• Can cut contours
• Heat source may be:
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
– Torch
– Electric arc
– Laser
Oxyfuel-gas Cutting (OFC)
• Similar to Oxyfuel-gas Welding
• Process is particularly suited for steels
• A two-stage chemical process
• Iron combines with oxygen exothermically to oxidize the metal
• Need additional preheat, provided by the fuel gas, to reach melting point
(a) Flame cutting of a steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross section of the
torch nozzle. (b) Cross section of a flame-cut plate, showing drag lines.

Arc Cutting
• Based on same principles as arc-welding processes
• Can cut a variety of materials at high speeds
• Creates heat affected zone Air carbon-arc Cutting (CAC-A)
• Use carbon electrode
• Air jet blows away molten metal (no oxidation necessary)
– Need to contain blown molten metal
• Good for gouging & scarfing Noisy
Plasma-arc Cutting (PAC)
• Produces highest temperatures
• For rapid cutting of non-ferrous & SS plates
• Higher productivity than OFC methods
• Produces good surface finish & narrow kerfs
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
• Most common manufacturing process utilizing programmable controllersElectron
Beams and Lasers
• Can accurately cut many metals
• Narrow kerf
• Better surface finish than other thermal cutting processes
Powder metallurgy – basics & applications

Powder metallurgy – science of producing metal powders and making finished

/semifinished objects from mixed or alloyed powders with or without the additionof Non
metallic constituents
Steps in powder metallurgy:
Powder production, Compaction, Sintering, & Secondary operationsPowder
production:
Raw materials => Powder; Powders can be pure elements, pre-alloyed powdersMethods for
making powders –
Atomization: Produces powders of both ferrous and non-ferrous powders likestainless
steel, superalloys, Ti alloy powders;
Reduction of compounds: Production of iron, Cu, tungsten, molybdenum; Electrolysis: for
making Cu, iron, silver powders Powders along with additives are mixed using mixers Lubricants
are added prior to mixing to facilitate easy ejection of compact and to minimize wear of tools;
Waxes, metallic stearates, graphite etc. Compaction: compaction is performed using dies
machined to close tolerances.Dies are made of cemented carbide, die/tool steel; pressed
using hydraulic ormechanical presses
The basic purpose of compaction is to obtain a green compact with sufficientstrength to
withstand further handling operations
The green compact is then taken for sintering Hot extrusion, hot pressing, hotisostatic
pressing => consolidation at high temperatures
Sintering: Performed at controlled atmosphere to bond atoms metallurgically; Bonding occurs by
diffusion of atoms; done at 70% of abs. melting point of materials It serves to consolidate the
mechanically bonded powders into a coherent body having desired on service behavior
Densification occurs during the process

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

and improvement in physical and mechanical properties are seen Furnaces – mesh belt furnaces
(up to 1200C), walking beam, pusher type furnace, batch type furnaces are also used
Protective atmosphere: Nitrogen (widely used)
Secondary operations: Operations include repressing, grinding, plating can be done; They are
used to ensure close dimensional tolerances, good surface finish,increase density, corrosion
resistance etc.

Flow chart for making P/M components

Advantages & limitations

• Efficient material utilization

• Enables close dimensional tolerances – near net shape possible
• Good surface finish

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

• Manufacture of complex shapes possible

• Hard materials used to make components that are difficult to machine can be
readily made – tungsten wires for incandescent lamps
• Environment friendly, energy efficient
• Suited for moderate to high volume component production
• Powders of uniform chemical composition => reflected in the finished part
• wide variety of materials => miscible, immiscible systems; refractory metals
• Parts with controlled porosity can be made
• High cost of powder material & tooling
• Less strong parts than wrought ones
• Less well known process

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Plastic deformation of metals

Metal forming is a general term for a large group that includes a wide variety of
manufacturing processes. Metal forming processes are characteristic in that the metal
being processed is plastically deformed to shape it into a desired geometry. In order to
plastically deform a metal, a force must be applied that will exceed the yield strength of
the material. When low amounts of stress are applied to a metal it will change its
geometry slightly, in correspondence to the force that is exerted. Basically it will
compress, stretch, and/or bend a small amount. The magnitude of the amount will be
directly proportional to the force applied. Also the material will return to its original
geometry once the force is released. Think of stretching a rubber band, then releasing it,
and having it go back to its original shape. This is called elastic deformation. Once the
stress on a metal increases past a certain point, it no longer deforms elastically, but
starts to undergo plastic deformation. In plastic deformation, the geometric change in
the material is no longer directly proportional to stress and geometric changes remain
after the stress is released; meaning that the material does not recover its shape. The
actual level of stress applied to a metal where elastic deformation turns to plastic
deformation is called the proportional limit, and is often difficult to determine exactly. The
.002 offset convention is usually used to determine the yield point, which is taken for
practical purposes as the stress level where plastic deformation, (yielding), begins to
occur. For more information on this topic review the mechanical properties of metals
section in a material science text book.

It can be seen by the stress-strain graph that once the yield point of a metal is reached
and it is deforming plastically, higher levels of stress are needed to continue its
deformation. The metal actually gets stronger, the more it is deformed plastically. This is
called strain hardening or work hardening. As may be expected, strain hardening is a
very important factor in metal forming processes. Strain hardening is often a problem
that must be overcome, but many times strain hardening, when used correctly, is a vital
part of the manufacturing process in the production of stronger parts.

Effect Of Temperature In Metal Forming

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
Properties of a metal change with an increase in temperature. Therefore, the metal will
react differently to the same manufacturing operation if it is performed under different
temperatures and the manufactured part may posses different properties. For these
reasons, it is very important to understand the materials that we use in our
manufacturing process. This involves knowing their behavior at various temperature
ranges. In industrial metal forming manufacture, there are three basic temperature
ranges at which the metal can be formed, cold working, warm working, and hot working.

Cold Working
Cold working, (or cold forming), is a metal forming process that is carried out at room
temperature or a little above it. In cold working, plastic deformation of the work causes
strain hardening as discussed earlier. The yield point of a metal is also higher at the
lower temperature range of cold forming. Hence, the force required to shape a part is
greater in cold working than for warm working or hot working. At cold working
temperatures, the ductility of a metal is limited, and only a certain amount of shape
change may be produced. Surface preparation is important in cold forming. Fracture of
the material can be a problem, limiting the amount of deformation possible. In fact, some
metals will fracture from a small amountof cold forming and must be hot formed. One
main disadvantage of this type of process is a decrease in the ductility of the part's
material, but there are many advantages. The part will be stronger and harder due to
strain hardening. Cold forming causes directional grain orientation, which can be
controlled to produce desired directional strength properties. Also, work manufactured
by cold forming can be created with more accurate geometric tolerances and a better
surface finish. Since low temperature metal forming processes do not require the
heating of the material, a large amount of energy can be saved and faster production is
possible. Despite the higher force requirements, the total amount of energy expended
ismuch lower in cold working than in hot working.

Hot Working
Hot working, (or hot forming), is a metal forming process that is carried out at a
temperature range that is higher than the recrystallization temperature of the metal
being formed. The behavior of the metal is significantly altered, due to the fact that it is
above its recrystallization temperature. Utilization of different qualities of the metal at
this temperature is the characteristic of hotworking.
During most metal forming processes the die is often cold or slightly heated. However,
the metal stock for hot working will usually be at a higher temperature relative to the die.
In the design of metal forming process, it is critical to consider the flow of metal during
the forming of the work. Specific metal flow, for different forming processes, is discussed
in latter sections under each specific process. For metal forming manufacturing, in
general, the temperature gradient between the die and the work has a large effect on
metal flow during the process. The metal nearer to the die surfaces will be cooler than
the metal closer to the inside of the part, and cooler metal does not flow as easily. High

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
temperature gradients, within the work, will cause greater differences in flow
characteristics of different sections of the metal, these could be problematic. For
example, metal flowing significantly faster at the center of the work compared to cooler
metal near the die surfaces that is flowing slower, can cause part defects. Higher
temperatures are harder to maintain throughout the metal forming process. Work
cooling during the process can also result in more metal flow variations. Another
consideration with hot forming manufacture, with regard to the temperature at which to
form the part, is that the higher the temperature the more reactive the metal is likely to
be. Also if a part for a hot working process is too hot then friction, caused during the
process, may further increase heat to certain areas causing

melting, (not good), in localized sections of the work. In an industrial hot metal working
operation, the optimum temperature should be determined according to the material and
the specific manufacturing process.
When above its recrystallization temperature a metal has a reduced yield strength, also
no strain hardening will occur as the material is plastically deformed. Shaping a metal at
the hot working temperature range requires much less force and power than in cold
working. Above its recrystallization temperature, a metal also possesses far greater
ductility than at its cold worked temperature. The much greater ductility allows for
massive shape changes that would not be possible in cold worked parts. The ability to
perform these massive shape changes is a very important characteristic of these high
temperature metal forming processes.
The work metal will recrystallize, after the process, as the part cools. In general, hot
metal forming will close up vacancies and porosity in themetal, break up inclusions and
eliminate them by distributing their material throughout the work piece, destroy old
weaker cast grain structures and produce a wrought isotropic grain structure in the part.
These high temperature forming processes do not strain harden or reduce the ductility
of the formed material. Strain hardening of a part may or may not be wanted,
depending upon the application. Qualities of hot forming that are considered
disadvantageous are poorer surface finish, increased scale and oxides, decarburization,
(steels), lower dimensional accuracy, and the need to heat parts. The heating of parts
reduces tool life, results in a lower productivity, and a higher energy requirement than in
cold working.

Selection of Temperature Range for a Metal Forming Operation

Production at each of these temperature ranges has a different set of advantages and
disadvantages. Sometimes, qualities that may be undesirable to one process may be
desirable to another. Also, many times work will go through several processes. The goal
is to design the manufacture of a part in such a way as to best utilize the different
qualities to meet or enhance the specifications of the part. To produce a strong part with
excellent surface finish, then a cold forming process could be a good choice. However,
to produce a part with a high ductility a hot formingprocess may be best. Sometimes the
advantages of both hot forming and cold forming are utilized when a part is
manufactured by a series of processes. For example, hot working operations may first

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
be performed on a work piece to achieve large amounts of shape change that would
not be
possible with cold forming due to strain hardening and limited ductility. Then the last
process that completes the manufacture of the part is a cold working operation. This
process does not require a significant shape change, since most of the deformation was
accomplished by the hot forming process. Having a cold forming process last will finish
the shape change, while strengthening the part, giving a good surface finish and highly
accurate tolerances.

Different Types of Metal Forming Processes

Metal forming processes can be classified under two major groups. Bulk deformation
processes and sheet metal working processes.Bulk deformation is characteristic in that
the work formed has a low surface area to volume ratio. In sheet metal working, the
metal being processed will have a high surface area to volume ratio. The following is
a brief overviewof the major metal forming processes that will be covered in detail later.
Bulk Deformation
Rolling: Rolling is a metal forming process that deforms the work by the use of rolls.
Rolling processes include flat rolling, shape rolling, ring rolling,thread rolling, gear
rolling, and the production of seamless tube and pipe by rotary tube piercing or roll
piercing.
Forging: Forging is characteristic in the use of dies to compress and shape a work
piece. The die may be flat or may contain an impression of a certain geometry.
Extrusion: Extrusion involves forming by forcing metal through a die opening,
producing work of variable length and constant cross section. Drawing: Drawing is
similar to extrusion, in that a length of metal is madeto flow through a die opening and
forming is done over its cross section.
The difference between drawing and extrusion is the application of force to the work
piece. In extrusion the work is pushed through the die opening, in drawing the work is
pulled through the die opening.

Sheet Metal Working

Shearing: Shearing is the cutting of the work piece, this would include punching
holes. Technically shearing does not involve shaping by plasticdeformation, but it is
a critical process in sheet metal working operations and should be understood along
with metal forming processes.
Bending: Bending involves the deformation of the work by way of bendingabout a
certain axis.
Deep Drawing: Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which a flat piece of plate
or sheet is forced into a die cavity to take a shape, such as acup.

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 Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Rolling
Rolling is one of the most important industrial metal forming operations. Hot Rolling is
employed for breaking the ingots down into wrought products such as into blooms and
billets, which are subsequently rolled to other products like plates, sheets etc. Rolling is
the plastic deformation of materials caused by compressive force applied through a set
of rolls. The cross section of the work piece is reduced by the process. The
material gets squeezed between a pair of rolls, as a result of which the thickness gets
reduced and the length gets increased. Mostly, rolling is done at high temperature,
called hot rolling because of requirement of large deformations. Hot rolling results in
residual stress-free product. However, scaling is a major problem, due to which
dimensional accuracy is not maintained. Cold rolling of sheets, foils etc is gaining
importance, due to high accuracy and lack of oxide scaling. Cold rolling also strengthens
the product due to work hardening.

Rolling mills:
Rolling mill consists of rolls, bearings to support the rolls, gear box, motor, speed control
devices, hydraulic systems etc.
The basic type of rolling mill is two high rolling mill. In this mill, two opposing rolls are
used.
The direction of rotation of the rolls can be changed in case of reversing mills, so that
the work can be fed into the rolls from either direction. Such mills increase the
productivity.
Non reversing mills have rolls rotating in same direction. Therefore, the work piece
cannot be fed from the other side. Typical roll diameters may be
1.4 m.
A three high rolling mill has three rolls. First rolling in one direction takes place along
one direction. Next the work is reversed in direction and fed through the next pair of roll.
This improves the productivity.

Fig: Rolling mill

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
Grain structure in rolling:
When the wrought or cast product gets hot rolled, the grain structure, which is coarse
grained, becomes finer in size, but elongated along the direction of rolling. This type of
textured grain structure results in directional property [anisotropy] for the rolled product.
In order to refine the grains, heat treatment is performed immediately after rolling, which
results in recrystallization after rolling.

Variation of grain structure, size during longitudinal rolling

Special rolling processes:
Bulk deformation processes such as shape rolling, thread rolling, roll piercing, ring
rolling also use pair of rolls. Some of such important processes are discussed briefly
below: Thread and gear rolling:
Threads on cylindrical work pieces can be cold formed using a pair of flat dies or
cylindrical rolls under reciprocating or rotary motion. Screws, bolts and other externally
threaded fasteners are produced by thread rolling. Thread rolling is a high productivity
process involving no loss of material.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Due to grain flow in thread rolling strength is increased. Surface finish of rolled threads
is very good. Gears can also be produced by the thread rolling process. Compressive
stresses introduced during the process isfavourable for fatigue applications. Auto power
transmission gears are made by thread rolling. Shape rolling: Structural sections such
as I- sections, rails, channels can be rolled using set of shaped rolls. Blooms are usually
taken as raw materials for shape rolling. Multiple steps are required in shape rolling.
Ring rolling: Smaller diameter, thicker ring can be enlarged to larger diameter, thinner
section by ring rolling. In this process, two circular rolls, one of which is idler roll and
the other is driven roll are used. A pair of edging rollers are used for maintaining the
height constant. The ring is rotated and the rings are moved closer to each other,
thereby reducing the thickness of ring and increasing its diameter. Rings of different
cross-sections can be produced. The major merits of this process are high productivity,
material saving, dimensional accuracy and grain flow which is advantageous. Large
rings for turbines, roller bearing races, flanges and rings for pipes are some of the
applications of this process.
Rolling defects: Mill spring is a defect in which the rolled sheet is thicker
than the required thickness because, the rolls get deflected by high rolling forces. Elastic
deformation of the mill takes place. If we use stiffer rolls, namely roll material of high
stiffness or elastic constant, we could avoid mill spring. Normally elastic constant for
mills may range from 1 to 4 GNm-1.
Roll elastic deformation may result in uneven sheet thickness across. Roll material
should have high elastic modulus for reducing the roll deformation. For producing very
thin gage sheets like foils, small diameter rolls are used. They are supported with larger
rolls. We can say the minimum thickness of rolled sheets achieved is directly
proportional to roll radius, friction, flow stress.
Flatness of rolled sheets depends on the roll deflection. Sheets become wavy as roll
deflection occurs.

Forging is the process of forming and shaping metals through the use of hammering,
pressing or rolling. The process begins with starting stock, usually a cast ingot (or a
"cogged" billet which has already been forged from a cast ingot), which is heated to its
plastic deformation temperature, then upset or "kneaded" between dies to the desired
shape and size.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Type of forging
1. smith forging
2. drop forging
3. press forging
4. machine forging
1: Smith forging
This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in
in-openly
openly dies by thevillage black
smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by the power hammer. The
process involves heating the stock in the black smith hearth and then beating it over the
anvil. To get the desire shape the operator has to manipulate the component in between
the blows.
The types of operation available are fullering, flattering, bending , upsetting and
swaging.

2: Drop forging
This is the operation done in closed impression dies by means drop hammer here the
force for shaping the component is applied in a series of blows.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Drop forging utilizes a closed impression die to obtain the desire shape of the
component , the shaping is done by the repeated hammering given to the material in
the die cavity. The equipment use for delivering for blows are called drop hammers.
The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower halve of the die is fixed to the
anvil of the machine , while the upper halve is fixed to ram. The heated stock is kept in
the lower die, while the ram delivers 4-5 blows on the metal spreads and completely fills
in the die cavity. When the two die of halves closed the complete is formed. The typical
products obtained in drop forging are cranks, crank shaft, connecting rods, wrench,
crane hooks etc. The types of operations are fullering, edging, bending, blocking ,
finishing and trimming etc.
3: Press forging
Similar to the drop forging , the press forging is also done in closed impression dies with
the expectation that the force is continuous squeezing type applied by the hydraulic
press. Press forging dies are similar to drop forging dies as also the process in press
forging, the metal is shaped not bymeans of a series of blows as in drop forging , but by
means of a single continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained by means of
hydraulic presses. Because of the continuous action of by hydraulic presses, the
material gets uniformly deform through out its entire depth ,the press forging dies with
the various impression , such as fuller, bender and finisher impression properly
arranged .
4: Machine forging:
Unlike the press or drop forging where the material is drawn out , in machine forging
the material is only upset to get the desire shape. As it involves the upsetting operation
some time it is simply called as upset forging. Originally this was develop for making
bolts head in a continuous fashion, but now there are fairly large number of diverse.
Uses of this process:
Because of the beneficial grain flow obtain from upsetting. It is used for making gears,
blanks, shafts, excels, and similar parts. Upsetting machine called up setter are
generally horizontal acting. The die set consists of die and corresponding punch or a
heading tool. The die consists of two parts, one called the stationary gripper die which
is fixed to the machine frame and the other movable gripper die which moves along
with the die slide of the up setter. The stock is held then between these two gripper dies.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

The upset forging cycle start with the, movable die sliding against the stationary die to
grip the stock. The two dies when in closed position from the necessary die cavity then
the heading tool advance against the stock and upset it to completely filled to the die
cavity.
Having completed the upsetting the heading tool moves back to its back position. Then
the movable gripper die releases the stock by sliding backward. Similar to drop forging
it is not possible to get the final shape in a single pass in machine forging also.
Therefore the operation is carried outin number of stages. The die cavities is required for
the various operations are all arrange vertically on the gripper dies. The stock is the
move from stage one to another in proper sequence till the final forging is ready. A
heading tool each for every upsetting stage is arranged on the heading slide of the
upsetting machine.
A typical upsetting die and heading tool is shown:

Forging defects:
Though forging process give generally prior quality product compared other
manufacturing processes. There are some defects that are lightly to come a proper
care is not taken in forging process design.
A brief description of such defects and their remedial method is givenbelow.
(A) : Unfilled Section:

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

In this some section of the die cavity are not completely filled by the flowing metal. The
causes of this defects are improper design of the forging die or using forging techniques.
(B) : Cold Shut:
This appears as a small cracks at the corners of the forging. This is caused manely by
the improper design of die. Where in the corner and the fillet radie are small as a result
of which metal does not flow properly into the corner and the ends up as a cold shut.
(C) : Scale Pits:
This is seen as irregular depurations on the surface of the forging. This is primarily
caused because of improper cleaning of the stock used for forging. The oxide and scale
gets embedded into the finish forging surface. When the forging is cleaned by pickling,
these are seen as depurations on the forging surface.
(D) : Die Shift:
This is caused by the miss alignment of the die halve, making the two halve of the
forging to be improper shape.
(E) : Flakes:
These are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper cooling of the large
forging. Rapid cooling causes the exterior to cool quickly causing internal fractures. This
can be remedied by following proper cooling practices.
(F) : Improper Grain Flow:
This is caused by the improper design of the die, which makes the flow of the metal not
flowing the final interred direction.

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
Extrusion and sheet metal works

Extrusion is a method of forming in which metals or plastics are forced through a die or
series of dies, resulting in a specific shape of constant cross section. With the proper
tooling, extrusions may be tapered or stepped. Extrusions can be either very thick in
cross section or very thin and be either solid or hollow. The extruded stock, which can
be 100 feet in length or longer, is then cut to a convenient stock size and used as
specific products, assembly components, or as raw stock material for further processing.
Extrusion size is expressed as a circle size which relates to the smallest circle diameter
which can enclose an extrusion’s cross section.
Types of extrusion:
Extrusion ratio: It is the ratio of area of cross-section of the billet to the areaof cross-
section of the extrude. R = Ao/Af
Another parameter used in extrusion is shape factor, ratio of perimeter tothe cross-
section of the part. An extruded rod has the lowest shape factor. Extrusion is classified
in general into four types. They are:
• Direct extrusion,
• indirect extrusion,
• impact extrusion and
• hydrostatic extrusion.
In extrusion process, the billet is placed in a container, pushed through thedie opening
using a ram and dummy block. Both ram and billet move.
Direct extrusion:
Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion, is a process in which is the billet moves
along the same direction as the ram and punch do. Sliding of billet is against stationary
container wall.Friction between the container and billet is high. As a result, greater
forces are required. A dummy block of slightly lower diameter than the billet diameter is
used in order to prevent oxidation of the billet in hot extrusion. Hollow sections like tubes
can be extruded by direct method, by using hollow billet and a mandrel attached to the
dummy block.

Direct Extrusion

Indirect extrusion
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
Indirect extrusion (backward extrusion) is a process in which punch moves opposite to
that of the billet. Here there is no relative motion between
container and billet. Hence, there is less friction and hence reduced forces are required
for indirect extrusion. For extruding solid pieces, hollow punch is required. In hollow
extrusion, the material gets forced through the annular space between the solid punch
and the container. The variation of extrusion pressure in indirect extrusion is shown
above. As seen, extrusion pressure for indirect extrusion is lower than that for direct
extrusion. Many components are manufactured by combining direct and indirect
extrusions. Indirect extrusion can not be used for extruding long extrudes.

Indirect Extrusion

Wire Drawing
In drawing, the cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by pulling
(hence the term drawing) it through a die called a draw die . Thus, the difference
between drawing and extrusion is that in extrusion the material is pushed through a die,
whereas in drawing it is pulled through it. Although the presence of tensile stresses is
obvious in drawing, compression also plays a significant role because the metal is
squeezed down as it passes through the die opening. For this reason, the deformation
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process
that occurs in drawing is sometimes referred to as indirect compression. Drawing is a
term also used in sheet metalworking. The term wire and bar drawing is used to
distinguish the drawing process discussed here from the sheet metal process of the
same name. Rod and wire products cover a very wide range of applications, including
shafts for power transmission, machine and structural components, blanks for bolts and
rivets, electrical wiring, cables,..Etc.

Process variables in wire drawing. The die angle,

the reduction in cross sectional area per pass, the
speed of drawing,
the temperature and the lubrication all affect the
drawing force, F.
SHEET METAL WORKING

Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is oneof the
fundamental forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

into a variety of different shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed of the
material. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are
considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.

Sheet metal processing

The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of therolling
process. Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size. If
the sheets are thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore the first step
in any sheet metal process is to cut the correctshape and sized ‘blank’ from larger sheet.
Sheet metal forming processes
Sheet metal processes can be broken down into two major classifications and one minor
classification
• Shearing processes -- processes which apply shearing forces to
cut, fracture, or separate the material.
• Forming processes -- processes which cause the metal to undergo desired
shape changes without failure, excessive thinning, or cracking. This includes
bending and stretching.
• Finishing processes -- processes which are used to improve the
final surface characteristics.
Shearing Process

1. Punching: shearing process using a die and punch where the interior
portion of the sheared sheet is to be discarded.
2. Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior
portion of the shearing operation is to be discarded.
3. Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
4. Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
5. Notching: removing pieces from the edges
6. Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Shearing Operations: Punching, Blanking and Perforating

Forming Processes
• Bending: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo thedesired
shape change by bending without failure. Ref fig.2 & 2a
• Stretching: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo the
desired shape change by stretching without failure. Ref fig.3
• Drawing: forming process causes the sheet metal to undergo thedesired
shape change by drawing without failure.
• Roll forming: Roll forming is a process by which a metal strip is
progressively bent as it passes through a series of forming rolls.
• Common Die-Bending Operations

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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

Common Die-Bending Operations

Various Bending Operations

Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process.

Merits

• High strength
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Lecture Notes Basic manufacturing Process

• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

• Relatively low cost
Demerits

• Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations

• Different techniques can be used to overcome these limitations
o Draw beads
o Vertical projections and matching grooves in the die andblank
holder

• Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions

Applications

• Roofings
• Ductings
• Vehicles body buildings like 3 wheelers, 4 wheelers, ships,aircrafts
etc.
• Furnitures, House hold articles and Railway equipment

END

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