International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),

ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,

Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

Warpage in casting: A Review

Prachi K. Tawele1, Laukik P. Raut2

1
Student M.Tech CAD/CAM, GHRCE Nagpur- 440016, India, [email protected]
2
Assistant professor, Mechanical Department, GHRCE Nagpur- 440016, India, [email protected]

Abstract— Foundry industries in developing countries suffer from poor quality and productivity due to involvement of number of
process parameter. Even in completely controlled process, defect in casting are observed and hence casting process is also
known as process of uncertainty which challenges explanation about the cause of casting defects. In order to reduce warpage
defects and problem related to warpage defects, the study is aimed in this paper. Many products are made by using casting
process as it is economical and has the ability to produce intricate shapes. So far, casting defect analysis has been carried out
using techniques like finite element method and modulus method to reduce defects. . Casting software can optimize the virtual
castings so that real castings can be produced ‘right first time and every time’.

Keywords— Sand casting, warpage, solidification, software, simulation.

constant and painstaking efforts of researchers to make such

I. INTRODUCTION software tools more reliable and easy to use.
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid
material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to II. LITERATURE REVIEW
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which
A. Sand casting
is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting Sand casting, [7] the most widely used casting process, utilizes
materials that cure after mixing two or more components expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can
together such as epoxy or clay. Casting is generally used for be made of nearly any alloy. The sand casting process
making intricate shapes. In a casting process, the material is involves the use of furnace, metal, pattern and sand mold. The
first heated to completely melt and then poured into a cavity of metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into
the mold. As soon as the molten metal is in the mold, it begins the cavity of the sand mold, which is formed by the pattern.
to cool. When the temperature drops below the freezing point The sand mold separates along a parting line and the solidified
(melting point) of the material, solidification starts. casting can be removed.
Solidification involves a change of phase of the material and Basically sand casting process consists of:
differs depending on whether the material is a pure element or 1) Placing a pattern (having the shape of the desired casting)
an alloy. A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature, in sand to make an imprint;
which is its melting point (freezing point). The phenomenon 2) Incorporating a gating system;
of casting solidification, accompanies by volumetric 3) Removing the pattern and filling the mold cavity with the
contraction, leads to several major defects in casting including molten metal;
shrinkage cracks and distortion. The location and extent of 4) Allowing the metal to cool until it solidifies;
shrinkage can be predicted by identifying regions of high 5) Breaking away the sand mold;
temperature and low gradients (short feeding distance). 6) Removing the casting [7].
Unfortunately, castings can be of complex shapes, and the heat
transfer from all faces of the mold may not be uniform. Other
factors, such as air gap formation at the metal-mold interface,
convection in liquid metal, application of feed aids, presence
of cores, gating system design and pouring parameters also
affect the of shrinkage. In recent years, computer simulation
of casting solidification has gained much ground, owing to the

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International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),
ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what

eventually the casting becomes. [7]

e. Gating/riser system design

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to
simply as melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically
designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.
After pouring metal, it will flow through the gating system
until the cavity is fully filled. Then the metal begins to cool
and solidify with the occurrence of shrinkage. Riser system is
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of sand mold designed to compensate such shrinkage. Gating/riser system
has great effects on the final quality of casting. A foundry can
The typical sand casting process design consists of the produce the best quality molds, cores and molten aluminum
following steps. and still end up with a poor quality casting by using poorly
designed gating and riser systems. So how to design a satisfied
a. Sand Selection gating/riser system is very important.
Several factors are important in the selection of sand for The main objective of a gating system is to lead clean molten
molds, and it involves certain tradeoffs with respect to metal poured from ladle to the casting cavity, ensuring
properties. Although fine-grained sand enhances mold smooth, uniform and complete filling. Clean metal implies
strength, the fine grains also lower mold permeability. Good preventing the entry of slag and inclusions into the mould
permeability of molds and cores allows gases and steam cavity, and minimizing surface turbulence. Smooth filling
evolved during the casting to escape easily. The mold has implies minimizing bulk turbulence. Uniform filling implies
should have good collapsibility to allow for the casting to that all portions of the casting fill in a controlled manner,
shrink while cooling and, thus, to avoid defects in the casting, usually at the same time. Complete filling implies leading
such as hot tearing and cracking. [7] molten metal to thin and end sections with minimum
resistance.
b. Pattern design There are many factors affecting the design of an ideal
The pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare gating system. For example, the gating system should be
the cavity into which molten material will be poured during designed to allow the molten metal flow through with the least
the casting process. amount of turbulence. It is a better design of the gating system
The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregate that it can be removed easily from the casting after filling. The
material, such as molding sand, around the pattern. When the gating system should be designed in such a way to promote
pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, the directional solidification. After meeting other requirements
which is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting. [7] of gating system, it will also need lower yield. [7]
During the design process of pattern, some considerations
should be taken. For example, the pattern needs to incorporate
contraction allowances, which are suitable allowances for
shrinkage. And also it needs to incorporate suitable allowances
for draft. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe
fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to
form these cavities.

c. Parting line
Parting line is the line or plane separating the upper and the
lower halves of molds. In general, the parting line should be
along a flat plane rather than be contoured. Whenever
possible, the parting line should be at the corners or edges of
castings rather than on flat surfaces in the middle of the Figure 2. Typical gating/riser system
casting. It should be placed as low as possible for less dense
metals and located at around mid-height for denser metals. [7]
i. Sprue
d. Core design It is a circular cross-section minimizing turbulence and heat
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a loss and its area is quantified from gating ratio. The area of the
mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the

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International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),
ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

sprue top should be calculated using mass and energy balance Different combinations of gating system designs and mold
equations, to prevent flow separation in the sprue. filling are carried out to completely eliminate filling defects. A
A1 √H1 = A2 √H2 gating system can be assessed using the following criteria,
Where, H1 and H2 are the metallostatic pressure head at the
top and bottom of the sprue, respectively; A1 and A2 being the ii Mold filling time : The actual mold filling time must
respective cross-sectional areas. be close to the optimal filling time of the gating
system. This can be expressed as,
ii. Sprue well CG1 = 1-(tf actual – tf optimal)/ tf optimal
It is designed to restrict the free fall of molten metal by If a casting is found to have filling-related defects at the
directing it in a right angle towards the runner. It aids in optimal filling time, but is defect-free at some other filling
reducing turbulence and air aspiration. time, then the empirical equation for optimal filling time may
be corrected for the particular combination of geometry, metal
and process.
iii. Runner
Mainly slows down the molten metal that speeds during the iiiIngate velocity : The velocity of molten metal
free fall from sprue to the ingate. The cross section of runner emerging from the ingate must be as low as possible
should be greater than the sprue exit, it is recommended that to minimize turbulence. It can be expressed as,
the runner cross section area must be lowered after each ingate CG2 = 1-(Vingate/ vcritical)
connection to ensure smooth flow. Where, Vcritical is the recommended limit of velocity
depending on the metal: about 1 m/s for iron, and 0.5 m/s for
iv. Ingate aluminum.
It directs the molten metal from the gating system to the mold
cavity. It is recommended that ingate should be designed to iiii Gating yield : The volume of the gating system must
reduce the metal velocity. [10] be minimized to increase the yield. The criterion is
given by
f. Optimal Filling time CG4 = Nc vc / (Nc vc + vg)
Filling time is very crucial in casting as it decides the final Where, Nc is number of casting cavities per mould, vc is the
quality of product. A slow fill gives casting defects while a volume of each cavity, and vg is the volume of the common
fast fill can lead to solid and gaseous inclusions. gating system for all the cavities in the mould.
The ideal filling time is a function of cast metal, weight,
minimum section thickness and temperature and can be iiv Fettling : The ingate size must be small in
expressed as, comparison to the connected part of casting to avoid
tf = k0(kf Lf/1000)(ks +kt t/20)(kw W)P breakage and cracks. When several ingates are
Where tf is the casting time, W is the weight in kg, t is the present, one that is most likely to cause damage
section thickness in mm and Lf is the fluidity length in mm, determines the criteria assessment value.
whereas k0, kf, ks, kt, kw are all coefficients. The value of CG5 = mini (1 – (tgi / tci)
these coefficients can be set to achieve a perfect metal process Where, tgi is the thickness of ingate i and tci is the thickness
combination in specific castings. of the connected portion of casting.
The velocity of molten metal plays crucial role in deciding the
optimal filling time. The velocity usually varies within the h. Validation of gating design
gating channels and the mold cavity. It depends majorly on
gating ratio. The gating design can be validated using the following
techniques,
Gating ratio : Gating ratio is the ratio of sprue area to total i Shop floor trials : Samples are produced using the
runner area to total gating area. (As:Ar:Ag) actual materials and process that would be finally
Where, As, Ar, Ag are the cross-sectional areas of sprue exit, employed. These are observed for surface, sub-
runner(s) and ingate(s). If multiple runners and ingates are surface and internal quality and destructive and non-
present, the total area of all runners, or all ingates, respectively destructive testing methods.
must be considered. A converging diverging system, where
the ingate area is more than the sprue exit area, is to be ii High speed radiography : The mold filling
preferred. This ensures that the metal slows down thereby phenomenon is recorded using a high speed x-ray
reducing turbulence-related problems. [10] camera and observed of any defects.

g. Assessment of gating design

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International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),
ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

iii Open mold : In this a portion of cope above casting Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which
cavity is cut and a flow of molten metal stream from occurs during or after solidification. Large and flat sections
ingate and gradual filling of the mold is recorded. are particularly prone to wrapage. Wrapage defects may
occurs due to
iv Water in transparent mold : Flow of water in a i Insufficient gating system that may not
transparent mold is a very useful tool. Addition of allow rapid pouring of metal
color marker, oil droplets can help in better ii Due to low green strength of the sand mold
visualization and recording velocities in different iii Inadequate / inappropriate draft allowance in
sections.[10] the pattern / mold cavity.

i. Solidification Warpage is a distortion where the surfaces of the molded part

After molten metal is poured into a mold, solidification will do not follow the intended shape of the design. Part warpage
take place. In the casting process, solidification plays a critical results from molded- in residual stresses, which, in turn, is
role because the speed at which solidification occurs largely caused by differential shrinkage of material in the molded
determines the mechanical properties of the casting. The faster part. If the shrinkage throughout the part is uniform, the
the solidification rate, the finer the solidified structure and the molding will not deform or warp, it simply becomes smaller.
higher the mechanical properties. Solidification normally However, achieving low and uniform shrinkage is a
begins on the surface of the casting and moves inward toward complicated task due to the presence and interaction of many
the center of the casting or toward the source of feed metal. So factors such as molecular and fiber orientations, mold cooling,
solidification can take place in two directions in the casting. part and mold designs, and process conditions. Inadequate
One is called progressive solidification occurring from the thickness, extending over large areas of the cope or drag
sidewalls of the casting toward the center. The other called surfaces at the time the mold is rammed causes rigidity of the
directional solidification occurs toward the source of feed pattern or pattern plate which is not sufficient to withstand
metal. If progressive solidification moves faster than the ramming pressure applied to the sand. The result is an
directional solidification, shrinkage voids will occur in the elastic deformation of the pattern and a corresponding,
casting. [7] permanent deformation of the mold cavity. In diagnosing the
Like nearly all materials, metals are less dense as a liquid than condition, compare the surfaces of the pattern with those of
a solid. So castings shrink will always occur when they cool. the mold itself can also be probable cause of warpage.
There can be three different kinds of shrinkage taking place in
the casting: liquid shrinkage, solidification shrinkage and solid Warpage in molded parts results from differential shrinkage.
shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage takes place when the molten Variation in shrinkage can be caused by molecular and fiber
metal cools. Solidification shrinkage occurs from the time the orientation, temperature variations within the molded part
first solid metal appears until the casting is completely solid. causes difference in both expansion and cooling and can result
Risers can be used to compensate these two types of in bad warped product. Therefore always maintain the right
shrinkage. Solid shrinkage is often called “patternmaker’s molding heat temperature, and by variable packing, such as
shrink” because a patternmaker can make a slightly larger over-packing at gates and under-packing at remote locations,
pattern than the finished casting dimensions to compensate for or different pressure levels as material solidifies across the
the solid shrinkage. The casting cools to ambient temperature part thickness, proper residence time has to be given for the
after it is completely solidified. individual molecules to absorb heat uniformly throughout the
material. Otherwise it lead to difference in heat absorbed cool
B. Casting Defects differently. The variables affecting warpage are machine
variations like unstable controller, wall thickness, mold
A casting defect [8] is an irregularity in the metal casting temperature, gate location, flow restrictions and bypasses,
process that is very undesired. There are many types of defects inherent rigidity of the molded part. If the injection pressure
which result from many different causes i.e. is not enough, the individual molecules do not pack properly
1. Design of casting and patterns which can result in a difference in the way they cool and
2. Molding sand and design of mould and core solidify. Since enough pressure hasn’t been provided there is
3. Metal composition too much space while the material is cooling down and the
4. During solidification molecules move while cooling resulting in warpage.[8]
5. Melting and pouring
6. Gating and risering [8] b. Warpage can be minimized in following ways-
iv Assure adequate rigidity of patterns and
Following defects can occur in sand casting pattern plates, especially when squeeze
a. Shrinkage/Warpage defects pressures are being increased.
v Control of pouring temperature.

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International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),
ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

vi Resisting or assisting normal contraction at B in this eq. is a factor that depends on the thermal properties
local points by the use of gaggers. of the metal and mold material. [12]
vii Increase injection pressure or time which
allows the cooling of the entire part while it c. Criterion function method
is getting constrained.
viii Study of the shrinkage curve for reinforced Criteria functions are simple rules that relate the local
materials. conditions (e.g., cooling rate, solidification velocity, thermal
ix Incorporation of flow aids or flow restrictors gradient, etc.) to the propensity to form shrinkage. Since that
help in the alteration of the melt flow profile time, many different criteria functions have been proposed;
that in turn prevents warping. some were based upon statistical analysis of experimental
x In asymmetrical parts provide blind cores observations, while others were based upon the physics of one
during mold planning and design. of the driving forces. [12]
xi Use computer simulation technology.
xii Multipoint gating system design helps d. Solidification simulation using FEM
eliminate warpage problems by achieving a
high pressure gradient. A FEM based commercial software; ANSYS® is used for
solidification simulation. The output of the analysis is thermal
C. Methods gradient and temperature at each node. The analysis is carried
out in three steps as given below:
Many numerical techniques, including finite element method Pre-processing is used to define geometry, material property,
(FEM) and finite difference method (FDM) etc. have been and element type for the analysis.
developed to solve these differential equations with complex Processing phase defines analysis type like transient or steady
boundary conditions arising from material processing. state, apply loads and solve the problem. It can also be
referred as solution phase
a. Finite element simulation[12] of casting Post processing is to review the result in the form of graphs or
solidification process is one of the best ways to tables. The general postprocessor is used to review results at
analyze the process of solidification. It involves the one sub step (time step) over the entire model. [12]
physical approximation of the domain, wherein the
given domain is divided into sub-domains called as The following assumptions are made for the analysis:
elements. The field variable inside the elements is i. Contact resistance between the mold and cooling
approximated using its value at nodes. Elemental material is negligible.
matrices are obtain using Galerkin’s weighted ii. In practice the temperature difference between the
residual or variational principles and are assembled in mould surface and surrounding air is not substantial
the same way, as the elements constitute the domain. hence radiation transfer can be ignored.
This process results in the set of simultaneous iii. Mould cavity is instantaneously filled with molten
equations. The solution of these set of equations metal.
gives the field variables at the nodes of the elements. iv. Outer surface of the mould is initially assumed to be
at ambient temperature.
Following approaches are given as result of which can be v. The bottom surfaces of the casting are always in
classified: contact with the mould.
(1) Modulus and equisolidification time method, which vi. The vertical surfaces of casting are in contact with
determines the areas that solidify last. the mould i.e. no air gap in between.
(2) Criterion function method, which calculates parameters to
characterize resistance to interdendritic feeding. D. Software
(3) Direct simulation method, which directly simulates the by
mathematically modeling the solidification process. a. Autocast

b. Modulus method DR.B.Ravi [3] also used intelligent assistant for casting
Engineers (AutoCAST) and describes how it assists in
The modulus method is based on Chvorinov’s rule that designing, modeling, simulating, analyzing and improving cast
solidification time, Tf of a casting area is proportional to the products. Autocast software can automate casting design,
square of its volume to area ratio, V/A, named modulus. modeling, simulation, analysis and suggestions for
Tf = B (V/A) 2 improvising while allowing user to control all decision, also
used computer simulation for casting solidification [3,4].
Casting simulation has become a powerful tool to visualize

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International Journal of Advance Research in Engineering, Science & Technology(IJAREST),
ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

mould filling, solidification and cooling, and to predict the • Accuracy

location of internal defects such as shrinkage porosity, sand
inclusions, and cold shuts. It can be used for troubleshooting III. CONCLUSION
existing castings, and for developing new castings without
shop-floor trials. This will describes the benefits of casting By referring various methods, the defect of casting i.e
simulation (both tangible and intangible), bottlenecks warpage can be reduced. These will helpful to quality control
(technical and resource related), and some best practices to department of casting industries for analysis of casting defects.
overcome the bottlenecks. Also the casting simulation technology has now days become
a beneficial powerful tool for casting defect troubleshot. This
b. Procast will reduce the lead time for the sample casting; improved
productivity. In general, warpage can be eliminated by
PROCAST [11] uses the finite element analysis (FEA) to iteratively designing (gating) system and by referring methods
simulate casting processes with high accuracy and ease the which helps in analysis of casting defects may minimises the
understanding of solidification processes. Based on powerful rejection of casting
finite element solvers and advanced specific options
developed with leading research institute and industries,
procast provides an efficient and accurate solution to meet the IV. REFERENCES
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manufacturing costs, shorten lead times for mold 65-74, 2005.
developments and improve the casting process quality.[11] [2] B.Chokkalingam L. M.Lakshmanan and I.V.Sidarthan ,
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• Develop a new casting faster.
• Optimize existing castings.
• Communicate with designers.

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ISSN(O):2393-9877, ISSN(P): 2394-2444,
Volume 2, Issue 4, April- 2015

[11] K.Siekanski,S.Borkowski “Analysis of foundry defects

and preventive activities for quality improment of
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[12] V.V.Mane1, Amit Sata2 and M. Y. Khire3, “New
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