3

Metal-Casting Processes
Metal-castingprocesses are the primary manufacturing processes that are used to make complex
parts utilizing liquid metal. After completing the chapter, the reader will be able to
Understand the history of metal-casting processes
Design patterns and cores for metal-casting processes
Understand the various moulding materials used in the making of
moulds and cores

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Casting is one of the earliest metal-shaping methods known to human beings. It generally means pouring
molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When
solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the refractory mould either by breaking the mould or by
taking the mould apart. The solidified object is called casting. This process is also called founding.
3.1.1 History of Casting Process
The casting process was probably discovered aroundc 3500 BCin Mesopotamia. In many parts of the
world
during that period, copper axes and other flat objects were turned out in open moulds made of stone or baked
clay. These moulds were essentially in single piece. But in later periods, when round objects were required to
be made, such moulds were split into two or more parts to facilitate the withdrawal of the
round objects.
The Bronze age (c 2000 BC) brought far more refinement into the casting
process. For the first time per
haps, a core for making hollow pockets in the obiects was invented. These cores were made of baked clay.
Also, the cire perdue or lost wax process was extensively used for making ornaments and fine work.
The casting technology has been greatly improved by the Chinese from around 1500-BC. Before that.
there is no evidence of any casting activity found in China. They do not appear to have been greatly familiar
with the cire perdue process nor used it extensively but instead specialized in multi-piece moulds for mak
ing highly intricate jobs. They spent a lot of time in perfecting the mould to the last detail so that hardly
any finishing work was required on the casting made from the moulds. They probably made piece moulds
 56
Mannutacturing Tecmology

containing caretully fitted picces, numbering thirty or more. In fact, many such moulds have been unearthed
during archacological excavations in various parts of China.
Indus Valley Civilization is also known for its extensive use of casting of copper and bronze for orna.
ments, weapons, tools and utensils. But there was not much of improvement in the technology. From the vari.
ous objects and figurines that were excavated from the Indus Valley sites, they appear to have been familiar
with all theknown casting methods such as open mould, piece mould and the cie perdue process.
Though India could be credited with the invention of crucible steel, not much of iron founding was evident
in India. There is evidence that iron founding had started around 1000 BC in Syria and Persia. It appears
that iron-casting technology inIndia has been in use from the times of the invasion of Alexander the Great.,
around 300BC.
The famous iron pillar presently located near the Qutb minar in Delhiis an example of the metallurgical
skills of ancient Indians. It is 7.2 m long and is made of pure nalleable iron. This is assumed to be of the
period of Chandragupta l!(375-4 13 AD) of the Gupta dynasty. The rate of rusting of this pillar, which stands
outside in open air is practically zero and even the buried portion is rusting at an extremely slow rate. This
must have been first cast and then hammered to the final shape.
3.12 Advantages and Limitations
The casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages. Molten
material flows into any small section in the mould cavity and as such, any intricate shape-internal
or external-can be made with the casting process. It is possible to cast practically any material. be
it ferrous or non-ferrous. Further, the necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and
inexpensive. As a result, for trial production or production of a small lot, it is an ideal method. It is
possible in casting process, to place the amount of material where it is exactly required. As a result.
weight reduction in design can be achieved. Castings are generally cooled uniformly from all
and therefore they are expected to have no directional properties. There are sides
certain metals and alloys.
which can only be processed by casting and not by any other process like forging
iurgical considerations. Castings of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons because of the metal
can be made.
However, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal
be adequate for final application in many cases. To take sand-casting process would not
these cases into consideration, some special casting
processes such as diecasting have been developed, the details of which are given in
sand-casting process labour intensive to some extent and therefore many later chapters. Also, the
such as machine moulding and foundry
mechanization. With some
improvements are aimed at ll
defects arising out of themoisture present in sand materials it is often difficult to remove
castings.
3.1.3 Applications
Typical applications of the sand-casting process are
rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water cyl1nder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, pisto
supply pipes and specials, and bells.
3.1.4 Casting Terms
In the following
chapters the details of sand-casting, which
seen. Before going intothe details of the
process,
represents the basic process of casting wou.
appropriate. Refer to Fig. 3.1. defining a number of
casting words would be
vocabulary
 Metal-Casting Processes
57

Ladle

Pouring basin

Sprue Riser
Vent

Parting line
Cope
Runner

Mould cavity
Drag
Core

Fig. 3.1 Cross section of a sand mould ready for pouring

Flask Amoulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending upon the position of the flask
in the mould structure, it is referred by various names such as drag, cope and cheek. It is made up of wood
for lemporary applications or more generally of metal for long-term use.
Drag Lower moulding flask.
Cope Upper moulding flask.
Cheek Intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding.
Pattern Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. The mould cavity is made
with the help of the pattern.
Parting line This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand mould. In
split pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the pattern.
Bottom board This is a boardnormally made of wood, which is used at the start of the mould making.The
pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.
Facing sand The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the moulding
cavity to give better surface finish to the castings.
Moulding sand It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould cavity. It is a
mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to get the desired results and it surrounds the
pattern while making the mould.
Backing sand It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This is made up of
used and burnt sand.
Core It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin Asmall funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.
 Manufacturing Technology
58

from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity 1

Sprue The passage through which the molten metal
the mould.
many cases it controls the flow of metal into
passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated before tha
Runner The
reach the mould cavity.
the mould cavity.
Gate The actual entry point through which molten metal enters
care of its own weight and over.
Chaplet Chaplets are uscd to support cores inside the mould cavity to take
come the metallostatic forces.
castings to
Chill Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
mould
Riser lt is areservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow back into the
cavity when there is areduction in volume of metal due to solidification.

3.1,5 Sand Mould Making Procedure

The procedure for making atypical sand mould is described in the following steps.
First, a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the fioor, making the surface
even.The drag moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag partof the
pattern at the centre of the fiask on the board. There should be enough clearance between the pattern and
the walls of the flask which should be of the order of 50to 100mm. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over
the board and pattern to provide a nonsticky layer. Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality
is now poured into the drag and on the pattern toa thickness of 30 to 50mm. The restof the drag flask is
completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to compact the sand. The ramming of the
sand should be done properly so as not to compact it too hard, which makes the escape of gases difficult,
nor too loose, so that the mould would not have enough strength. After the
sand in the flask is completely scraped using a flat bar to the level of the flask edges.
ramming is over, the excess
Now, with a vent wire, which is a wire of 1- to 2-mm diameter with a
the drag to the full depth of the fiask as well as to the pointed end, vent holes are made in
pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during casting
solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag.
The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the
Using a slick,the edges of sand around the pattern bottom is
board exposing the pattern as shown in Fig. 3.2(c).
the drag pattern, aligning it with the help of repaired and the cope half of the pattern is
placed over
dowel
again with the help of the pins. The dry parting pins. The cope flask on top of the drag is located aligning
sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on
Asprue pin for making the
sprue passage is located at a small the pattern.
Also, a riser pin if required is kept at an appropriate place and distance of about 50 mm from the pattern.
of the drag along with the freshly prepared moulding sand similar to thal
and vent holes are made all backing sand is sprinkled. The sand is
over in the cope as in the
drag.
thoroughly rammed, excess sand scrapeu
The sprue pin and the riser pin
are carefully
the top of the sprue. The
of the drag is blown off cope is separated withdrawn from the flask. Later, the pouring basin is
from the drag and any loose
sand cut neal
by using the draw spikes with the help of bellows. Now, the cope and the drag on the cope and drag
and rapping the pattern interfavo
mouldwalls are not pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould halves are withdraw
fully without spoilingspoiled by the
withdrawing
the mould. Any excess or pattern. The cavity so
runers and the gates are cut in the that the
away using the bellows. Now, loose sand mould care
therunners, which would give the facing sand in the form offouid
a
in the runners and
mould
paste is applied all over the cavity is blown
the finished casting a good mould
surface finish. cavity and
 Metal-Casting Processes
59

A dry sand core is prepared using acore box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the mould cavity as
shown in Fig. 3.2. The cope is replacedon the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the
pins. A suitable weight is kept on the cope to take care of the upward metallostatic force during the pouring
of molten metal. The mould now, as shown in Fig. 3.2(e) is ready for
pouring.

a) Drag completed b) Ready for roll-over

c) After roll-over d)Cope rammed

Weight

Cope

Drag

e) Mould ready for pouring

Fig. 3.2 Sand-mould-making procedure

3.2 PATTERNS

As has been defined earlier, a pattern isa replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications. The main modifications are
a) the addition of pattern allowances,
b) the provision of core prints, and
 Manufacturing Technology
60

hence areto be obtained bv furh

c) elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained by casting and
processing.

3.2.1 Pattern Allowances

required. This is required
The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final dimensions of the casting
because of the various reasons. These are detailed as follows.
inter-atomjc
Shrinkage All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps bismuth. This is because of the
distinction to be made
vibrations which are amplified by an increase in temperature. However, there is a
between liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage.
liquid to solid state at the
Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
explained in Chapter 4.
solidus temperature. To account forthis, risers are provided in the moulds as
state. The
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused, when a metal loses temperature in the solid
shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of this reduction.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material.(For example
steel contracts to a
transforma
higher degree connpared to aluminium) The shrinkage is also dependent upon the metallurgical mm/m during
tion taking place during the solidification.{For example, white cast iron shrinks by about 21.0of 10.5 mm/m)
casting. However, when annealed it grows by about 10.5 mm/m, resulting in a net shrinkage
controls the actual
Similarly, in grey cast iron and spheroidal graphite iron, the amount of graphitization of
shrinkage When graphitization is more, the shrinkage would be less and vice versa) The various rates
contraction for the materials are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Shrinkage allowances for various metals
Shrinkage allowance,
Material Pattern dimension, mm Section thickness, mm mm/m

Grey cast iron up to 600 10.5

600 to 1200 8.5
over 1200 20
White cast iron 16.0 to 23.0
Ductile iron 8.3 to l0.4

Malleable iron 6 11.8

10.5
12 9.2
15 7.9
18 6.6
22 4.0
25 2.6
Plain carbon steel up to 600 21.0
600to 1800 16.0
(Continued)
 Metal-Casting Processes 61
Table 3.1 (Continued)

Material Shrinkage allowance,

Pattern dimension, mm Section thickness, mm mm/m
Over 1800
Chromium steel 13.0

Manganese steel 20.0

Aluminium 25.0to 380

13.0
Aluminium bronze
20,0 to 23.0
Copper
Brass 16.0
15.5
Bronze
Gunmetal
15.5to 22.0
10.0 to I6.0
Manganese bronze
15.6
Silicon bronze
10.4
Tin bronze
10.4
Chromium copper 20.8
Lead
26.0
Monel
20.0
Magnesium 13.0
Magnesium alloys 16.0
White metal
6.0
Zinc
10.0 to 15.0

As a rule, all the dimensions are going to be altered uniformly unless they are
restrained in some
way. For example, a dry sand core at the centre of the casting may restrain the casting from contracting
but the edges are not restrained. Thus, it may be desirable to provide a higher shrinkage allowance for
outer dimensions compared to those, which may be restrained. The actual value of shrinkage depends on
various factors specific to a particular casting, namely, the actual composition of the alloy cast, mould
materials used, mould design, complexity of the pattern and the component size. The pattern-maker's
experience and a little bit of trial are to be used in arriving at the final shrinkages provided on the pattern.
The values shown in Table 3.1 are average values and higher values are to be used for smaller dimen
sions and vice versa.
The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the linear dimensions. Even in case of internal dimen
sions (e.g., internal diameters of cylinders), the material has a tendency to contract towards the centre and
thus are to be increased[It is also possible to obtain shrink rulers for specific materials such as steels, which
are nothing but special scales where dimensions shown are actually longer by a measure cqual to the shrink
age allowance] Dimensions provided by such a rule can be used at the time of making the pattern. Different
shrink rulers are used for different casting materials.
 Manufacturing Technology
62

Ø80

Ø80

7
150 100
200
100
200

(a)

081.7 Ø82.7

7
153.2 155.1
102.1 103.4
204.2
206.8

(b) (c)
Fig. 3.3 Provision of allowances for patterns in sand castings (All dimensions in mm)

|Example3.1| The casting shown in Fig. 3.3(a) is tobe made in plain carbon steel using a wooden pattern.
Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimensions of the pattern.
Solution From Table 3.1, for steel the shrinkage allowance is 21.0
For dimension 200, allowance is 200 × 21.0/ 1000= mm/m.
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 21.0 / 4.20 mm
1000 =3.153.20 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 21.0/
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 21.0/ 1000 = 2.10 mm
1000 = 1.68 ~ 1.70 mm
The pattern drawing with required
dimensions taking
Double shrinkageallowance is to be provided on theshrinkage into account is shown in Fig. 3.3(b).
ing the metallic pattern, which pattern dimensions, if it is to be used for cas
the actual metal cast as well as would ultimately be used for moulding to take care of the
metal. This is illustrated in theshrinkage
the shrinkage of the o
example. pattern
follow
I| Example 3.2| For the
same example as shown in Fig.
ium, calculate the
dimensions of the wooden pattern which 3.3(a), if the mnaster pattern is to be made offalumit-
is to be used for
Solution Fig. 3.3(b) shows the making the aluminium pattert.
From Table 3.1, for dimensions of the aluminium pattern.
aluminium= the shrinkage allowance
21.0 mm/m. The total shrinkage is 13.0 mm/m. For is
For dimension 200, alloWance is 13.0 x+ 21.0=34.0 mm/m plain carbon steel, it
200 34.0 /1000=6 80 nm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x
34.0 / 1000
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 34.0 / 1000 =5.10 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 34.07 1000 = 2.72 =3.40mmmm
 3.3(c). removed
andit which theHence,
finish used,theother casting
accurate, in
poor reducing
Fig. skin, theprovided moulding and
finalizing.
machining. the
generallysubsequently
and side
Cope variation
in dimensionally
the of
shown 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 of surfaces
material
are
Processes on
before of way
are scales allowances
by
areallowance. type dimensional
One
pattern casting be castingremoved the
examined thedetails.
Metal-Casting or haveto all
finish is cast, if
shrinkage
master sand would of machining
which dimension
type be carefully
to Allowance,
mm that
metalsurface
in surface
materials
aluminiumachieved provided have Surface such
double the 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 5.5 6.0 1.5 1.5 2.5 the
good dimensions,for ultimately of flask pattern
be castings
guidelines
on complexity
called accuracyferrous
be should dependdrag
the of
be is
to the
minimum.
making sand
is the
to machining.
pattern requiredAlso,material would
on General allowance would
thein
be
and for will
for depends andcasting
patterns a mm
woodenfinish extra provided
pattern
provided to what mm mm mm
mm. machining surfacereduced 3
The
functionally Bore 3.0 5.0 6.0 3.0 6,0 7.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 the =
example, mmsurfaces 109156
=6 3=mm
This
Hence,
wooden 20 allowance on
this subsequent theentire
allowance 3 side +6= +3+3=
Allowance process.
to allovances
for 2 additional are
cleaning. on bore cope
the applied is
from keep
required plane previous all x +3
forforfor
802
of casting cleaning machining From
Table
3.2, 100150
by range Machining to parting
machining
dimensions Machining is allowance
allowance
allowance
allowance achieved by the
the removed may
providing Dimension,
mm allowance machined?
accuracy 80, 100,
150,
or 300
upto301
to
5S00 501
900
to
In dimension
when 150 to 501
upto 151
500 to
900 200 201
300
to 301
to
900 the || dimension
dimension
ThisThe
machining of 3.3
finalpattern generally 3.2.of upto to Machining
Machining
Machining
or therefore 3.2 Cast
iron steel
Cast Non
ferrous typeof due ||Example
be required. machining be
Finish cost
The
The to Table Table Theclass defects to Solution TheTheThe
are by the need
is the
 in reduce
are
pattern
To
3.5(a).
Parting
mm) the
allowance
Machining
in faces.of
Fig.
line
dimensions in
shown
vertical
Parting wvithdraving
(all theas line
allowance cavity,
mould,
mould pattern
machining sand
Ø74 Ø80
211 thethe on
damage
from draft
providingmm (a) (b)
of
Technology
Manufacturing 211 3.4. pattern
may Efect
= Fig.
after 5.5 thewhich
in 3.5
Pattern + shownwithdrawing
5.5 sand, Fig,
+
200 are the
3.4 200, dimensionswith
Fig. of
109
dimension timecontact
64 the
final
At continual
The The Draft
 Metal-Casting Processes
65

the chances of this happening, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line
(Fig. 3.5b). This provision is called draft allowane.
Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the job. But in general, inner details of the pattern require
The draft allowance
higher draft than outer surfaces. Table 3.3 is a general guide to the provision of drafts. moulding
given varies for hand moulding and machine mouldingMore draft needs to be provided for hand
compared to machine moulding) In machine moulding the actual draft given varies with the condition of the
machine (new, rigid, properly aligned, etc., require less draft).
original
One thing to be noted here is that draft is always provided as an extra metal over and above the
casting dimensions as shown in the following example.
| Example 3.4 | Provide draft allowance to the pattern shown in Fig. 3.4 after providing the machining
allowance.
From Table 3.3, The draft angle is 0.75° for external details and 1° for internal details.
Draft need to be provided only for the dimensions that are perpendicular to the parting line. Hence, for a
109-mm size the taper required is
external= 109 x tan (0.75) =1.4268 ~ 1.40 mm
internal= 109 x tan (1.00) = 1.9026 ~1.90 mm

Based on those dimensions, the sizes are the following

The bore dimension = 74 - 2x 1.90= 70.20 mm

Ø74

109

-211
(a)
213.8 Parting
Ø70.2 line

074
-211

(b)
Fig. 3.6 Example showing the application ofdraft (all dimensions in mni)
 66
Manufacturing Technology

External dimension = 211 + 2 x 1.40 =213.80 mm

After providing for this taper, the pattern drawing is as shown in Fig. 3.6(b) compared to Fig. 3.6(a), which
has been before providing the draft allowance.
Table 3.3 Suggested draft values for patterns
Draft Angle of surfaces, degrees
Height of thegiven
Pattern material surtace, mm External surface Internal surface

Wood 20 3.00 3.00

21 to 50 1.50 2.50

$1 to 100 1.00 1.50

101 to 200 0.75 1.00
201 to 300 0.50 L.00
301 to 800 0.50 0.75
801 to 2000 0.35 0.50
Over 2000 0.25
Metal and plastic 20 1.50 3.00
21 to 50 1.00 2.00
Si to 100 0.75 1.00
101 to 200 0.50 0.75
201 to 300 0.50 0.75
301 to 800 0.35 0.50

Shake Allowance Before withdrawalfrom the sand mould, the patternis rapped all around the vertical
faces to enlargethe mould cavity slightly. which facilitates its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting
made, it is desirable that the originalpattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this increase.
There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel
and practices involved.
It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting
plane(One way of reducing this allowance is to increase the draft, which can be removed during the subse
quent machining
Distortion Allowance A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and therefore is likely to be distor
tion prone. This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long flat portions, V,U sections or in a com
plicated casting which may have thin and long sections which are connected to thick sections. The foundry
practice should be to make extra material provision for reducing the distortion. Alternatively, the shape of the
pattern itself should be given adistortion of equal amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion
direction. This can be done by trial and error basis to get the distortion amount. Some data about a few test
cases may be available from the literature.

3.2.2 Core Prints

Eor all those castings where coring is required. provision should be made to support the core inside the mould
ile: One of the methods that is universally tolowed is t0 provide core prints where possible. Figure. 3.1
 elloocne
Metal-Casting Processes 67

shows an example of the provision of core prints.The size of the core prints to be provided is to be estimated
based on the specific casting. the details of which are provided later.

Job Core

Pattern

Mould

Fig. 3.7 Typical job, its pattern and the mould cavity
3.2.3 Elimination of Details
very small holes by sand casting. In such
Often it is not possible to get very fine details on the surface or during the
simplify the casting process by eliminating those details and get them
cases, it is desirable to
The types of details that one would
finishing process employed. One such example is presented in Fig. 3.8.capability of the chosen casting process
like to eliminate in the casting depend on the required accuracy, the
and the moulding method employed.

3.2.4 Pattern Materials

The most commonly used pattern material is
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics.
weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and
wood, the main reason being the easy availability and the lowabsorption of moisture as a result of which
wood is its
is retatively cheap. But the main disadvantage of
may be able to reduce the warpage to
distortions and dimensional changes occur. A good construction
wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of
some extent. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of
wood as apattern material.
patterns are pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and
The usual varieties of wood commonly used for making
type as well as the particle boards are also used
deodar. Besides the wood, theplywood boards of the veneerthicknesses, their higher strength and noneed for
various
for making patterns. Because of their availability in can be used only in patterns which are of flat type
seasoning are the reasons for their usage. However, they
three-dimensional contours.
(pattern plates) and no
 68
Manufacturing Technology

8 *86
8
5
7
80 B0

8,1.5i71
18

36 35
22.5-+ 80 80

Actual component Cast component

196
87 22

16

85

One haif of the pattern

Fig. 3.8 Elimination of details on a casting to simplify moulding

The choice of the pattern material depends essentially on the size of the casting. the
be made from the pattern, and the dimensional accuracy number of castings to
required. For very large castings, wood may be the
only practical pattern material. Moulding sand being highly abrasive for
not be suitable as apattern material and one may large-scale production, wood may
have to opt for metal patterns.
Because of their durability and smooth surface finish, metal patterns are
scale casting production and for closer dimensional extensively used for larg°
tolerances.
brass, etc., can be used as pattern materials, aluminium and white
Though many materials such as cast iro.
are light, can be easily worked, and are corrosion
metal are most commonly used. Ines
the white metal pattern can be made use of for makingresistant.(Since white metal has very small shrinkag
double shrinkage allowancesMost metal patterns are cast additional patterns without worrying abou t
in sand
provided with the double shrinkage allowance. Acomparative study moulds from a master wood palIc
of the adyantages and disadvantages
of various pattern materials is shown in Table 3.4.
Plastics are also used as pattern materials because of their low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces
and durability. They do not absorb moisture and are therefore, dimensionally stable and can be cleaned easily.
The naking of a plastic pattern can be done in sand clay moulds or moulds made of Plaster of Paris(The most
llv used plastics are cold seting epOxy resins with suitable fillers) With a
st poper combination
to obtain ano shrink plastic material. In such a case, double shrinkage allowances it s po
may not berequired.
 Metal-Casting Processes
69

Table 3.4 Comparativc characteristics of metallic pattern materials

Pattern metal Disadvantages
Advantages
Aluminium alloys Good machinability Low strength
High corrosion resistance High cost
Low density Good surface finish
Grev cast iron Good machinability Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Low cost
Steel Good surface finish Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Brass and bronze Good surface finish High cost
High strength High density
High corrosion resistance
Lead alloys Good machinability High cost
High density
Low strength

Polyurethane foam is also used as pattern material. It is very light and can be easily formed into any shape
required. It can beused for light duty work for small number of castings for the conventional casting and for
singie casting in the case of full mould process where the pattern is burned inside the mould without with
drawing.This plastic has a very lowash content and hence can be burned inside the mould.
The pattern material is to be chosen based on the expected life of the pattern. The following Table 3.5
gives comparative values of pattern material choices.

Table 3.5 Pattern materials based on expected life

Number of castings produced before pattern equipment repair
Pattern Core Pattern Material

Small castings (under 600 mm)

2 000 2 000 Hard wood
6 000 6000 Aluminium, Plastie
100000 100 000 Cast iron

Medium castings (600-1800 mm)

J 000 750 Hard wood
3 000 3 000 Aluminium, Plastic
Large castings (above 1800 mm)
200 150 Soft wood
500 S00 Hard wood metal reintorced
 Manufacturing Technology
70

3.2.5 Types of Patterns the complexity of the job,the number ofTcastings requirel
depending upon
There are various types of patterns
and the moulding procedure adopted.
and the simplest type of patterns. As the name indicates h
inexpensive int
Sifigle piece pattern These are in Fig. 3,9, This type of' pattern is used only in cases where the
Mare made of a single piece as shownwithdrawal problem Itis also used for applications in very smalle
very simple and does not create any entirely in the drag. One of the
pattern is expected to be
production or in prototype development) This plane. If no such flat surface exists,
the moulding m.
uscd as the parting
faces is expected to beflat which is follow board as explained later.
becomecomplicated with the necessity of a
for intricate castings
is the most widely used typc of pattern when
SplitPattern or Tuvo Piece Pattern Thiswithdrawal from the mould difficult, or the depth of the
When the contour of the casting makes its

(a) Casting (b) Pattern

Fig, 3.9 Single-piece pattern

casting is too high. then the pattern is split into two parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope. The split surface of the pattern is the same as the parting plane of the mould. The two halves of the
patten shouldbe aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted to the cope half. These
dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern and thus align the two halves
properly as seen in Fig. 3.10.

Dowel
pins

Fig. 3.10 Split pattern

 Metal-Casting Processes
71

Gaed Pattern This is an improvement over the simple patten where the gating andrunner systemi are inte
gral with the pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners and gates and help in improving
the productivity of a moulder.

Cope and Drag Pattern These are similar to split patterns. In addition to spliting the pattern, the cope and
dfag halves of the pattern along with the gating andrisering systems are attached separately to the metal or
wooden plates along with the alignment pins (Fig. 3.11). They are called the cope,and drag patterns. The
cope and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns separately by two moulders but they can be
assembled to form acomplete mould. These types of patterns are used for castings, which are heavy and
inconvenient for handling as also for continuous production.

(a) Part

Gating system

(b) Cope half of pattern

(c) Drag half of pattern

Fig. 3.11 Cope and drag pattern

Match Plate Pattern These are extensions of the previous type. Here, the cope and drag patterns along
with the gating and the risering are mounted on a single matching metal or wooden plate on either side as
shown in Fig. 3.12. On one side of the match plate the cope flask is prepared and on the other, the drag flask.
After moulding when the match plate is removed, a complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the
cope and the drag together.
The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal, usually aluminium for its light weight
and machinability. But when dimensions arecritical, the match plate may be made of steel with necessary
case hardening of the critical wear points. The pattern and gating are either screwed to the match plate in the
 WLoose butplate,gating case
the the plate Fig. Drsiagde
drawing
contour Cylcastiinngdrical
sipce if These drag drag
pattern a 3.12 of
system patterns 72
isthPiece
e they they are wellas fiat
held
Pattern increase argenerally
pattern e is parting Match
isProcesses,
PL
as
a
loose from
suf'ncientlyalready the are as done
similar,usually plane plapte
cope.
ManufacTetucrhinoglogy
productivity,
This made used orpattern
153, casting Block
Loose
piece piece typethe small and for the inMcGr
mould-is plaster are aw Gate
by of in small pattern made
attached (courtesy
a
wire. pattern
the size.
moul ds, Hil , plateFlat Copeside
Fig. not additionalThese castings
to
nmay integral ]S
After be
3.13
pessible. is
also patterns with
the kept but in Campbell:
New
plate Match Hole Bushing
Runner
Loose moulding
used
cost mat c h
higher sometion mes York) case
Hence isareplate. only of
piece afterLoose
whenjustified. used Principles
an
is dimensional one irregular
sand
patternpatternpiece over,during the Several side
for of
removal left first contour machine
moulofds
moulding, patterns parting
(b)
the
mold
in
the accuracy the
plate are Manufacturing
main ofmoulding. can
and plane.
Loose
piece(a) the the
also
beand used.
pattern
obstructing part fixed large is The
is They used
Whencasting
Materials
is such to for
removed production.
are a
part that single making the
of and
expensive cope a
of match Drag Cope
and the with The both andmatch
 Metal-Casting Processes 73

then the loose picces are recovered through the gap generated by the main pattern (Fig. 3.13).
Mould
ing with loose pieces is a highly skilled job and is generallyexpensive and therefore, should be avoided
where posthley
Eellow Board Pattern This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there are some portions,
which are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the force of ramming.
Hence, the bottomn board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the contour of the weak pattern and
thus support it during the ramming of the drag. During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is nec
essary because the sand that is already compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern. An example
is shown in Fig. 3.I4.

Follow board
Fig. 3.14 Follow board pattern

Syeep Pattern It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are used for
generating large shapes, which are asi-symmetricalor prisnmatic in nature such as bell-shaped or sylindrical
as shown in Fig. 3.15. This greatly reduces the cost of a three-dimensional pattern. This type of pattern is
particularly suitable for very large castings such as bells used for ornamental purposes used, which are gener
ally cast in pit moulds.

Well rammed
Spindle Sweep Completed
sand mould

a) (b) (c)
Fig.3.15 Sweep pattern

Seleton Pattern Askeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for building the final pattern by
packing sand around the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is obtained with the help of a
strickle as shown in Fig. 3.16.The type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon the geometry of the work
piece. This type of pattern is useful generally for very large castings, required in smallquantities where large
expense on complete wooden pattern is not justified.
 Manufacturing Technology

Fig. 3.16 Skeleton pattern

32.6 Pattern Colour Code

The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the mould maker would be able to under.
stand the functions clearly. The colour code used is as follows:
1. Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as cast
22 Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for unmachined openings v
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined
5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core
openings
prints
6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to
strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a casting
3.2.7 Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping (RP) has become an important area of
metal casting in the past decade to decrease the
product development time. Rapid prototyping
turing (LM) concept. In this method, (Fig. 3.17), technologies are generally based upon a layered manuta
ferred into the system and then sliced into first, a 3D model of the object as a CAD file is
then generates trajectories for the material equidistant layers with parallel horizontal planes. The trans
to be added in each layer by the RP systei
supporting layers are also simultaneously generated to keep the machine. The sacrihcial
The resultant separate unconnected layers in proper
will form the final objectcross-sectional
required.
layers of very small thickness when
assembled (glued)
posiio
togetnel
Alarge number of RP
gies commercially in use techniques have been
in metal casting are developed in the past few years. However, the major techno
Stereolithography (SLA)
" Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
" Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
" 3D Printing (3DP)
" Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS)
 Metal-Casting Processes 75

Object
Support Object

(a )
(b) (c) Support
Fig. 3.17 Concept of layer nanufacturing; (a) shape data as
input in the CAD system, (b) CAD model is
sliced into layers, (c) each of the layers is then deposited
is completed. starting from the bottom until the model

Stereolithography The most commonly used process for rapid prototyping is stereolithography or photo
lithography. These systems build shapes using light to selectively solidify photocurable resins. Stereolithog
raphy machines convert three-dimensional
CAD data of physical
low-power ultraviolet laser beam is then carefully traced across a vat objects into vertical stacks of slices. A
ing a single layer of solidified resin the first slice of the object underof photocurable liquid polymer, produc
across the surface (by servo-controlled galvanometer mirrors), construction. The laser beam is guided
plane to form a solid section. The initial layer is then lowered drawing a cross-sectional pattern in the x-y
whereupon the layer is recoated with resin and another is traced incrementally by the height of the next slice,
on top of it (Fig. 3.18). This procedure is

Scanning mirror
Laser

Cured resin
(to form model)
Liquid resin Recoating bar

Platform

Fig. 3.18 Schematic of Stereolithography device

 76
Manufacturing Tecnology

repeated until the entire part is fabricated. Thoughthis was the first process commercialized, it is
and is limited to some of the photocurable plasticmaterials only. expensive
Selective Laser Sintering In the selective laser sintering (SLS) process originally developed at .
University of Texas at Austin, a modulated laser beam follows the shape of aslice of. a
CAD-generated
object: it traces the object across a bin of special heat-fusible powders, heating the particles so thev
or sinter together. In SLS, a layer of powdered material is spread out and levelled in the plane on e
the layer is to be formed. A CO, laser then selectively traces the layer to fuse thoseareas defined bw
geometry of the cross section along with fusing to the bottom layer. The powders can be joined by
ing or surface bonding. The unfused material remains in place as the support structure. After the inmelt.
laver is formed. the powder is reapplied, and the laser processes the next layer. Some of the material.
used are plastics, waxes and low-melting-temperature metal alloys. Because of the use of metal now
ders. this process is greatly used in processes such as direct tooling applications for investment and dia
casting applications discussed later.

3D Printing 3D printing can be compared to SLS, the difference is that instead of a laser
binder is applied to bond the powder particles. A 3D printer is operated in the following beam, liauid
printer spreads a layer of powder from the feed box to cover the surface of the build platform and sequence. The
binder solution onto the loose powder, forming the first cross section of the part. Where then prints
the powder's particles are glued together. The remaining powder is loose the binder is printed.
and supports the part as it is being
printed. When the cross section is complete, the build platform is lowered
is spread over its surface. The process is repeated until the slightly, and a new layer of powder
whole model is completed. The build platform is
raised and the loose powder is vacuumed away, revealing the
completed part.
Fused Deposition Modelling In this process, a
rial to an extrusion nozzle. The nozzle is heated toplastic filament is unwound from a coil and supplies mate
melt the plastic and has a mechanism, which allows the
flow of the melted plastic to be turned on and o ff. The
nozzle is mounted to a mechanical
directions.As the nozzle is moved over the tableplatform,
can be moved in both horizontal and vertical which
geometry, it deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each layer. The plastic in the required
being squirted from the nozzle and bonds to the layer hardens immediately after
including investment-casting wax. Some FDM systems below. Several materials available for the process
are
of a build material, and second for utilize two extrusion nozzles: one for
deposition of washable material to make support deposition
FDM materials are in the environment. Severd
(polymethylmethacrylate),engineering-development
and various polyesters.stage, including polycarbonate, polypropylene, PMMA

Laminated Object Manufacturing Laminated Object

cutting the slices of the Manufacturing
object out of a sheet of paper foil and then
(LOM) machine works by actualiy
the material supply roll and the laser then
cuts
bonding them together. The foil comes
the edge so that this can be easily broken around the outline of the layer. It also hatches the foil arou
laser has cut out the top layer, a heated away when all of the layers have been bonded together. After
object. A sensor is used to measure the roller moves over the top of the foil to bond the layer to
thickness of the foil as
the rest O
cally adjust the dimensions of the layer this can vary and the machine will
being cut to account for any variation. The autona
like laminated wood. result is a part that
lo
A comparison of these
technologies is
and core boxes. Some of the processes aregiven in Table 3.6. These methods are used for
making the patte
also used for making the metal moulds and dies
production. for large volu
 Metal Casting Processes 77

Table 3.6 Sumnary of some rapid protolyping tecnologies

Max. build size Dimensional
System (mm) Accuracy (mm) Materials Advantapes Disadvantages
Stereo-lithog (500 ×400 × 200) (0.1-0.2) Liquid High accuracy, Hiph cost
raphy photosensitive medium ranye of process, sup
resins materials, large port structures
build size necded, post
cure required
Selective Laser (550 × S50 x 750) (0.1-0.2) Nylon based Large range of High cost
Sintering materials, materials, good process. poor
elastomer, rapid accuracy, large surface finish
steel. cast form, build size
sand form
Fused (600 x S00 x 600) (0.1-0.2) ABS, elastomer Good accuracy. Support
Deposition and wax functional materi structures

Modeling als, medium range needed

of materials
Laminated (815 × 560x S08) (0.1-0.2) Paper Good accuracy, Limited range of
Object Mod large build size materials, sup
eling port remova!
necessary, poor
material
properties

3.3 MOULDING MATERIALS

Alarge variety of moutding materials are used in foundries for mànufacturing moulds and cores. They are
moulding sand, system sand (backing sand), rebonded sand, facing sand.parting sand, and core sand.
The choice of moulding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally
required in moulding materials are the following:
Refractoriness It is the ability of the moulding material to withstand the high temperatures of the molten
metal so that it does not cause fusion. Some refractory materials are given in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Properties of some refractory materials
Coefficient of linear
Material Melting point, °C expansion, x10/°C
Silica (Si0,) 1710 16.2
Alumina (Al,0) 2020 8.0
Magnesia (MgO) 2800 13.5
Thoria (ThO,) 3050 9.5
Zirconia (Zr0,) 2700 6.5
Zircon (ZrO,Si0,) 2650 4.5
Silicon Carbide (SiC) ~ 2700 3.5
Graphite 4200
 Manuacturing Technology
78

Green Strength The moulding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
have enough strength so that the constructed mould retains its shape. should
Dry Strength When the moisture in the moulding sand is completely expelled, it is called dry sand.
molten metal is poured into a mould, the sand around the mould cavity is quickly converted into ddry
sand a
|hen
the moisture in the sand immediately evaporates due to the heat in the molten metal. At tthis stage, it
retain the mould cavity and at the same time withstand the metallostatic forces. shoula
Hot Strength After all the moisture is climinated, the sand would reach a high temperature when the m.
in the mouldis still in the liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to holdthe shape of the mot
cavity then. is called hot strength.
Permeability During the solidification of a casting, large amounts of gases are to be expelled from
mould. The gases are those which have been absorbed by the metal in the furnace, air absorbed from s.
atmosphere and steam and other gases that are generated by the moulding and core sands. If these pke
are not allowed to escape from the mould, they would be trapped inside the casting and cause defects Th
moulding sand should be sufficiently porous sothat the gases are allowed to escape from the mould. This on%
evolution capability of the moulding sand is termed as permeability.
Besides these specific properties, the moulding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction
of the solidified casting, it does not provide any resistance which may result in cracks in the casting. They
should be
reusable andshould have good thermal conductivity so that heat from the casting is quickly transferred.

33.1 Moulding Sand Composition

The main ingredients of any moulding sand are the silica grains (SiO,), the
clay as binder, and moisture to
activate the clay and provide plasticity.
Besides, some other materials are also added to these to enhance the
the details of which are given later. specific properties of moulding sands.
SilicaSand The sand which forms the major portion of the
moulding sand (up to 96%) is
silica grains, the rest being the other oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na,0 + K,0) and essentialy
oxide (MgO + CaO). These impurities should be magnesiunt
point of the silica sands. The main source is the minimized to about 2% since they affect the fusiOn
river sand, which is used with or without
ally, the fusion point of sands should be about washing. loe"
the river sand, all sizes and shapes of 1450°C for cast irons and about 1550°C for steels. i
grains are mixed. The sand grains may vary in
micrometers to a few millimetres. The shape of the grains may be size from a lc
angular. The size and shapes of these sand grains round, sub angular, angular and v
which is explained later this. greatly affect the properties of the moulding saie
Zircon sand is basically a zirconium silicate
-30.96%, Al,0, - 1.92%, Fe,0, (ZrSiO,), The typical composition is Zr0, 66.25%, SiO.
-0.74% and
able in Quilon beach of Kerala. It has a fusiontraces of other oxides. It is very expensive. In India it is av
point of
expansion. The other advantages are high thermal about 2400°C and also a low coefficient of the
requiresavery smallamount of binder (about 3%). It isconductivity, high chilling power and high densly
generally
requiring better surface finish and for precision investment used to manufacture precision steel cas
Chromite sand is crushed from the casting.
SiO. -2.5%.CaO -0.5%, and Al,0, +chrome ore whose typical composition is Cr,0, 44o, Fe.0,
MgO- 25%. The fusion point is about 1800°C, It also
manufacture heavy steel castings requiringrequires
small amount of binder (about 3%). It issalso used to ay
finish. It is best suited to austenitic manganese steel castings. bettersurtace
 Metal-Casting Processes 79

Olivine sandcontains the minerals Fosterite (Mg.SiO,)) and fayalite (Fe,SiO,). It is a very versat1le sand
and the same mixture can be used for arange of steels.

Comparative properties relevant for moulding of these various base sands are given in Table 3.8.
Clay Clays are the mest generally used binding agents mixed to the moulding sands to provide strength.
because of their low cost and wider utility. The most popular clay types used are
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al,0, 2Si0, 2H,0), and

Bentonite (Al,0, 4Si0, H,0 nH,O).

Kaolinite has a melting point of 1750 to 1787°C and bentonite has a melting temperature range of 1250 to
1300°C. Of the two, bentonite can absorb more water, which increases its bonding power. The clays besides
these basic constituents, may also contain some mixtures of lime, alkalies and other oxides which tend to
reduce their refractoriness.
There are basically two types of bentonites, one with sodium as adsorbed ion often called western ben
tonite and the other withcalcium ion called southern bentonite. Sodium bentonites produce better swelling
properties-volume increases some 10 to 20 times, high dry strength which lowers the risk of erosion,
better tolerance of variations in water content, low green strength and high resistance to burnout, which
reduces clay consumption. In contrast, the calcium bentonites have low dry strength but higher green
strength. It is possible to improve the properties of calcium bentonite by treating it chemicaly with soda
ash (sodium carbonate).
The clay chosen for a moulding sand should give it the requisite strength for the given application taking
into account the metal being cast and thickness of the casting. Normally, river sand contains a large amount
of clay and therefore can be directly nsed.
Table 3.8 Comparison of foundry base sand properties
Silica Olivine Chromite Zircon

Colour White-light brown Greenish grey Black White-brown

Hardness 6.0-7.0 6.5-7.0 5.5-7.0 7.0-7.5

85-100 100-125 I55-165 160-185

Dry bulk density (lb/ft')
2.2-2.6 3.2-3.6 4.3-4.5 4.4-4.7
Specific gravity
Grain shape Angular/ Rounded Angular Angular Rounded/ Angular
Thermal expansion (mm/
mm/°C) 0.018 0.0083 0.005 0.003

Apparent heat transfer Average Low Very high High

1427-1760 I538-1760 1760-1982 2038-2204
Fusion point, °C
High temperature reaction Acid Basic Basic Acid

Easily Not generally Resistant

Wettability with molten metal Resistant
Grain distribution 2-5 screens 3-4 screens 2-3 screens
4-5 screens
25-180 95-160
AFS Grain fineness number 40-160 50-90