Air Pollution
Air Pollution
Air Pollution
Air pollution
1.1
Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Emission factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
1.3
1.4
Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1
Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2
Cardiovascular disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3
Lung disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4
Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5
Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6
Cleanareas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.7
1.5
Agricultural eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Historical disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
1.8
Reduction eorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.1
Control devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
1.9.1
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.9.2
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.10 Hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.11 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
11
12
13
1.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
16
16
18
i
ii
CONTENTS
2.1
18
2.1.1
19
19
2.2.1
19
2.2.2
19
2.2.3
19
2.3
20
2.4
20
2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.2
Aerotoxic Association
21
3.1
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Aerotoxic syndrome
22
4.1
22
4.2
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.3
Research
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.4
Media coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.7
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
27
5.1
27
5.2
28
5.3
28
5.3.1
28
5.3.2
29
5.3.3
29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.4
6
30
6.1
30
6.2
30
6.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
6.4
32
6.4.1
32
CONTENTS
6.4.2
iii
Advanced methods of categorizing atmospheric turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
6.5
32
6.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
6.6.1
33
6.6.2
Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
6.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
6.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
35
7.1
36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
8.1
38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.2
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.3
Formula Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
9.4
Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.5
40
9.6
Persons at risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.7
Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
42
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
43
10.2.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
10.2.4 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
10.2.5 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
10.2.6 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
45
45
10.2.9 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
46
47
10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
48
iv
CONTENTS
49
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
49
50
11.5 Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
50
11.7 Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
51
51
11.8.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
11.8.3 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
52
52
52
11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
12 Air stagnation
54
12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Airlog
54
55
13.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
56
56
56
13.8 Outcome
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
13.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
13.9 References
58
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
58
14.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
15 Arctic haze
59
15.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
59
60
60
CONTENTS
60
15.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
61
62
63
63
64
64
64
16.4.2 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
16.4.3 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
16.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
66
16.6.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
16.6.2 Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
16.6.3 Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
67
69
69
70
70
70
17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
71
72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
18.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
74
74
74
74
74
19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
20 Burn pit
76
76
20.2 Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
20.3 Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
vi
CONTENTS
20.4 Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
77
21 CALPUFF
78
21.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
78
21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
78
79
22 CMAQ
80
22.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Condensation particle counter
23.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
80
81
82
83
24.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.2 Substances
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
83
24.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
84
85
25.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
25.2 Sections 108 and 109 of the U.S. Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
87
87
87
25.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
88
26 Critical load
26.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Czech Hydrometeorological Institute
89
89
90
27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
90
90
27.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
91
CONTENTS
vii
28 Decipol
92
28.1 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Diesel exhaust
92
93
93
94
94
94
29.2 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
94
29.2.2 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
94
94
95
95
95
96
96
29.5 Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
29.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
97
97
97
97
97
98
98
99
30 Dust abatement
100
101
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
viii
CONTENTS
31.5.2 Advent of suburban society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.3 Cars in popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.4 Cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.5 Cars as a hobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.6 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
31.7 External and internal costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.7.1 Public or external costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.7.2 Private or internal costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
31.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
31.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
110
115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
CONTENTS
34 Environmental impact of aviation
ix
117
128
134
CONTENTS
36.1 Scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
36.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
36.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
37 Flue-gas desulfurization
136
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
142
144
147
149
CONTENTS
41.4 References
xi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
153
154
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
44 Haze
155
158
159
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
47 Hypermobility (travel)
160
162
163
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CONTENTS
49.2.3 Successful interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
49.3 Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
49.3.1 Sustainable options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.3.2 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.4 Education interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.5 Primary intervention for children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.6 Kenya and modern energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.7 Further action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
169
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
178
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
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xiii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
183
185
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
188
191
193
194
195
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CONTENTS
58.1 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
58.1.1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
58.1.2 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.1.3 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.1.4 Netherlands, Denmark and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2 Elsewhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.1 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.2 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.3 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
59 Mist
198
200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
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205
212
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
215
216
217
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
219
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CONTENTS
66.2 NIOSH N95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.3 NIOSH N99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.4 Gas mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
220
221
223
226
227
229
230
CONTENTS
xvii
73.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
74 Particulates
232
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
245
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
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CONTENTS
76 Passive smoking
76.1 Eects
247
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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267
270
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
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271
273
274
276
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280
281
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CONTENTS
84.5 More recent model renements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
84.6 Recent applications in legal cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
84.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
84.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
84.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
85 Rolling coal
285
287
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
292
294
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xxi
89 Twomey eect
300
301
302
305
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
308
309
311
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CONTENTS
96 Wildland re emission
312
313
Chapter 1
Air pollution
Bad air qualityand Air qualityredirect here. For 1.1 Pollutants
the obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. For the measure
of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the
properties of air, see Qualities of air.
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates,
Carbon
dioxide in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming
emissions* [3]* [4] are not absorbed.
(NASA simulation; 9 November 2015)
Nitrogen
dioxide 2014 - global air quality levels
(released 14 December 2015).* [5]
biological molecules, or other harmful materials into
Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans,
damage to other living organisms such as animals and
food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.
nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas,
coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source
of carbon monoxide.
CH4
CO2
CFC
SOX
PM
O3
NOX
Schematic drawing, causes and eects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse eect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
1.1. POLLUTANTS
Ammonia (NH3 ) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula
NH3 . It is normally encountered as a gas with a
characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
signicantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstus and
fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to
form secondary particles.* [9]
3
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.
Because of this, they have been observed to persist in
the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify
in food chains, and to have potentially signicant impacts
on human health and the environment.
1.1.1 Sources
Particulates created from gaseous primary pollu- ngerprint on global air quality.
tants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog
is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a
mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog
does not usually come from coal but from vehicular
and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Emission factors
tive values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated
with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit
weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emit Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic
ting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted
gases, germ warfare and rocketry
per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In
Natural sources:
most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of to be representative of long-term averages.
land with little or no vegetation
There are 12 compounds in the list of Persistent organic
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open
animals, for example cattle
burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's disruptors and can mutate the human genes.
crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally ocThe United States Environmental Protection Agency has
curring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from
published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors
the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health
for a multitude of industrial sources.* [14] The United
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accuKingdom, Australia, Canada and many other counmulate in buildings, especially in conned areas such
tries have published similar compilations, as well as the
as the basement and it is the second most frequent
European Environment Agency.* [15]* [16]* [17]* [18]
cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildres
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally signicant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NO, SO2 , and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds to produce a seasonal haze of
secondary pollutants.* [12] Black gum, poplar, oak
5
and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often
caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a conned space, such
as a tent.* [21] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can
result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps
are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas
and hydrogen sulde, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning uids, for days
after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries,
the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very
dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a
chronic inammatory medical condition aecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in
structures. Suerers have severe dyspnea (shortness of
breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be
taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant
diseases. According to the World Health Organisation
(WHO), these may dened as; asbestosis, lung cancer,
and Peritoneal Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form
of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors,
as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,
people produce dust from minute skin akes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce
pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more
than they would otherwise occur in nature.
1.4.1
Mortality
7
the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.* [53] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air
pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical
cancer and brain cancer.* [54]
In December 2015, medical scientists reported that
cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck.* [50] Maintaining a
healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol
and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing
the disease, according to the researchers.* [50]
1.4.5 Children
1.4.4
Cancer
1.4.6 Cleanareas
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution,
public health eects can be signicant and costly, since
a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A
2005 scientic study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in
the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.* [58] This nding is
based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal
(illness) aects.
8
surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented
that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to ll the space. Our ndings add to
the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play
a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental
disorders.Air pollution has a more signicant negative
eect of males than on females.* [60]* [61]* [62]
There are now practical alternatives to the three principal causes of air pollution. Combustion of fossil fuels for
space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat
pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.* [70] Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be reIn 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of
placed by power generation from nuclear and renewables.
signicant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment
Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban
from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects
air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles.
who were not informed about changes in the air quality.
Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in 1.8 Reduction eorts
three dierent controlled laboratory atmospheres that
simulated those found in conventionaland green
There are various air pollution control technologies and
buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced venland-use planning strategies available to reduce air pollutilation. Performance was evaluated objectively using
tion.* [71]* [72] At its most basic level, land-use planning
the widely used Strategic Management Simulation softis likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure
ware simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment
planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning
test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained
is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is
situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Signifused eciently for the benet of the wider economy and
icant decits were observed in the performance scores
population, as well as to protect the environment.
achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keep- Because a large share of air pollution is caused by coming other factors constant. The highest impurity levels bustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reducreached are not uncommon in some classroom or oce tion of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically.
Most eective is the switch to clean power sources such
environments.* [63]* [64]
as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't
cause air pollution.* [73] Eorts to reduce pollution from
mobile sources includes primary regulation (many devel1.5 Agricultural eects
oping countries have permissive regulations), expanding
regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport
In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment
carbon and ground level ozone had cut crop yields in the such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), inmost aected areas by almost half in 2010 when com- creased fuel eciency (such as through the use of hybrid
pared to 1980 levels.* [65]
vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to
electric vehicles.
Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to
reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free
electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals,
The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was which break up VOCs and NOx gases. One form is
the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.* [66] Leaked industrial superhydrophilic.* [74]
vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to
Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chem- In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage
ical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured of University of Sheeld prepared a 10 meter by 20
anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United King- meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollutiondom suered its worst air pollution event when the De- eating nanoparticles of titanium dioxide. Placed on a
cember 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In building, this giant poster can *absorb the toxic emission
six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates from around 20 cars each day. [75]
put the gure at nearer 12,000.* [67] An accidental leak of A very eective means to reduce air pollution is the
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the transition to renewable energy. According to a study pubformer USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have lished in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the
caused at least 64 deaths.* [68] The worst single incident switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States
of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per
Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used.
and over 7,000 were injured.* [69]
This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year
1.9. REGULATIONS
due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of
the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.* [73]
1.8.1
Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate control
9
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement
Adsorption systems, using activated carbon,
such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic converters
Biolters
Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers
Acid Gas/SO2 control
Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers
Flue-gas desulfurization
Mercury control
Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel
Dioxin and furan control
Miscellaneous associated equipment
Source capturing systems
Continuous emissions monitoring systems
(CEMS)
1.9 Regulations
Scrubbers
Bae spray scrubber
Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
NOx control
Low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Smog in Cairo
NOx scrubbers
10
1.9.2 Germany
TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.
1.10 Hotspots
Main article: Toxic Hotspots
1.9.1
Canada
Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.* [78] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of
stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile
sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions
from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma, cancer, and other health problems. Fine
particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes
to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the
world each year, is a signicant problem. It is very small
and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated
areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel
pollution hot spot.* [79]
While air pollution hotspots aect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in
hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous
land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located
where property values and income levels are low. Low
socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of
social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to inuence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such
as cancer or asthma.* [80]
Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities
not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also
higher risk of adverse health outcomes.* [81] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial
minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse
health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.* [81] Blacks
and Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and
Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than auent ones.* [80] Racial discrepancies
are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the US South
and metropolitan areas of the US West.* [82] Residents in
public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot
move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly aected by
nearby reneries and chemical plants.* [83]
1.11 Cities
11
the risk of cancer and other serious health eects from
breathing (inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both national and more localized eorts to identify and prioritize
air toxics, emission source types and locations which are
of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to
population risk. This in turn helps air pollution experts
focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where the potential for health risks are highest.
Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer
health eects based on chronic exposure from outdoor
sources, including assessments of non-cancer health effects for Diesel Particulate Matter. Assessments provide
a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to human health that would result if air toxic emissions levels
remained unchanged.* [87]
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax
or nonexistent.* [84] However, even populated areas in
developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution,
with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.* [85]
Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in
Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers
is falling while lung cancer rates are rising.* [86]
12
has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.
The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and
the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as
the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were active in this model development, among which were: the
Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group
in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in
Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources
Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of
the ESL group received a boost with a contract award
from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
to validate a line source model using sulfur hexauoride
as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating
the line source model developed by ESL Inc. Some of
the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution; the Arlington, Virginia portion
of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening
project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.
1.16. REFERENCES
13
1.16 References
[20] Duo, E., Greenstone, M., and Hanna, R. (2008) Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being.
''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'' '''1''' (1)". Sapiens.revues.org. Retrieved
2010-08-29.
[1] Reports. WorstPolluted.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[2] 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution. WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March
2014.
[3] St. Fleur, Nicholas (10 November 2015). Atmospheric
Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says. New
York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
[4] Ritter, Karl (9 November 2015). UK: In 1st, global
temps average could be 1 degree C higher. AP News.
Retrieved 11 November 2015.
[5] Cole, Steve; Gray, Ellen (14 December 2015). New
NASA Satellite Maps Show Human Fingerprint on Global
Air Quality. NASA. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
[9] The Eect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates(PDF).
Open environmental sciences. 2008.
[28] Tankersley, Jim (January 8, 2010). EPA proposes nation's strictest smog limits ever. Los Angeles Times.
Retrieved August 14, 2012.
[29] EPA slideshow (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-11.
[10] David Pennise; Kirk Smith. Biomass Pollution Basics [30] Grossni, Mark (November 13, 2008). Human cost
(PDF). WHO.
of valley's dirty air: $6.3 billion. Sacramento Bee.
Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved Au[11] Indoor air pollution and household energy. WHO and
gust 14, 2012.
UNEP. 2011.
[31] Sahagun, Louis (November 13, 2008). Pollution saps
[12] Goldstein, Allen H., Charles D. Koven, Colette L. Heald,
state's economy, study says. Los Angeles Times. ReInez Y. Fung (2009-05-05). Biogenic carbon and antrieved August 14, 2012.
thropogenic pollutants combine to form a cooling haze
over the southeastern United States. Proceedings of the [32] Kay, Jane (November 13, 2008). Bad air costing state's
economy billions. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved
National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
August 14, 2012.
[13] Scientic American, June 2014, p. 14
[33] Lucking, A. J.; Lundback, M.; Mills, N. L.; Faratian,
[14] AP 42, Volume I. Epa.gov. Archived from the original
D.; Barath, S. L.; Pourazar, J.; Cassee, F. R.; Donon 24 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
aldson, K.; Boon, N. A.; Badimon, J. J.; Sandstrom,
T.; Blomberg, A.; Newby, D. E. (2008). Diesel ex[15] United Kingdom's emission factor database.
haust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man
Naei.org.uk. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
.
European Heart Journal 29 (24): 30433051.
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn464. PMID 18952612.
[16] EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook
2009. Eea.europa.eu. 2009-06-19. Retrieved 201212-11.
[17] Environmental Pollution. Theenvironmentalblog.org.
2011-12-16. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
[18] Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National GreenIpcchouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)".
nggip.iges.or.jp. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
14
[35] Pope, C. A. (15 December 2003). Cardiovascular Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiological Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease. Circulation 109 (1): 7177.
doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000108927.80044.7F.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and long-term exposure to trac-related air pollution: a cohort study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. American journal of
respiratory and critical care medicine, 183(4), 455-461.
doi:10.1164/rccm.201006-0937OC
[36] Chen, H; Goldberg, MS; Villeneuve, PJ (OctDec 2008). [46] Health eects of outdoor air pollution. Committee of the
A systematic review of the relation between long-term
Environmental and Occupational Health Assembly of the
exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases.
American Thoracic Society. (1996). [Comparative Study
. Reviews on environmental health 23 (4): 24397.
Review]. American journal of respiratory and critical care
doi:10.1515/reveh.2008.23.4.243. PMID 19235364.
medicine, 153(1), 3-50.
[37] Mateen, F. J.; Brook, R. D. (2011). Air Pollution as
an Emerging Global Risk Factor for Stroke. JAMA 305
(12): 12401241. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.352. PMID
21427378.
[38] Miller K. A.; Siscovick D. S.; Sheppard L.; Shepherd K.;
Sullivan J. H.; Anderson G. L.; Kaufman J. D. (2007).
Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women.. The New England Journal of Medicine (Research Support, N.I.H., ExtramuralResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.) 356 (5): 447
458. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054409. PMID 17267905.
[39] Andersen, Z. J., Kristiansen, L. C., Andersen, K. K.,
Olsen, T. S., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., RaaschouNielsen, O. (2011). Stroke and Long-Term Exposure to
Outdoor Air Pollution From Nitrogen Dioxide: A Cohort Study. Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation.
doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.629246 PubMed
[40] Provost, E; Madhloum, N; Int Panis, L; De Boever,
P; Nawrot, TS (May 2015).
Carotid intimamedia thickness, a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, and particulate air pollution exposure: the metaanalytical evidence. PLoS ONE 10 (5): e0127014.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127014. PMID 25970426.
[41] Brook, RD; Rajagopalan, S; Pope, CA III; Brook,
JR; Bhatnagar, A (2010).
Particulate matter
air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientic statement from the American
Heart Association. Circulation 121: 23312378.
doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e3181dbece1.
[42] Louwies, T; Int Panis, L; Kicinski, M; De Boever, P;
Nawrot, Tim S (2013). Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults. Environmental Health Perspectives. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205721.
[43] Zoidis, John D. (1999). The Impact of Air Pollution on
COPD. RT: for Decision Makers in Respiratory Care.
[44] Gehring, U., Wijga, A. H., Brauer, M., Fischer, P.,
de Jongste, J. C., Kerkhof, M., Brunekreef, B. (2010).
Trac-related air pollution and the development of
asthma and allergies during the rst 8 years of life. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. American journal of
respiratory and critical care medicine, 181(6), 596-603.
doi:10.1164/rccm.200906-0858OC
[45] Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel,
M., Loft, S., Sorensen, M., Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011).
1.16. REFERENCES
15
16
[87] NATA | National-Scale Air Toxics Assessments | Technology Transfer Network Air Technical Web Site | US
EPA. Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2012-12-11.
Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, Lszl (2005). Selections from the history of environmental pollution,
with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From
medieval times to the 19th century. International
journal of environment and pollution 23 (4): 351
367. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air
Pollution (2002) online
Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography
(2015)
Currie, Donya. WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities,The Nation's
Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air
Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945-1970
(Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution:
Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). From Insurgency
to Eciency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in
Pittsburgh before World War I.. Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (3): 187202.
Grinder, Robert Dale. The Battle for Clean
Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War Americain Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform
in American Cities, 1870-1930 (1980), p83-103.*
Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian
Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in
Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge
University Press, 2002) online
Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke,
and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
17
Chapter 2
Q = CA
(
kP
)(k+1)/(k1)
2
k+1
For the above equations, it is important to note that although the gas velocity reaches a maximum and becomes choked, the mass ow rate is not choked. The
mass ow rate can still be increased if the source pressure
There are a number of mathematical calculation meth- is increased.
ods for determining the ow rate at which gaseous and Whenever the ratio of the absolute source pressure to
liquid pollutants might be released from various types of the absolute downstream ambient pressure is less than
accidents. Such calculational methods are referred to as [ ( k + 1 ) 2 ]* k ( k - 1 ), then the gas velocity is
source terms, and this article on accidental release source non-choked (i.e., sub-sonic) and the equation for mass
terms explains some of the calculation methods used for ow rate is:
determining the mass ow rate at which gaseous polluv
tants may be accidentally released.
u
(
)[ (
)2/k
(
)(k+1)/k ]
u
PA
PA
k
Q = CAt2P
k1
)2/k
)(k+1)/k ]
When gas stored under pressure in a closed vessel is discharged to the atmosphere through a hole or other opening, the gas velocity through that opening may be choked The above equations calculate the initial instantaneous
(i.e., it has attained a maximum) or it may be non-choked. mass ow rate for the pressure and temperature existing in the source vessel when a release rst occurs. The
Choked velocity, also referred to as sonic velocity, occurs initial instantaneous ow rate from a leak in a pressurwhen the ratio of the absolute source pressure to the ab- ized gas system or vessel is much higher than the aversolute downstream pressure is equal to or greater than [(k age ow rate during the overall release period because
+ 1) 2 ]* k(k - 1 ), where k is the specic heat ra- the pressure and ow rate decrease with time as the systio of the discharged gas (sometimes called the isentropic tem or vessel empties. Calculating the ow rate versus
expansion factor and sometimes denoted as ).
time since the initiation of the leak is much more comFor many gases, k ranges from about 1.09 to about 1.41, plicated, but more accurate. Two equivalent methods for
and therefore [(k + 1) 2 ]* k(k - 1 ) ranges from 1.7 to performing such calculations are presented and compared
about 1.9, which means that choked velocity usually oc- at www.air-dispersion.com/feature2.html.
curs when the absolute source vessel pressure is at least The technical literature can be very confusing because
1.7 to 1.9 times as high as the absolute downstream am- many authors fail to explain whether they are using the
bient atmospheric pressure.
universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas
PA
P
PA
P
When the gas velocity is choked, the equation for the or whether they are using the gas law constant Rs which
only applies to a specic individual gas. The relationship
mass ow rate in SI metric units is:* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
18
19
1 kilomole (kmol) = 1000 moles = 1000 gram-moles E = (4.161 105 ) u0.75 TF M (PS /PH )
= kilogram-mole.
If T P = 0 C or less, then T F = 1.0
If T P > 0 C, then T F = 1.0 + 0.0043 T P 2
2.1.1
1
liquid which is at or near the ambient temperature.
The equations were developed by the United States
The gas density, A , in Ramskill's equation is the ideal Environmental Protection Agency using units which
gas density at the downstream conditions of temperature were a mixture of metric usage and United States
*
and pressure and it is dened in equation (2) using the usage. [3] The non-metric units have been converted to
metric units for this presentation.
ideal gas law:
(2) A =
ln Ta )+(0.0061557 TA )
2P
k
k1
PA
P
M PA
R TA
u
E = 0.1288AP M
NB The constant used here
T
is 0.284 from the mixed unit formula/2.205 lb/kg. The
82.05 become 1.0 = (ft/m)^2 x mmHg/kPa.
0.667
0.78
M P (k1)/k
1/k
R T PA
Using equation (4) with Ramskill's equation (1) to determine non-choked mass ow rates for ideal gases gives
identical results to the results obtained using the nonchoked ow equation presented in the previous section
above.
20
M )(7.7026
HsL HaL
HaV HaL
2.6 References
[1] Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Co., 1984.
[2] Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures, Appendix B, Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S.
Dept. of Transportation, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Also provides the references below:
Clewell, H.J., A Simple Method For Estimating the Source
Strength Of Spills Of Toxic Liquids, Energy Systems Laboratory, ESL-TR-83-03, 1983.
Ille, G. and Springer, C., The Evaporation And Dispersion Of Hydrazine Propellants From Ground Spill, Environmental Engineering Development Oce, CEEDO
712-78-30, 1978.
Chapter 3
Aerotoxic Association
The Aerotoxic Association was founded on 18 June
2007, at the British Houses of Parliament by former BAe
146 Training Captain John Hoyte,* [1] to raise public
awareness about the ill health allegedly caused after exposure to airliner cabin air that he claimed been contaminated to toxic levels, by engine oil leaking into the bleed
air system, which pressurizes all jet aircraft, with the exception of the Boeing 787.
In addition to providing help and support to aircrew and
passengers, the Aerotoxic Association promotes known
technical solutions, such as toxic air detectors, and campaigns for changes in regulations to improve the quality
of cabin air on airliners.
3.2 References
[1] http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/health/ex_pilot_from_
norwich_claims_aircraft_fumes_ended_his_career_1_
3615901
[2] http://aerotoxic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/icoh_
2000_paper5-1.pdf
3.1 Criticism
A syndrome is a symptom complex, consistent and common to a given condition. Suerers of the aerotoxic
syndromedescribe a wide range of inconsistent symptoms and signs with much individual variability. The
21
Chapter 4
Aerotoxic syndrome
Aerotoxic syndrome is a phrase coined by Chris Winder
and Jean-Christophe Balouet in 2000, to describe their
claims of short- and long-term ill-health eects caused
by breathing airliner cabin air which was alleged to have
been contaminated to toxic levels (exceeding known,
parts per million, safe levels) with atomized engine oils
or other chemicals.* [1] Repeated investigations of such
claims have failed to document cabin air has ever contained contaminants which exceeded known safe levels.
An assessment by the UK's House of Lords Science and
Technology Committee found that claims of health effects were unsubstantiated.* [2] An update in 2008 found
no signicant new evidence.* [3] As of 2013 this syndrome is not recognized in medicine.* [4]* [5]
4.3. RESEARCH
Spillage within baggage bays.
Items stowed in overhead baggage bins.
23
GJEAK were aected by contamination of the air supply, as a result of oil leakage from the auxiliary power
unit (APU) cooling fan seal into the APU air stream, and
into the ECS system ducting. This contamination allowed
fumes to develop, a proportion of which entered the cabin
and cockpit air supply.* [10]* (p56)
The report noted that both captain and rst ocer had
visited the forward toilet before the onset of their symptoms.* [10]* (p3) Four years before the G-JEAK incident, another operator reported overuse of a disinfectant (formaldehyde) for the toilets and to clean the galley
oor and that inhalation of the fumes from that chemical, would produce similar symptoms reported by both
the captain and rst ocer of G-JEAK. The CAA notied UK Operators at that time (CAA ref. 10A/380/15,
dated 2 August 1996) of this potential hazard, as the misuse of this agent was apparently widespread.* [10]* (p31)
24
When the results of a clinical audit of thecognitive functioning of aircrew exposed to contaminated airwere submitted by Sarah Mackenzie Ross to the UK government's
Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer
Products and the Environment (COT),* [16] some media
used it to write articles that were sensational and misleading.* [15] Dagbladet.no, wrote that the Ross report
"... adds weight to the hypothesis that compounds resembling nerve gas in cabin and ight deck air have caused irreparable neurological damage to aircrew,,* [15] though
the report itself stated that:
"[T]he evidence available to us in this audit does not enable us to draw rm conclusions regarding a causal link
The evidence was independently reviewed by the with exposure to contaminated air.Additionally,
Aerospace Medical Association, the US National
Academy of Sciences and the Australian Civil Aviation
The report was aclinical audit of aircrew seen
Safety Authority (CASA) Expert Panel. All concluded
for clinical purposes,and was not a valid rethere is insucient consistency to establish a medical
search study.
syndrome, and the aerotoxic syndromeis not
recognised in aviation medicine.* [5]
The "'aircrew seen for clinical purposes' were
The 'nocebo eect' was among the conclusions published
in fact a self-selecting sample of pilots.Meanin a 2013 COT (Committee on Toxicity) position paper:
ing that they all came from a group that already
believed they had been damaged by contaminated air.
The acute illness which has occurred in relation to perceived episodes of contamination
might reect a toxic eect of one or more
chemicals, but it could also have occurred
through nocebo eects. There is strong scientic evidence that nocebo eects can lead
That self-selected sample groupwas not compared to a control group.Ross herself said
The conclusions that can be drawn from these
ndings have limitations.
4.6 Notes
[1] Bennett is director of the Scarman Centre's distancelearning MSc in Risk, Crisis and Disaster Management,
with a PhD in sociology from Brunel University, London.
4.7 References
25
[7] http://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/
cotpospapcabin.pdf
[8] Helen Muir (2007-11-21). Cabin Air Sampling Study
Functionality Test (PDF). Craneld University via
Department for Transport. Retrieved 2010-05-13.
[9] Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2000),
Air Safety and Cabin Air Quality in the BAe 146 Aircraft: Report by the Senate Rural and Regional Aairs and
Transport References Committee (PDF), Commonwealth
of Australia, ISBN 0-642-71093-7, retrieved 2012-05-09
[10] Air Accidents Investigation Branch Report on the incident to BAe 146, G-JEAK during the descent into Birmingham Airport on 5 November 2000 (PDF).
[11] United States National Research Council (1986). The Airliner Cabin Environment: Air Quality and safety. National
Academic Press. ISBN 0-309-03690-9.
[12] Louise Smith (25 June 2009). Cabin Air Quality
(PDF). Information to Members of Parliament. House of
Commons Library. pp. 114.
[13] Michael Bagshaw (2008-11-29). The Aerotoxic
Syndrome"" (PDF). European Society of Aerospace
Medicine.
[14] David Coggon (November 2013). CABIN AIR QUALITY THE COT INVOLVEMENT AND FINDINGS
(PDF) (Report). aerotoxic.org. Retrieved 2015-02-02.
[15] Simon A. Bennett (2006-08-26). Through a Glass
Darkly. Aviation Today. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
[16] Victoria Gill (2006-09-27). Defra Leaves Organophosphate Study Hanging in the Balance. Royal Society of
Chemistry.
26
German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation StudyFume EventsFour Safety Recommendations. Bundesstelle fr Flugunfalluntersuchung (BFU). May 7, 2014. Retrieved January 8,
2015.
Chapter 5
Nitrogen
con-
All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in The conversion equations depend on the temperature at
this article apply only to air and other gases. They are not which the conversion is wanted (usually about 20 to 25
C). At an ambient sea level atmospheric pressure of 1
applicable for liquids.
atm (101.325 kPa or 1.01325 bar), the general equation
is:
ppmv = mg/m3
(0.08205 T )
M
28
288 6.5h
288
)5.2558
(
Ch = C
288 6.5h
288
)5.2558
Cdry basis =
Cwet basis
1w
As an example, given an air pollutant concentration of As an example, a wet basis concentration of 40 ppmv in
260 mg/m3 at sea level, calculate the equivalent pollutant a gas having 10 volume percent water vapor would have
a:
concentration at an altitude of 2800 meters:
5.4. REFERENCES
C dry basis = 40 ( 1 - 0.10 ) = 44.4 ppmv.
29
[1] M.R. Beychok (2005). Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). Self-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.
5.3.2
Cr = Cm
Note:
[8] David A. Lewandowski (1999). Design of Thermal Oxidation Systems for Volatile Organic Compounds (1st ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-410-3.
5.3.3
Cr = Cm
5.4 References
This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Air pollutant concentrations", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.
Chapter 6
Wind
He at x3
Passive or neutral plumes Plumes which are neither lighter or heavier than air.
He at x2
+y Hs
He at x1
-y
31
32
6.4 Characterization of
spheric turbulence
atmo-
6.4.1
33
is known as the mixing height. Any air pollution
plume dispersing beneath an inversion aloft will be
limited in vertical mixing to that which occurs beneath the bottom of the inversion aloft (sometimes
called the lid). Even if the pollution plume penetrates the inversion, it will not undergo any further
signicant vertical mixing. As for a pollution plume
passing completely through an inversion layer aloft,
that rarely occurs unless the pollution plume's source
stack is very tall and the inversion lid is fairly low.
34
6.7 References
[1] List of atmospheric dispersion models
[2] Air Pollution Dispersion: Ventilation Factor by Dr. Nolan
Atkins, Lyndon State College
[3] Bosanquet, C.H. and Pearson, J.L. (1936).The spread of
smoke and gases from chimney, Trans. Faraday Soc.,
32:1249.
[4] Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling
[5] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-96445880-2. (Chapter 8, page 124)
[6] Features of Dispersion Models publication of the
European Union Joint Research Centre (JRC)
[7] DEGADIS Technical Manual and User's Guide (US
EPA's download website)
[8] UCRL-MA-105607, User's Manual For Slab: An Atmospheric Dispersion Model For Denser-Than-Air Releases,
Donald Ermak, June 1990.
[9] HEGADIS Technical Reference Manual
[10] Pasquill, F. (1961). The estimation of the dispersion of
windborne material, The Meteorological Magazine, vol
90, No. 1063, pp 33-49.
[11] NCDC website for ordering stability array data
[12] AERMOD:Description of Model Formulation
[13] ADMS 4 Description of the model by the developers,
Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants.
Chapter 7
36
Signicance/Society:
7.1 References
[1] TTN AIRS AQS. Epa.gov. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[2] Environmental science: Pollution patrol : Nature News
& Comment. Nature.com. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[3] Experimenting at Home With Air Quality Monitors.
The New York Times. April 15, 2015. Retrieved May 29,
2015.
[4] Air Pollution Monitoring for Communities. Epa.gov.
Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[5] Microsampling Air Pollution. The New York Times.
June 3, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[6] Brimblecombe, Peter (2006-11-01). The Clean Air
Act after 50 years. Weather 61 (11): 311314.
doi:10.1256/wea.127.06. ISSN 1477-8696.
[7] Kim, S. & Paulos, E. (April 2010).
inAir:
Sharing indoor air quality measurements and visualizations.
Earth, Wind, Flyer.
81-84. (PDF).
doi:10.1145/1760000/1753605/p1861-kim.pdf.
[8] Canada, Government of Canada, Environment and Climate Change. Environment and Climate Change
Canada - Air - Are you at risk?". www.ec.gc.ca. Retrieved
2016-02-04.
[9] Section, Government of Canada, Health Canada, Healthy
Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Safe Environments Directorate, Water, Air and Climate Change
Bureau, Air Quality Programs Division, Policy, Planning and Coordination. Cardiovascular Eects of Air
Pollution - Environmental & Workplace Health - Health
Canada. www.hc-sc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-02-04.
7.1. REFERENCES
37
Chapter 8
8.1 References
WHO - WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate
matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide Page 11
38
Chapter 9
9.2 Overview
The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed in Canada to help understand the impact of air
quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to
make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels
of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing
behavioral change to reduce the environmental footprint.
This index pays particular attention to people who are
sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice
on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health
risks.* [1]
9.1 History
40
analysis of health eects included ve major air pollutants: airborne particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2 ), as well as sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), and
carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health eects and
were removed from the AQHI formulation.
9.4 Calculation
The national AQHI is based on three-hour average concentrations of ground-level ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 ), and ne particulate matter (PM2.5). O3 and NO2
are measured in parts per billion (ppb) while PM2.5 is
measured in micrograms per cubic metre (ug/m3 ).
The AQHI is calculated on a community basis (each community may have one or more monitoring stations).
First, the average concentration of the 3 substances (O3 ,
NO2 , PM2.5) is calculated at each station within a community for the 3 preceding hours. This is considered valid
only if at least 2 out of 3 hours are available at the station.
If more than 1 of the preceding 3 hours is missing the station average is set to Not Available. This part of the
process results in threestation parameter averagesfor
each station.
Second, the 3 hour community averagefor each parameter is calculated from the 3 hour substance averages
at the available stations. If no stations are available for
a parameter, that parameter is set to Not Available.
This part of the process results in 3 community parameter
averages.
9.5 Alberta Calculation and Re- The AQHI is aimed towards two populations: 1. The
generalpopulation; and 2. Theat-riskpopulations.
porting Dierences
The later consists of children, the elderly and people with
Alberta has modied AQHI reporting to better suit the
needs of the Province. Because of Alberta's energy based
economy other are also considered when reporting the
AQHI.
41
9.7 Lifestyle
Environment Canada recommends looking for outdoor
air quality by checking the AQHI in your community before heading o to work or play as well as to use the forecasts to plan activities, whether over the next hour or the
next day. Seniors, parents, those with asthma, and people
suering from diabetes, heart or lung disease, can use the
AQHI to assess the immediate risk air pollution poses on
their health and take steps to lessen that risk. The AQHI
is also recommended for healthy, t and active people to
consult to decide when it is best to exercise or work outdoor.
Flash
9.8 References
[1] Environment Canada - Air - About the Air Quality
Health Index. Ec.gc.ca. 2013-07-16. Retrieved 201307-23.
[2] Environment Canada - Air - National Map. Ec.gc.ca.
2013-07-16. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
[3] Environment Canada - Air - AQHI categories and explanations. Ec.gc.ca. 2013-07-16. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
Chapter 10
43
Most air contaminants do not have an associated AQI.
Many countries monitor ground-level ozone, particulates,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide,
and calculate air quality indices for these pollutants.* [10]
The denition of the AQI in a particular nation reects
the discourse surrounding the development of national air
quality standards in that nation.* [11] A website allowing government agencies anywhere in the world to submit their real-time air monitoring data for display using
a common denition of the air quality index has recently
become available.* [12]
44
concentrations of these four pollutants. The AQHIs are troduce the culture of cleanliness.* [18] Institutional and
grouped into ve AQHI health risk categories with health infrastructural measures are being undertaken in order to
advice provided:* [15]
ensure that the mandate of cleanliness is fullled across
Each of the health risk categories has advice with it. At the country and the Ministry of Environment, Forests &
the low and moderate levels the public are advised that Climate Change proposed to discuss the issues concerned
they can continue normal activities. For the high cate- regarding quality of air with the Ministry of Human Regory, children, the elderly and people with heart or res- source Development in order to include this issue as part
piratory illnesses are advising to reduce outdoor physical of the sensitisation programme in the course curriculum.
exertion. Above this (very high or serious) the general While the earlier measuring index was limited to three inpublic are also advised to reduce or avoid outdoor physi- dicators, the current measurement index had been made
cal exertion.
quite comprehensive by the addition of ve additional parameters. Under the current measurement of air quality
there are 8 parameters . The initiatives undertaken by
10.2.3 Mainland China
the Ministry recently aimed at balancing environment and
conservation and development as air pollution has been a
China's Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) is matter of environmental and health concerns, particularly
responsible for measuring the level of air pollution in in urban areas.* [19]
China. As of 1 January 2013, MEP monitors daily polThe Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution level in 163 of its major cities. The API level is
lution Control Boards has been operating National Air
based on the level of 6 atmospheric pollutants, namely
Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), suspended
country. In addition, continuous monitoring systems that
particulates smaller than 10 m in aerodynamic diamprovide data on near real-time basis are also installed in
eter (PM10 ), suspended particulates smaller than 2.5
a few cities. They provide information on air quality in
m in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5 )carbon monoxide
public domain in simple linguistic terms that is easily
(CO), and ozone (O3 ) measured at the monitoring staunderstood by a common person.* [20] Air Quality Intions throughout each city.* [16]
dex (AQI) is one such tool for eective dissemination
AQI Mechanics
of air quality information to people. As such an Expert
An individual score (IAQI) is assigned to the level of each Group comprising medical professionals, air quality expollutant and the nal AQI is the highest of those 6 scores. perts, academia, advocacy groups, and SPCBs was conThe pollutants can be measured quite dierently. PM2.5 stituted and a technical study was awarded to IIT Kanpur.
PM10 concentration are measured as average per 24h. IIT Kanpur and the Expert Group recommended an AQI
SO2 , NO2 , O3 , CO are measured as average per hour. scheme in 2014.* [21]
The nal API value is calculated per hour according to a
There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfacformula published by the MEP.* [17]
tory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and SeThe scale for each pollutant is non-linear, as is the nal vere. The proposed AQI will consider eight polluAQI score. Thus an AQI of 100 does not mean twice the tants (PM10 , PM2.5 , NO2 , SO2 , CO, O3 , NH3 , and
pollution of AQI at 50, nor does it mean twice as harmful. Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging peWhile an AQI of 50 from day 1 to 182 and AQI of 100 riod) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prefrom day 183 to 365 does provide an annual average of scribed.* [22] Based on the measured ambient concentra75, it does not mean the pollution is acceptable even if the tions, corresponding standards and likely health impact, a
benchmark of 100 is deemed safe. This is because the sub-index is calculated for each of these pollutants. The
benchmark is a 24-hour target. The annual average must worst sub-index reects overall AQI. Associated likely
match against the annual target. It is entirely possible to health impacts for dierent AQI categories and polluhave safe air every day of the year but still fail the annual tants have been also been suggested, with primary inputs
pollution benchmark.* [16]
from the medical expert members of the group. The AQI
values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health
*
AQI and Health Implications (HJ 663-2012) [16]
breakpoints) as well as associated likely health impacts
for the identied eight pollutants are as follows:
10.2.4
India
10.2.5 Mexico
Main article: ndice Metropolitano de la Calidad del Aire
The air quality in Mexico City is reported in IMECAs.
The IMECA is calculated using the measurements of average times of the chemicals ozone (O3 ), sulphur dioxide
10.2.6
Singapore
45
10.2.9 Europe
To present the air quality situation in European cities in
a comparable and easily understandable way, all detailed
measurements are transformed into a single relative gure: the Common Air Quality Index (or CAQI) Three
dierent indices have been developed by Citeair to enable
the comparison of three dierent time scale:.* [30]* [31]
An hourly index, which describes the air quality
today, based on hourly values and updated every
hours,
A daily index, which stands for the general air quality situation of yesterday, based on daily values and
updated once a day,
10.2.7
South Korea
10.2.8
United Kingdom
46
low
I = Chigh
(C Clow ) + Ilow
high Clow
If the index is higher than 1: for one or more pollutants the limit values are not met.
where:
10.2.10
United States
47
a 24-hour average.) To accurately reect the current air achieved the public policy objectives and led to the fuquality, the multi-hour average used for the AQI compu- ture development of improved indices and their routine
tation should be centered on the current time, but as con- application.
centrations of future hours are unknown and are dicult
to estimate accurately, EPA uses surrogate concentrations
to estimate these multi-hour averages. For reporting the 10.3 See also
PM2.5 , PM10 and ozone air quality indices, this surrogate
concentration is called the NowCast. The Nowcast is a
Air pollution
particular type of weighted average that provides more
weight to the most recent air quality data when air pollu Indoor air quality
tion levels are changing. * [37]* [38]
Public Availability of the AQI
10.4 References
[3] https://www.gmes-atmosphere.eu/services/raq/raq_nrt/
The AQI made its debut in 1968, when the National Air
Pollution Control Administration undertook an initiative
to develop an air quality index and to apply the methodology to Metropolitan Statistical Areas. The impetus was to
draw public attention to the issue of air pollution and indirectly push responsible local public ocials to take action to control sources of pollution and enhance air quality
within their jurisdictions.
Jack Fensterstock, the head of the National Inventory of
Air Pollution Emissions and Control Branch, was tasked
to lead the development of the methodology and to compile the air quality and emissions data necessary to test
and calibrate resultant indices.* [41]
The initial iteration of the air quality index used standardized ambient pollutant concentrations to yield individual
pollutant indices. These indices were then weighted and
summed to form a single total air quality index. The overall methodology could use concentrations that are taken
from ambient monitoring data or are predicted by means
of a diusion model. The concentrations were then converted into a standard statistical distribution with a preset
mean and standard deviation. The resultant individual
pollutant indices are assumed to be equally weighted, although values other than unity can be used. Likewise, the
index can incorporate any number of pollutants although
it was only used to combine SOx, CO, and TSP because
of a lack of available data for other pollutants.
48
Chapter 11
As an example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS)* [6] NAAQS set attainment
thresholds for sulfur dioxide, particulate matter (PM10
11.1 Air pollutant classication
and PM2.5 ), carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen oxides
NO, and lead (Pb) in outdoor air throughout the United
Air quality regulation must identify the substances and States. Another set of standards, for indoor air in employenergies which qualify as "pollution" for purposes of ment settings, is administered by the U.S. Occupational
*
further control. While specic labels vary from juris- Safety and Health Administration. [7]
diction to jurisdiction, there is broad consensus among A distinction may be made between mandatory and asmany governments regarding what constitutes air pol- pirational air quality standards. For example, U.S. state
lution. For example, the United States Clean Air Act governments must work toward achieving NAAQS, but
identies ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, are not forced to meet them. On the other hand, employnitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and lead ers may be required immediately to rectify any violation
(Pb) as criteriapollutants requiring nationwide regu- of OSHA workplace air quality standards.
lation.* [1] EPA has also identied over 180 compounds
it has classied ashazardouspollutants requiring strict
control.* [2] Other compounds have been identied as
11.3 Emission standards
air pollutants due to their adverse impact on the environment (e.g., CFCs as agents of ozone depletion), and
on human health (e.g., asbestos in indoor air).* [3] A Main article: Emission standard
broader conception of air pollution may also incorporate
noise, light, and radiation. The United States has recently Emission standards are the legal requirements governseen controversy over whether carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and ing air pollutants released into the atmosphere. Emisother greenhouse gases should be classied as air pollu- sion standards set quantitative limits on the permissible
tants.* [4]
amount of specic air pollutants that may be released
from specic sources over specic timeframes. They are
generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human health.
11.2 Air quality standards
Numerous methods exist for determining appropriate
Air quality standards are legal standards or requirements emissions standards, and dierent regulatory approaches
governing concentrations of air pollutants in breathed may be taken depending on the source, industry, and
air, both outdoors and indoors. Such standards gener- air pollutant under review.<See generally, U.S. EPA
49
50
Emissions] page. Specic limits may be set by reference
to and within the connes of more general air quality
standards. Specic sources may be regulated by means
of performance standards, meaning numerical limits on
the emission of a specic pollutant from that source category. Regulators may also mandate the adoption and
use of specic control technologies, often with reference
to feasibility, availability, and cost. Still other standards
may be set using performance as a benchmark - for example, requiring all of a specic type of facility to meet the
emissions limits achieved by the best performing facility
of the group. All of these methods may be modied by
incorporating emissions averaging, market mechanisms
such as emissions trading, and other alternatives.
For example, all of these approaches are used in the
United States.* [8] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (responsible for air quality regulation at
a national level under the U.S. Clean Air Act, utilizes
performance standards under the New Source Performance Standard (NSPS) program. Technology requirements are set under RACT (Reasonably Available Control Technology), BACT (Best Available Control Technology), and LAER (Lowest Achievable Emission Rate)
standards.* [9] Flexibility alternatives are implemented in
U.S. programs to eliminate acid rain, protect the ozone
layer, achieve permitting standards, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.* [10]
11.5 Bans
Air quality laws may take the form of bans. While arguably a class of emissions control law (where the emission limit is set to zero), bans dier in that they may regulate activity other than the emission of a pollutant itself,
even though the ultimate goal is to eliminate the emission
of the pollutant.
A common example is a burn ban.* [12] Residential and
commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted
during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use
of non-polluting heating methods. A more signicant
example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of
dichlorodiuoromethane (Freon)), formerly the standard
refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This
substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a signicant ozone depletion potential,
and its widespread use to pose a signicant threat to the
Earth's ozone layer. Its manufacture was prohibited as
part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the
Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Still another example is the
ban on use of asbestos in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos
bers when the building materials are disturbed.
51
11.7 Controversy
Proponents of air quality law argue that they have caused
or contributed to major reductions in air pollution, with
concomitant human health and environmental benets,
even in the face of large-scale economic growth and increases in motor vehicle use.* [14] On the other hand,
controversy may arise over the estimated cost of additional regulatory standards.* [15]
Arguments over cost, however, cut both ways. For example, the estimates that the benets of reducing ne
particle and ground level ozone pollution under the 1990
Clean Air Act amendments will reach approximately $2
trillion in 2020 while saving 230,000 people from early
death in that year alone.According to the same report,
2010 alone the reduction of ozone and particulate matter in the atmosphere prevented more than 160,000 cases
of premature mortality, 130,000 heart attacks, 13 million lost work days and 1.7 million asthma attacks.* [16]
Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions, Annex 16, vol. 2 to the Chicago Convention
on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981.
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992, including the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and the Paris Agreement, 2015.
Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed Strategy, Vancouver, Statement of Intent,
2002.* [18]
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,
Montreal 1987.
U.S.-Canada Air Quality Agreement (bilateral U.S.Canadian agreement on acid rain), 1986
11.8.2 Canada
With some industry-specic exceptions, Canadian air
pollution regulation was traditionally handled at the
provincial level.* [19] However, under the authority of
the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, the
country has recently enacted a national program called
the Canadian Air Quality Management System (AQMS).
The program includes ve main regulatory mechanisms:
the Canadian Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS);
Base Level Industrial Emission Requirements (BLIERs)
(emissions controls and technology); management of local air quality through the management of Local Air
Zones; management of regional air quality through the
management of Regional Airsheds; and collaboration to
reduce mobile source emissions.* [20]
The Canadian government has also made eorts to pass
legislation related to the country's greenhouse gas emissions. It has passed laws related to fuel economy in
passenger vehicles and light trucks, heavy-duty vehicles,
renewable fuels, and the energy and transportation sectors.* [21]
52
11.8.3
China
China, with severe air pollution in mega-cities and industrial centers, particularly in the north, has adapted the
Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
which aims for a 25% reduction in air pollution by 2017
from 2012 levels. Funded by $277 billion from the central government, the action plan targets PM 2.5 particulates which aect human health.* [22]
11.9 References
[1] U.S. EPA, What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?
[2] U.S. EPA, Original list of hazardous air pollutants.
[3] U.S. EPA, Air Pollutants.
11.8.4
New Zealand
11.8.5
United Kingdom
[12] See, e.g., Puget Sound Air Resources Board Burn Bans.
[13] See, for example Massachusetts EPA Air Permit & Re-
In response to the Great Smog of 1952, the British Parliaporting Toolkit Forms.
ment introduced the Clean Air Act 1956. This act legislated for zones where smokeless fuels had to be burnt and [14] See Union of Concerned Scientists, The Clean Air Act.
relocated power stations to rural areas. The Clean Air Act
1968* [25] introduced the use of tall chimneys to disperse [15] See, e.g., W. Koch, Obama, EPA sued for nixing tougher
ozone rules (USA Today).
air pollution for industries burning coal, liquid or gaseous
*
fuels. [26] The Clean Air Act was updated in 1993 and [16] Enesta Jones (03/01/2011). EPA Report Undercan be reviewed online legislation Clean Air Act 1993.
scores Clean Air Acts Successful Public Health ProtecThe biggest domestic impact comes from Part III, Smoke
tions/Landmark law saved 160,000 lives in 2010 alone.
Control Areas, which are designated by local authorities
EPA.gov. Retrieved 22 March 2012. Check date values
and can vary by street in large towns.
in: |date= (help)
11.8.6
United States
53
Chapter 12
Air stagnation
Air stagnation is a phenomenon which occurs when an
air mass remains over an area for an extended period.
Due to light winds and lack of precipitation, pollutants
cannot be cleared from the air, either gaseous (like ozone)
or particulate (like soot or dust). Subsidence produced
directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup
of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to
widespread haze.* [1] If the low level relative humidity
rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.* [2] In
the United States, the National Weather Service issues an
Air Stagnation Advisory when these conditions are likely
to occur.* [3]
12.1 References
[1] Myanmar government (2007). Haze. Retrieved on 200702-11.
[2] Robert Tardif (2002). Fog characteristics. University
Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved on
2007-02-11.
[3] National Weather Service glossary. Air Stagnation. Retrieved on 2008-05-31.
54
Chapter 13
Airlog
AIRLOG is a European Union FP7 project that was
scheduled to run from 1 February 2012 to 31 January 2014.* [1] The aim of AIRLOG was to develop
technology that would assist auditors of indoor air quality
(IAQ) and educate the public about IAQ.* [2] AIRLOG
was to also create an integrated platform for IAQ audit
management.* [3] As such, the project was to provide best
practice digital guide for the European Union.* [4]
13.1 Background
An audit of IAQ is not a simple process for a number of reasons. The assessment must include measures
of factors such as inecient heating and air conditioning, growth of mould in moist areas, and the presence of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from cleaning agents
and objects such as new furniture. The IAQ audit may encounter unknown variables that inuence its cost, time,
and accuracy. In addition, each building is dierent in
size, conguration, and exposure to air pollutants. The
creation of an accurate IAQ audit must come from the
combined eorts of engineers, chemists, health professionals, architects, building managers, maintenance personnel, building owners and consumers. IAQ auditors
need to be trained and accredited in order to give a buildAlthough, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air ing an ocial certication.
pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open res or traditional stoves, especially in poorly
ventilated rooms,* [7] indoor air pollutants may also come
from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appli- 13.3 Elements of an IAQ audit
ances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and
An IAC audit can be divided into two parts. One part is
construction materials.
Accurately determining risk associated with exposure to about the level of comfort experienced in a building and
indoor air pollution and controlling indoor air quality with the other is about measures of IAQ. Levels of comfort
regulatory instruments is dicult. Audits of Indoor Air in a building are determined by factors such as temperQuality (IAQ) may assist in lessening risk to the health ature, humidity, air velocity, air renewal, and ventilation
of people, help to improve productivity and support the pressure. The second part, the IAQ, is determined by
use energy eciency equipment and methods in build- factors such as inorganic toxic gases, VOCs, particulate
ings. To meet these goals, the European Commission's matter (PM10), electromagnetic elds and radiation, and
(EC) Scientic Committee on Health and Environmental microbiological contaminants (fungi and bacteria such as
Risks (SCHER) ruled that the EU should conduct a com- Legionella).
Air pollution is of concern in Europe because it may impair health and damage the environment.* [5] Long term
exposure to air polluted with ne particles in Europe, especially that from proximity to trac, is associated with
deaths from natural causes and low birth weight (but not
necessarily with non-malignant respiratory deaths).* [6]
In the EU, it is estimated to cost the healthcare system
1 million euros per year (nine percent of the EU Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). and 2.2 million disabilityadjusted life years (DALYs) are lost due to poor indoor
air quality; it is estimated that 30% of those who spend
a majority of their time within EU buildings suer from
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS).
prehensive review of existing data on pollutants of indoor The audit is taken in steps. An initial assessment involves the collecting of information about the building
air and begin recording data in a database.
55
56
and its ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC); its critical points; and its possible sources of contamination. This
is done through visual inspection. Then, there is the standardised measurement and analysis of factors such as certain chemicals and microbes. This is done by collecting
samples for laboratory analysis. A third step is researching possible corrective actions.
13.10. NOTES
13.10 Notes
CEN standard TC 264 - WG 9: Quality assurance
of automated measuring systems
CEN standard TC 264 - WG 26: Indoor air emissions of building materials.
Decree law 78/2006: National energy certication system and indoor air quality in buildings.
(Portugal)
International Society of Indoor Air Quality (ISIAQNL) and Eco-Counselling Europe. (Netherlands)
New Jersey Indoor air quality standard: NJAC
12:100-13, 2007.
57
Chapter 14
14.3 References
[1] http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/
outdoorair_aqg/en/
[2] Supreme Council for Environment and Natural Resources, Executive Bye-law for the Environment Protection Law Issued via the Decree Law No. 30 for the Year
2002, Annex 3
Chapter 15
Arctic haze
ity can drop to one tenth that of normally clear sky. At
this time it was unknown whether the haze was natural or
was formed by pollutants.
In 1972, Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the
University of Alaska attributed this smog to transboundary anthropogenic pollution, whereby the Arctic is the
recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands
of miles away. Further research continues with the aim
of understanding the impact of this pollution on global
warming.* [5]
Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic
Arctic haze is the phenomenon of a visible reddishbrown springtime haze in the atmosphere at high latitudes
in the Arctic due to anthropogenic air pollution. A major distinguishing factor of Arctic haze is the ability of
its chemical ingredients to persist in the atmosphere for
an extended period of time compared to other pollutants.
Due to limited amounts of snow, rain, or turbulent air to
displace pollutants from the polar air mass in spring, Arctic haze can linger for more than a month in the northern
atmosphere.
60
15.6 Footnotes
[1] Garrett, Tim. Pollutant Haze is Heating up the Arctic. 10
May 2006. Earth Observatory. Earth Observatory News
[2] Soroos, Marvin. ''The odyssey of Arctic haze: toward a
global atmosphere regime''. December, 1992. ''Environment Magazine''.. Findarticles.com. Retrieved 201310-11.
15.7 References
Connelly, Joel. Pictures of Arctic are Hard to
Argue With. 13 November 2006. Seattle PostIntelligencer.
Rozell, Ned. Arctic Haze: An Uninvited Spring
Guest. 2 April 1996. Geographical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 1 May 2007
Study: The Haze is Heating Up the Arctic. 10 May
2006. United Press International.
Garrett, Tim. Pollutant Haze is Heating up the Arctic.
10 May 2006. Earth Observatory.
Contaminating the Arctic. 1 January 1999. Scholastic.
Gorrie, Peter. Grim prognosis for Earth. 3 January
2007. Toronto Star.
61
Chapter 16
63
in emission or accidental release source terms) and The ABL is of the most important with respect to the
temperature of the material
emission, transport and dispersion of airborne pollutants.
The part of the ABL between the Earth's surface and
Emissions or release parameters such as source loca- the bottom of the inversion layer is known as the mixing
tion and height, type of source (i.e., re, pool or vent layer. Almost all of the airborne pollutants emitted into
stack)and exit velocity, exit temperature and mass the ambient atmosphere are transported and dispersed
ow rate or release rate.
within the mixing layer. Some of the emissions penetrate
the inversion layer and enter the free troposphere above
Terrain elevations at the source location and at the the ABL.
receptor location(s), such as nearby homes, schools,
In summary, the layers of the Earth's atmosphere from
businesses and hospitals.
the surface of the ground upwards are: the ABL made up
The location, height and width of any obstructions of the mixing layer capped by the inversion layer; the free
(such as buildings or other structures) in the path of troposphere; the stratosphere; the mesosphere and oththe emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness or the ers. Many atmospheric dispersion models are referred to
use of a more generic parameterruralorcity as boundary layer models because they mainly model air
pollutant dispersion within the ABL. To avoid confusion,
terrain.
models referred to as mesoscale models have dispersion
modeling capabilities that extend horizontally up to a few
Many of the modern, advanced dispersion modeling prohundred kilometres. It does not mean that they model
grams include a pre-processor module for the input of
dispersion in the mesosphere.
meteorological and other data, and many also include
a post-processor module for graphing the output data
and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants
on maps. The plots of areas impacted may also include 16.2 Gaussian air pollutant disperisopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations
sion equation
that dene areas of the highest health risk. The isopleths
plots are useful in determining protective actions for the
public and responders.
The technical literature on air pollution dispersion is quite
The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as at- extensive and dates back to the 1930s and earlier. One of
mospheric diusion models, air dispersion models, air the early air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson.* [2] Their equation did
quality models, and air pollution dispersion models.
not assume Gaussian distribution nor did it include the
eect of ground reection of the pollutant plume.
Sir Graham Sutton derived an air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947* [3] which did include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crossDiscussion of the layers in the Earth's atmosphere is
wind dispersion of the plume and also included the eect
needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse
of ground reection of the plume.
in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface
is known as the troposphere. It extends from sea-level to Under the stimulus provided by the advent of stringent
a height of about 18 km and contains about 80 percent of environmental control regulations, there was an immense
the mass of the overall atmosphere. The stratosphere is growth in the use of air pollutant plume dispersion calcuthe next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. lations between the late 1960s and today. A great many
The third layer is the mesosphere which extends from 50 computer programs for calculating the dispersion of air
km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, pollutant emissions were developed during that period
but they are insignicant with respect to atmospheric dis- of time and they were called air dispersion models
. The basis for most of those models was the Compersion modeling.
plete Equation For Gaussian Dispersion Modeling
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
Of Continuous, Buoyant Air Pollution Plumes shown
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or the planetary
below:* [4]* [5]
boundary layer (PBL) and extends from the Earth's sur+g3
face to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height. The air tem- C = uQ f 2 g1+g22
y
z
perature of the atmospheric boundary layer decreases
with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called The above equation not only includes upward reection
the inversion layer (where the temperature increases with from the ground, it also includes downward reection
increasing altitude) that caps the atmospheric boundary from the bottom of any inversion lid present in the atlayer. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the mosphere.
inversion layer) is called the free troposphere and it ex- The sum of the four exponential terms in g3 converges to
a nal value quite rapidly. For most cases, the summation
tends up to the 18 km height of the troposphere.
64
of the series with m = 1, m = 2 and m = 3 will provide an he compared many of the plume rise models then availadequate solution.
able in the literature.* [7] In that same year, Briggs also
*
z and y are functions of the atmospheric stability class wrote the section of the publication edited by Slade [8]
(i.e., a measure of the turbulence in the ambient atmo- dealing with the comparative analyses of plume rise modcritical resphere) and of the downwind distance to the receptor. els. That was followed in 1969 by his classical
*
view
of
the
entire
plume
rise
literature,
[9]
in
which he
The two most important variables aecting the degree of
proposed
a
set
of
plume
rise
equations
which
have bepollutant emission dispersion obtained are the height of
come
widely
known
as
the
Briggs
equations.
Subsethe emission source point and the degree of atmospheric
quently, Briggs modied his 1969 plume rise equations
turbulence. The more turbulence, the better the degree
in 1971 and in 1972.* [10]* [11]
of dispersion.
The resulting calculations for air pollutant concentra- Briggs divided air pollution plumes into these four general
tions are often expressed as an air pollutant concentra- categories:
tion contour map in order to show the spatial variation in
Cold jet plumes in calm ambient air conditions
contaminant levels over a wide area under study. In this
way the contour lines can overlay sensitive receptor loca Cold jet plumes in windy ambient air conditions
tions and reveal the spatial relationship of air pollutants
to areas of interest.
Hot, buoyant plumes in calm ambient air conditions
Whereas older models rely on stability classes (see air pol Hot, buoyant plumes in windy ambient air condilution dispersion terminology) for the determination of
tions
y and z , more recent models increasingly rely on the
Monin-Obukhov similarity theory to derive these paramBriggs considered the trajectory of cold jet plumes to
eters.
be dominated by their initial velocity momentum, and
the trajectory of hot, buoyant plumes to be dominated
by their buoyant momentum to the extent that their ini16.3 Briggs plume rise equations
tial velocity momentum was relatively unimportant. Although Briggs proposed plume rise equations for each of
The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation (discussed the above plume categories, it is important to emphasize
above) requires the input of H which is the pollutant that the Briggs equationswhich become widely used
plume's centerline height above ground leveland H is are those that he proposed for bent-over, hot buoyant
the sum of H s (the actual physical height of the pollutant plumes.
plume's emission source point) plus H (the plume rise In general, Briggs's equations for bent-over, hot buoydue the plume's buoyancy).
ant plumes are based on observations and data involving
plumes from typical combustion sources such as the ue
Plume
gas stacks from steam-generating boilers burning fossil
z
centerline
fuels in large power plants. Therefore the stack exit vePollutant
locities were probably in the range of 20 to 100 ft/s (6 to
concentration
proles
30 m/s) with exit temperatures ranging from 250 to 500
F (120 to 260 C).
Wind
He at x3
He at x2
+y Hs
He at x1
-y
To determine H, many if not most of the air dispersion models developed between the late 1960s and the
early 2000s used what are known as the Briggs equations.G.A. Briggs rst published his plume rise observations and comparisons in 1965.* [6] In 1968, at a symposium sponsored by CONCAWE (a Dutch organization),
16.5. REFERENCES
65
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
TA Luft
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau
Desert Research Institute
VITO (institute) Belgium; https://vito.be/en
16.4.3 Others
Air pollution dispersion terminology
ADMS
AERMOD
ATSTEP
CALPUFF
CMAQ
DISPERSION21
FLACS
FLEXPART
HYSPLIT
HYPACT
ISC3
NAME
MERCURE
OSPM
Fluidyn-Panache
RIMPUFF
SAFE AIR
PUFF-PLUME
16.4.2
Organizations
16.5 References
[1] Fensterstock, J.C. et al., Reduction of air pollution
potential through environmental planning, JAPCA,
Vol.21,No.7, 1971.
[2] Bosanquet, C.H. and Pearson, J.L.,The spread of smoke
and gases from chimneys, Trans. Faraday Soc., 32:1249,
1936
[3] Sutton, O.G., The problem of diusion in the lower atmosphere, QJRMS, 73:257, 1947 andThe theoretical
distribution of airborne pollution from factory chimneys
, QJRMS, 73:426, 1947
[4] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-96445880-2.
[5] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion
estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
[6] Briggs, G.A., A plume rise model compared with observations, JAPCA, 15:433438, 1965
[7] Briggs, G.A., CONCAWE meeting: discussion of the
comparative consequences of dierent plume rise formulas, Atmos. Envir., 2:228232, 1968
66
[10] Briggs, G.A., Some recent analyses of plume rise observation, Proc. Second Internat'l. Clean Air Congress,
Academic Press, New York, 1971
[11] Briggs, G.A.,Discussion: chimney plumes in neutral and
stable surroundings, Atmos. Envir., 6:507510, 1972
Books
Introductory
Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN
0-9644588-0-2.
Center for Chemical Process Safety (1999). Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis (2nd ed.). American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-8169-0720-5.
Center for Chemical Process Safety (1996). Guidelines for Use of Vapor Cloud and Source Dispersion
Models, with Worked Examples (2nd ed.). American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY.
ISBN 978-0-8169-0702-1.
67
Council (2002). Tracking and Predicting the Atmospheric Dispersion of Hazardous Material Releases
(Workshop). National Academies Press, 2003.
ISBN 0-309-08926-3.
16.6.3 Guidance
Hanna, S. R., Briggs, G. A., & Hosker, R. P.
(1982). Handbook on Atmospheric Diusion. U.S.
Department of Energy, Technical Information Center. DOE/TIC-11223.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993).
Guidance on the Application of Rened Dispersion
Models for Hazardous/Toxic Air Releases. Oce of
Air Quality Planning and Standards, EPA-454/R93-002.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999). Risk
Management Program Guidance for Osite Consequence Analysis (Appendices) (PDF). Oce of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, EPA 550-B-99009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999).
Technical Background Document for Osite Consequence Analysis for Anhydrous Ammonia, Aqueous Ammonia, Chlorine, and Sulfur Dioxide (PDF).
Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention
Oce.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009).
Chapter 4: Osite Consequence Analysis. In General
Guidance on Risk Management Programs for Chemical Accident Prevention (40 CFR Part 68) (PDF).
Oce of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,
EPA 555-B-04-001.
68
Atmospheric Chemistry transport model LOTOSEUROS
The Operational Priority Substances model OPS
(Dutch)
HAMS-GPS Dispersion modelling
Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling. Addresses the international community of atmospheric
dispersion modellers - primarily researchers, but
also users of models. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their
work.
Chapter 17
Best available technology (or just BAT) is a term applied with regulations on limiting pollutant discharges
with regard to the abatement strategy. Similar terms are
best available techniques, best practicable means or best
practicable environmental option. The term constitutes a
moving target on practices, since developing societal values and advancing techniques may change what is currently regarded asreasonably achievable,best practicableand best available.
[2]
69
70
...an emission limitation based on the maximum degree of reduction of each pollutant
subject to regulation under this Act emitted
from or which results from any major emitting facility, which the permitting authority,
on a case-by-case basis, taking into account
energy, environmental, and economic impacts
and other costs, determines is achievable for
such facility through application of production
processes and available methods, systems, and
techniques, including fuel cleaning, clean fuels, or treatment or innovative fuel combustion techniques for control of each such pollutant.* [7]
The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires issuance of national industrial wastewater discharge regulations (called
"euent guidelines"), which are based on BAT and several related standards.
17.5 References
[1] Sorrell, Steve (2001-02-19). The Meaning of BATNEEC: Interpreting Excessive Costs in UK Industrial Pollution Regulation. sussex.ac.uk. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
[2] Higgins, Clement (1877). A Treatise on the Law Relating
to the Pollution & Obstruction of Watercourses. London,
UK: Stevens and Haynes. pp. 175176. Retrieved 200902-27.
71
Chapter 18
D2
6
5
D1
The schematic of a beta attenuation monitor (BAM). The detector allows to assess cumulative mass concentration of suspended
particulate matter (PM) in the ambient air. Notation: 1 air inlet; 2 cycling ribbon; 3 and 4 beta radiation sources; D1 and
D2 beta radiation detectors; 5 air pump; 6 air exhaust.
18.1 References
72
[1] A. Liberti. Modern Methods for Air Pollution Monitoring. Pure and Applied Chemistry 1975, 44(3). pp. 519
534.
[2] Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air. Chapter IO-1. Continuous measurement of PM10 suspended particulate matter
(SPM) in ambient air. EPA:Cincinnati, 1999. 7 p.
[3] Enviro Technology Services. Product overview: OPSIS
SM200 PM10 PM2.5 Sampler. Online: http://www.et.
co.uk/products/air-quality-monitoring.
[4] UK Equivalence Programme for Monitoring of Particulate
Matter. Final report. Bureau Veritas: London, 2006.
126 p.
[5] Enviro Technology Services. Product overview: CES
Xact 625 Monitoring System. Online: http://www.et.co.
uk/products/air-quality-monitoring.
18.2. LITERATURE
18.2 Literature
List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods. EPA: Research Triangle park, 2013. Online:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/criteria.html .
73
Chapter 19
Transition Towns
Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States
Chicago Climate Action Plan
San Francisco Climate Action Plan
Biodiversity Action Plan
Obamas Climate Action Plan
Charge:
Current tax rates for electricity customers (link to 7):
19.5. REFERENCES
Clean air reference website
Fireplace Rebate Fund
BAAQMD phone numbers including 800EXHAUST (800-394-2878) to report smoggy
cars
75
Chapter 20
Burn pit
A burn pit is an area devoted to open-air combustion
of trash. Modern waste contains signicant amounts of
plastic and other material which may emit toxic aerial
compounds and particulates when burned. In Iraq and
Afghanistan the U.S. military, or its contractors such
as KBR operated large burn pits for long periods of
time burning many tons of assorted waste. Active duty
personnel reported respiratory diculties and headaches
in some cases and some veterans have made disability
claims based on respiratory system symptoms.* [1]
20.3 Duration
Burn pits were adopted as a temporary measure but remained open long after alternative methods of disposal
such as incineration were available. After some years the
American military did adopt other methods. * [1]
20.5 References
[1] Veterans Sound Alarm Over Burn-Pit Exposurearticle
by James Risen in The New York Times August 6, 2010,
accessed August 7, 2010
[2] Burn pit at Balad raises health concerns: Troops say
chemicals and medical waste burned at base are making
77
Chapter 21
CALPUFF
CALPUFF is an advanced, integrated Lagrangian pu CALPUFF as a preferred model in their Guideline on Air
modeling system for the simulation of atmospheric pol- Quality Models, Earth Tech served as the designated dislution dispersion distributed by the Atmospheric Studies tributor of the model.
Group at TRC Solutions.* [1]
In April 2006, ownership of the model switched from
It is maintained by the model developers and distributed Earth Tech to the TRC Environmental Corporation.
by TRC. The model has been adopted by the United More recently ownership transferred to E* xponent,* [5]
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its who are currently (December 2015) responsible for mainGuideline on Air Quality Models * [2] as a preferred model taining and distributing the model.* [1]
for assessing long range transport of pollutants and their
impacts on Federal Class I areas and on a case-by-case
basis for certain near-eld applications involving complex 21.2 See also
meteorological conditions.
The integrated modeling system consists of three main
components and a set of preprocessing and postprocessing programs. The main components of the modeling system are CALMET (a diagnostic 3-dimensional
meteorological model), CALPUFF (an air quality dispersion model), and CALPOST (a postprocessing package). Each of these programs has a graphical user interface (GUI). In addition to these components, there are
numerous other processors that may be used to prepare
geophysical (land use and terrain) data in many standard
formats, meteorological data (surface, upper air, precipitation, and buoy data), and interfaces to other models such
as the Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5), the
National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
Eta model and the RAMS meteorological model.
21.3 References
[1] CALPUFF Status and Update
[2] Appendix W of 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Part 51
The CALPUFF model is designed to simulate the dispersion of buoyant, pu or continuous point and area pollution sources as well as the dispersion of buoyant, continuous line sources. The model also includes algorithms for
handling the eect of downwash by nearby buildings in
the path of the pollution plumes.* [3]
21.1 History
The CALPUFF model was originally developed by the
Sigma Research Corporation (SRC) in the late 1980s
under contract with the California Air Resources Board
(CARB)* [3] and it was rst issued in about 1990.* [4]
The Sigma Research Corporation subsequently became
part of Earth Tech, Inc. After the US EPA designated
78
Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
www.crcpress.com
Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). self-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com
79
Chapter 22
CMAQ
CMAQ is an acronym for the Community Multi-scale
Air Quality Model,* [1]* [2] a sophisticated atmospheric
dispersion model developed by the US EPA to address
regional air pollution problems. (For example, a multistate area where ozone or ne particulate levels exceed
the US health standards.) In addition to simulating the
emission, advection, diusion, and deposition of air pollutants, CMAQ treats a wide array of chemical reactions
that occur throughout the lower atmosphere. For example, ozone forms in the atmosphere when nitrogen oxides
interact with volatile organic compounds in the presence
of sunlight. Ammonium sulfate is formed in ne particulate matter when sulfuric acid (formed largely in cloud
water) interacts with gas-phase ammonia.* [3] Meteorological conditions such as subsidence inversions, decrease
the amount fresh air available for dilution of air emissions, and increase the rate of production of secondary air
pollutants. CMAQ has the capability to accurately predict air pollution concentrations resulting from secondary
formation. Like any air dispersion model, CMAQ inputs
air pollutant emissions and meteorological data and outputs air pollutant concentrations and deposited totals. Its
particular strength is in assessing the ecacy of regional
emissions control strategies in reducing regional air pollution levels.
CMAQ may also refer to the Congestion Mitigation and
Air Quality Improvement Program, a program of the
United States Department of Transportation.* [4]
22.1 References
[1] Community Multi-scale Air Quality Model | Research
in Action | US EPA. Epa.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved
2015-06-03.
[2] Community Modeling and Analysis (CMAS) - CMAQ
. Cmascenter.org. 2014-10-24. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
[3] The Impact of Nonlocal Ammonia on Submicron Particulate Matter and Visibility Degradation in Urban Shanghai. Hindawi.com. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
[4] Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement
(CMAQ) Program. U.S. Department of Transportation.
Retrieved 4 November 2015.
80
Chapter 23
6
5
1
2
The schematic of a condensation particle counter, operated by
diusional thermal cooling. Drawn according to the description at http://www.cas.manchester.ac.uk/restools/instruments/
aerosol/cpc/. Notation: 1 air inlet; 2 porous material block,
which is heated to saturator temperature, 3 working uid in
reservoir, 4 condenser, 5 focusing nozzle, 6 laser-based
counter, 7 air pump, 8 air exhaust.
the humied air enters the cooler where nucleation occur. Temperature dierence between the heater and the
cooler determines the supersaturation, which in its turn
determines the minimal size of particles that will be detected (the greater the dierence, the smaller particles get
counted). As proper nucleation conditions occur in the
center of the ow, sometimes incoming ow is divided:
most of it undergoes ltering and forms the sheath ow,
which the rest of ow, still containing particles, is inserted
into via a capillary. The more uniform is obtained su-
81
82
persaturation, the sharper is particle minimal size cuto.
During the heterogeneous nucleation process in the nucleation chamber, particles grow up to 1012 m large and
so are conveniently detected by usual techniques, such as
laser nefelometry (measurement of light pulses scattered
by the grown-up particles).* [3]
23.1 References
[1] Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications, edited by Pramod Kulkarni, Paul A. Baron,
Klaus Willeke, p384, retrieved 15 May 2012
[2] Kulkarni, Baronand and Willeke, p381
[3] Condensation Particle Counters (CPC)
Chapter 24
Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution
sions of air pollutants:
Protocol 8: 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate
Acidication, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone
Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution signatories (green) and ratications (dark green) as of
July 2007
24.1 Overview
The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and
entered into force on 1983-03-16.
The Convention, which now has 51 Parties, identies
the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) as its secretariat. The
current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.
The Convention is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (short for 24.2 Substances
Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation
of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Eu- The following substances are contained in the CLRTAP
rope).* [1] Results of the EMEP programme are published POPs Protocol.* [2]
on the EMEP website, www.emep.int.
Since 1979 the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has addressed some of the major environmental problems of the UNECE region through scientic collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight protocols that identify
specic measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emis-
83
84
Environmental agreements
Gothenburg (Multi-eect) Protocol
1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur
Emissions
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions
Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol
24.4 References
Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003 edition
[1] EMEP History and Structure, EMEP website
[2] UNECE: Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010, p.
1213.
Chapter 25
4.
5. Lead (Pb): In the mid-1970s, lead was listed as a
criteria air pollutant that required NAAQS regulation. In 1977, the EPA published a document which
86
6.
7. Carbon monoxide (CO): The EPA set the rst
NAAQS for carbon monoxide in 1971. The primary
standard was set at 9 ppm averaged over an 8-hour
period and 35 ppm over a 1-hour period.* [8] The
majority of CO emitted into the ambient air is from
mobile sources. The EPA has reviewed and assessed
the current scientic literature with respect to CO in
1979, 1984, 1991, and 1994.* [9] After the review
in 1984 the EPA decided to remove the secondary
standard for CO due to lack of signicant evidence
of the adverse environmental impacts. On January
28, 2011 the EPA decided that the current NAAQS
for CO were sucient and proposed to keep the existing standards as they stood. The EPA is strengthening monitoring requirements for CO by calling for
CO monitors to be placed in strategic locations near
large urban areas. Specically, the EPA has called
for monitors to be placed and operational in CBSA's
(core based statistical areas) with populations over
2.5 million by January 1, 2015; and in CBSA's with
populations of 1 million or more by January 1, 2017.
In addition they are requiring the collocation of CO
monitors with NO2 monitors in urban areas having
a population of 1 million for more. As of May 2011
there were approximately 328 operational CO monitors in place nationwide. The EPA has provided
some authority to the EPA Regional Administrators
to oversee case-by-case requested exceptions and in
determining the need for additional monitoring sys-
87
On December 2, 2009, the Center for Biological Diversity and 350.org requested that the EPA recognize that
carbon dioxide and other GHGs are reasonably anticipated to endanger public health and welfare. Petitioners
proposed that EPA list carbon dioxide as a criteria air
pollutant, as outlined in the Clean Air Act. They also requested that the EPA set NAAQS for carbon dioxide at
no greater than 350 ppm- alevel that accurately reects
the most recent scientic knowledge.Petitioners further
requested that EPA designate the six other greenhouse
gases, highlighted in Mass v. EPA, as criteria pollutants
as well and establish pollution caps for them. Furthermore, the petitioners proposed that nitrogen triuoride
(NF3 ) be regulated as a criteria air pollutant in addition
to the other six.* [21]
25.7 References
[1] http://des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/
factsheets/ard/documents/ard-41.pdf
[2] Michigan Department Of Environmental Quality, January
2004. What is an Air Contaminant Pollutant? Fact Sheet
[3] http://epa.gov/air/criteria.html US EPA
[4] http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html
[5] http://www.epa.gov/ttnnaaqs/
[6] http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=
158823
88
[7] http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=
158823.
[8] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/carbonmonoxide/.
[9] http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/coaqcd.pdf.
[10] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/carbonmonoxide/pdfs/
COFactSheet.pdf.
[11] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/carbon.html.
[12] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/.
[13] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/pdfs/
20120320factsheet.pdf.
[14] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/sulfur.html.
[15] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/basic.html.
[16] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/.
[17] Fact Sheet Air Quality Designations for the 2010
Primary Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 ) National Ambient
Air Quality Standards http://www.epa.gov/airquality/
nitrogenoxides/designations/pdfs/20120120FS.pdf.
[18] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/nitrogen.html.
[19] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/basic.
html.
[20] http://epa.gov/climatechange/endangerment/downloads/
EndangermentFinding_FAQs.pdf.
[21] http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/climate_
law_institute/global_warming_litigation/clean_air_act/
pdfs/Petition_GHG_pollution_cap_12-2-2009.pdf.
Chapter 26
Critical load
In the study of air pollution, a critical load is dened
as A quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or
more pollutants below which signicant harmful eects
on specied sensitive elements of the environment do not
occur according to present knowledge. (Nilsson and
Grennfelt 1988)
Critical loads and the similar concept of critical levels
have been used extensively within the 1979 UN-ECE
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. As an example the 1999 Gothenburg protocol to
the LRTAP convention takes into account acidication
(of surface waters and soils), eutrophication of soils and
ground-level ozone and the emissions of sulfur dioxide,
ammonia, nitrogen oxide and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). For acidication and eutrophication the critical loads concept was used, whereas
for ground-level ozone the critical levels were used instead.
http://www.mnp.nl/cce/
Chapter 27
27.1 History
27.4 References
[1]
[3] The Model Documententation System (MDS) of the European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (part of
the European Environment Agency)
91
Chapter 28
Decipol
28.1 References
[1] Fanger, O. P.: Introduction of the Olf and the Decipol
Units to Quantify Air Pollution Perceived by Humans Indoors. In: Energy and Buildings. 12, 1988, 1-6
92
Chapter 29
Diesel exhaust
reduction (SNCR) systems to meet emissions laws, as
other methods such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
cannot adequately reduce NO to meet the newer standards applicable in many jurisdictions.
93
94
Water recovery
29.2 Regulation
Further information: Emission standard and Non-road
diesel engine Emission standards
Chemical classes
95
atmospheric soot and ne particles, which is a component of the air pollution implicated in human cancer,* [13]* [14] heart and lung damage,* [15] and mental
functioning.* [16] Moreover, diesel exhaust contains contaminants listed as carcinogenic for humans by the IARC
(part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations), as present in their List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens.<* [8] Diesel exhaust pollution is thought to account
for around one quarter of the pollution in the air in previous decades, and a high share of sickness caused by automotive pollution.* [17]
29.3.2
Exposure to diesel exhaust and diesel particulate matter (DPM) is an occupational hazard to truckers, railroad
workers, and miners using diesel-powered equipment in
underground mines. Adverse health eects have also
been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.
In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that
underground miners exposed to high levels of diesel
fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting
lung cancer compared with those exposed to low levels. The $11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study
(DEMS) followed 12,315 miners, controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos.
This allowed scientists to isolate the eects of diesel
fumes.* [18]* [19]
For over 10 years, concerns have been raised in the USA
regarding children's exposure to DPM as they ride dieselpowered school buses to and from school.* [20] In 2013,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established
the Clean School Bus USA initiative in an eort to unite
private and public organizations in curbing student exposures.* [21]
A study of particulate matter (PM) emissions from transit buses running on ULSD and soybean biodiesel (B20)
was reported by Omidvarborna and coworkers, where
they conclude PM emissions appeared lower in cases of
biodiesel use, where they were dependent on the engine
model, cold and hot idle modes, and fuel type, and that
heavy metals in PM emitted during hot idling were greater
than those from cold idling; reasons for PM reduction in
biodiesel emissions were suggested to result from the oxygenated structure of biodiesel fuel, as well as arising from
changes in technology (including the use of a catalytic
converter in this test system).* [22]
Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as headache, dizziness, light-headedness,
nausea, coughing, dicult or labored breathing, tightness
of chest, and irritation of the eyes and nose and throat.
Long-term exposures can lead to chronic, more serious health problems such as cardiovascular disease, cardiopulmonary disease, and lung cancer.* [13]* [14]* [23]
Elemental carbon attributable to trac was signicantly
associated with wheezing at age 1 and persistent wheezing at age 3 in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air
*
The main particulate fraction of diesel exhaust consists of Pollution Study birth cohort study. [24]
ne particles. Because of their small size, inhaled parti- The NERC-HPA funded Trac Pollution and Health in
cles may easily penetrate deep into the lungs. The rough London project at King's College London is currently
surfaces of these particles makes it easy for them to bind seeking to rene understanding of the health eects of
with other toxins in the environment, thus increasing the trac pollution.* [25] Ambient trac-related air polluhazards of particle inhalation.* [7]
tion was associated with decreased cognitive function in
Diesel particulate matter (DPM), sometimes also
called diesel exhaust particles (DEP), is the particulate
component of diesel exhaust, which includes diesel soot
and aerosols such as ash particulates, metallic abrasion
particles, sulfates, and silicates. When released into the
atmosphere, DPM can take the form of individual particles or chain aggregates, with most in the invisible
sub-micrometre range of 100nanometers, also known as
ultrane particles (UFP) or PM0.1.
96
29.5.2
97
types, a PM lter and additional oxidation catalyst technologies.* [33] The combined system incorporates two
turbochargers, the rst on the exhaust manifold, with
variable geometry and containing the EGR system; and a
second a xed geometry turbocharger. Recirculated exhaust gas and the compressed air from the turbochargers
have separate coolers, and air merges before entering the
intake manifold, and all subsystems are controlled by a
central engine control unit that optimizes minimization
of pollutants released in the exhaust gas.* [33]
29.5.3
29.5.4
Combined systems
John Deere, the farm equipment manufacturer is implementing such a combined SNCR-EGR design, in a 9liter inline 6diesel engine that involves both system
Umweltbundesamt Berlin Future Diesel. Abgasgesetzgebung Pkw, leichte Nfz und Lkw Fortschreibung
der Grenzwerte bei Dieselfahrzeugen 2003. Report
2353, especially page 25
98
99
[21] Clean School Bus. EPA.gov. United States Government. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
[23] Ole Raaschou-Nielsen; et al. (July 10, 2013). Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts:
prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts
for Air Pollution Eects (ESCAPE)". The Lancet Oncology 14 (9): 81322. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)702791. PMID 23849838. Retrieved July 10, 2013. Particulate
matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence
in Europe.
[24] David I. Bernstein,Diesel Exhaust Exposure, Wheezing
and Sneezing. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2012 Jul;
4(4): 178183. doi: 10.4168/aair.2012.4.4.178. PMCID: PMC3378923
[25] http://web.archive.org/web/20140803002711/http:
//www.erg.kcl.ac.uk:80/ResearchProjects/Traffic/.
Archived from the original on August 3, 2014. Retrieved
March 8, 2013. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[26] Archived January 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Scientic Study of Harmful Eects of Diesel Exhaust: Acute Inammatory Responses in the Airways and Peripheral Blood After Short-Term Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in Healthy Human Volunteers
[28] On-line measurements of diesel nanoparticle composition and volatility. Dx.doi.org. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
Chapter 30
Dust abatement
dust and asbestos. Application of this product is normally
done by lathering onto the surface and then removing with
a clean dry cloth.
30.2 References
Chapter 31
Over the course of the 20th century, the car rapidly developed from an expensive toy for the rich into thewonderfulstandard for passenger transport in most developed
countries.* [1]* [2] In developing countries, the eects of
the car have lagged, but are emulating the impacts of developed nations. The development of the car built upon
the transport revolution started by railways, and like the
railways, introduced sweeping changes in employment
patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and goods distribution.
The eects of the car on everyday life have been a subject of controversy. While the introduction of the massproduced car represented a revolution in mobility and
convenience, the modern consequences of heavy automotive use contribute to the use of non-renewable fuels, a dramatic increase in the rate of accidental death,
social isolation, the disconnection of community, the rise
in obesity, the generation of air and noise pollution, urban
sprawl, and urban decay.* [3]
31.1 History
In the early 20th century, cars entered mass production.
In 1907, 45,000 cars were produced in The United States,
but 28 years later in 1935 3,971,000 were produced,
nearly 100 times as many. This increase in production
required a large, new work force. In 1913 13,623 people worked at Ford Motor Company, but by 1915 18,028
people worked there.* [4] Bradford DeLong, author of
The Roaring Twenties, tells us that, Many more lined
up outside the Ford factory for chances to work at what
101
102
urban sprawl. This is due to trac congestion and the increased distances between home and work brought about
by urban sprawl.* [5]
Examples of car access issues in underdeveloped counHigh signs attract the attention of drivers on the adjacent freeway.
tries are:
Paving of Mexican Federal Highway 1 through Baja
California, completing the connection of Cabo San
Lucas to California, and convenient access to the
outside world for villagers along the route (occurred
in the 1950s).
In Madagascar, approximately 30 percent of the
population does not have access to reliable all
weather roads.* [6]
In China, 184 towns and 54,000 villages have no
motor road (or roads at all)* [7]
The origin of HIV explosion has been hypothesized
by CDC researchers to derive in part from more
intensive social interactions aorded by new road
networks in Central Africa allowing more frequent
travel from villages to cities and higher density development of many African cities in the period 1950
to 1980.* [8]
Many new shopping centers and suburbs did not install sidewalks,* [10] making pedestrian access danger Gasoline station grocery shopping
ous. This had the eect of encouraging people to
drive, even for short trips that might have been walkable, thus increasing and solidifying American autodependency.* [11] As a result of this change, employment
31.3 Economic changes
opportunities for people who were not wealthy enough to
own a car and for people who could not drive, due to age
31.3.1 Employment and consumption or physical disabilities, became severely limited.* [12]
habits
103
31.4 Trac
104
pedestrian-scale villages has also disconnected communities. Many people in developed countries have less contact with their neighbors and rarely walk unless they place
a high value on exercise.* [18]
Dorothy Levitt was among those eager to lay such concerns to rest, so much so that a century later only one
country had a women to drive movement. Where 19th
century mass media had made heroes of Casey Jones,
Allan Pinkerton and other stalwart protectors of public
transport, new road movies oered heroes who found
freedom and equality, rather than duty and hierarchy, on
the open road.
31.5.2
31.5.4 Cinema
Automobile gain in the twentieth century, also an important cultural role in cinema, mainly through blockbusters.
Important characters such as James Bond, or the ones performed by James Dean, were always provided on scene
with powerful automobiles, which through time, have become cultural icons.
31.6. SAFETY
105
teractions and companionships amongst those who take
pride in owning, maintaining, driving and showing their
cars. Many prestigious social events around the world today are centered around the hobby, a notable example is
the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance classic car show.
31.6 Safety
Main articles: Automobile safety, Trac collision and
Epidemiology of motor vehicle collisions
Motor vehicle accidents account for 37.5% of accidental
A second major aspect of the car hobby is vehicle modication, as many car enthusiasts modify their cars to
achieve performance improvements or visual enhancements. Many subcultures exist within this segment of the
car hobby, for example, those building their own custom
vehicles, primarily appearance-based on original examples or reproductions of pre-1948 US car market designs
and similar designs from the World War II era and earlier
from elsewhere in the world, are known as hot rodders,
while those who believe cars should stay true to their original designs and not be modied are known as "Purists".
In addition, motorsport (both professional and amateur)
as well as casual driving events, where enthusiasts from
around the world gather to drive and display their cars,
are important pillars of the car hobby as well. Notable
examples such events are the annual Mille Miglia classic
car rally and the Gumball 3000 supercar race.
US annual deaths per billion vehicle miles traveled (VMT) vs annual VMT (tens of billions), 1921 to 2009.
106
noise costs,
climate change costs,
costs for nature and landscape,
costs for water pollution,
costs for soil pollution and
costs of energy dependency.
Use of cars for transportation creates barriers by reducing
the landscape required for walking and cycling. It may
look like a minor problem initially but in the long run, it
poses a threat to children and the elderly. Transport is
a major land use, leaving less of this resource for other
purposes.
Cars also contribute to pollution of air and water. Though
a horse produces more waste, cars are cheaper, thus far
more numerous in urban areas than horses ever were.
Emissions of harmful gases like carbon monoxide, ozone,
carbon dioxide, benzene and particulate matter can damage living organisms and the environment. The emissions from cars cause disabilities, respiratory diseases,
and ozone depletion. Noise pollution from cars can also
potentially result in hearing disabilities, headaches, and
stress to those frequently exposed to it.
31.7.1
107
rate. Hence, the cost of driving a car in the US is subsi- cost of ownership for an automobile in the United States
dized, supported by businesses and the government who is rising about 2% per year.* [44]
cover the cost of roads and parking.* [35]
This government support of the automobile through subsidies for infrastructure, the cost of highway patrol enforcement, recovering stolen cars, and many other factors
makes public transport a less economically competitive
choice for commuters when considering Out-of-pocket
expenses. Consumers often make choices based on those
costs, and underestimate the indirect costs of car ownership, insurance and maintenance.* [36] However, globally and in some US cities, tolls and parking fees partially
oset these heavy subsidies for driving. Transportation
planning policy advocates often support tolls, increased
fuel taxes, congestion pricing and market-rate pricing for
municipal parking as a means of balancing car use in urban centers with more ecient modes such as buses and
trains.
When cities charge market rates for parking, and when
bridges and tunnels are tolled, driving becomes less competitive in terms of out-of-pocket costs. When municipal
parking is underpriced and roads are not tolled, most of
the cost of vehicle usage is paid for by general government revenue, a subsidy for motor vehicle use. The size
of this subsidy dwarfs the federal, state, and local subsidies for the maintenance of infrastructure and discounted
fares for public transportation.* [36]
vk =
d
tt
vv =
d
tt + tw
By contrast, although there are environmental and social where t is the time the driver needs to work, to aord
w
costs for rail, there is a very small impact.* [36]
doing that specic travelled distance d using such car.
31.7.2
vk =
vv =
40 km
13 km/h
1h+2h
108
31.9 References
[1] "The Enigma of Automobility" by Sudhir Chella Rajan.
University of Pittsburgh Press (1996)
[2] The Systemof Automobility by John Urry. Theory,
Culture & Society, Vol. 21, No. 45, 25-39 (2004)
[3] Asphalt Nation: how the automobile took over America,
and how we can take it back By Jane Holtz Kay Published
1998 ISBN 0-520-21620-2
[4] DeLong, Bradford. The Roaring Twenties.Slouching
Towards Utopia? The Economic History of the Twentieth
Century.. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
[5] Gilbert, Alan (1996). The mega-city in Latin America.
United Nations University Press. ISBN 92-808-0935-0.
[6] Madagascar: The Development of a National Rural
Transport Program. Worldbank.org. 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
[7] "''China Through a Lens: Rural Road Construction
Speeded Up''". China.org.cn. 2003-05-16. Retrieved
2011-01-09.
[8] Joseph M.D. McCormick, Susan Fisher-Hoch and Leslie
Alan Horvitz, Virus Hunters of the CDC, Turner Publishing (April 1997) IS 978-1570363979
[9] Jackson, Kenneth T. (1985). Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504983-7.
[10] Sidewalks? Too Pedestrian by: Mary Jane Smetanka
Minneapolis-St Paul Star Tribune, Aut 18, 2007
[11] Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture By John A.
Jakle, Keith A. Sculle. 2004. ISBN 0-8139-2266-6
[20] http://www.aaca.org/About-AACA/
an-introduction-to-aaca.html. A Concise History of
AACA in the Beginning. Antique Automobile Club of
America. Retrieved on February 20, 2014
[21] http://www.wealthdaily.com/articles/
investing-in-classic-cars/4748.
Investing in classic
cars. Retrieved on April 5, 2014
[22] http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/
info-invcar04.html. The Dow Jones Classic Car Index
. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on July 14, 2015
[23] Statistics database for transports. http://epp.eurostat.ec.
europa.eu (statistical database). Eurostat, European Commission. 20 April 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014. External link in |website= (help)
[24] Vojtech Eksler, ed. (5 May 2013). Intermediate report on the development of railway safety in the European Union 2013(PDF). http://www.era.europa.eu (report). Safety Unit, European Railway Agency & European Union. p. 1. Retrieved 12 May 2014. External link
in |website= (help)
[25] Directly from: http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/causes.
html See Accident as a Cause of Death
Derived from: National Vital Statistics Report, Volume
50, Number 15 (September 2002)
[26] http://www.cdc.gov/injury/overview/data.html
[27] ROBERTA PESCE (Apr 2, 2013). Death in the 20th
Century. The Infographic.
[28] World Health Organization. Number of road trac
deaths.
[29] Pedestrians become chief victims of road accident deaths
in 2008
[30] 365 Days for Stopping Accident Deaths
[38] http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi
[39] Diesendorf, Mark. The Eect of Land Costs on the Economics of Urban Transportation Systems (PDF). Proceedings of Third International Conference on Trac and
Transportation Studies (ICTTS2002). pp. 14221429.
ISBN 978-0-7844-0630-4. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
[40] Osborne, Hilary (2006-10-20). Cost of running a car
'exceeds 5,000'". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
[41] Meek, James (2004-12-20). The slow and the furious
. The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
[42] Car-ownership costs by state. Retrieved 2013-08-22
[43] IRS (June 23, 2011). IRS Increases Mileage Rate to
55.5 Cents per Mile.
[44] Which state is the most expensive for driving?. Retrieved
2013-08-22
[45] Illich, Ivan (1974). Energy and Habits (PDF).
[46] Ivan Illich, excerpts from Energy and Equity; also collected
in Toward a History of Needs. The industrialization of
trac.
109
Chapter 32
Emission standard
Further information: Air quality law
Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible
amount of specic air pollutants that may be released
from specic sources over specic timeframes. They are
generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human health.
to Environment Canada from Transport Canada's Motor Vehicle Safety Act. The Regulations align emission standards with the U.S. federal standards and apply to light-duty vehicles (e.g., passenger cars), light-duty
trucks (e.g., vans, pickup trucks, sport utility vehicles),
heavy-duty vehicles (e.g., trucks and buses), heavy-duty
engines and motorcycles.* [2]
California is attempting to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from automobiles, but faces a court challenge from
32.3 America
the federal government. The states are also attempting
to compel the federal EPA to regulate greenhouse gas
emissions, which as of 2007 it has declined to do. On
32.3.1 Canada
May 19, 2009 news reports indicate that the Federal EPA
In Canada, the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, will largely adopt California's standards on greenhouse
1999 (CEPA 1999) transfers the legislative authority for gas emissions.
regulating emissions from on-road vehicles and engines California and several other western states have passed
110
32.5. ASIA
111
32.4.3 Germany
Due to rapidly expanding wealth and prosperity, the number of coal power plants and cars on China's roads is
rapidly growing, creating an ongoing pollution problem.
China enacted its rst emissions controls on automobiles
in 2000, equivalent to Euro I standards. China's State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) upgraded
emission controls again on July 1, 2004 to the Euro II
standard.* [8] More stringent emission standard, National
Standard III, equivalent to Euro III standards, went into
eect on July 1, 2007.* [9] Plans are for Euro IV standards to take eect in 2010. Beijing introduced the Euro
IV standard in advance on January 1, 2008, became the
rst city in mainland China to adopt this standard.* [10]
32.4 Europe
32.4.1
European Union
32.5 Asia
32.5.1 China
See also: Energy policy of China
32.5.3 India
112
Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environ- existing NOx requirements and to add PM control proviment & Forests.
sions. The amended rule is called the Law Concerning
The standards, based on European regulations were rst Special Measures to Reduce the Total Amount of Nitrointroduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have gen Oxides and Particulate Matter Emitted from Motor
been rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufac- Vehicles in Specied Areas, or in short the Automotive
tured after the implementation of the norms have to be NOx and PM Law.
compliant with the regulations. As of 2014, the country is under a combination of Euro 3 and Euro 4-based Emission Standards
norms. Euro 6 norms are planned to be introduced across
the country by the April 1, 2020.
The NOx and PM Law introduces emission standards for
specied categories of in-use highway vehicles including commercial goods (cargo) vehicles such as trucks and
32.5.4 Japan
vans, buses, and special purpose motor vehicles, irrespective of the fuel type. The regulation also applies to diesel
Background
powered passenger cars (but not to gasoline cars).
Starting June 10, 1968, the Japanese Government passed In-use vehicles in the specied categories must meet
the (Japanese: Air Pollution Control Act) which reg- 1997/98 emission standards for the respective new vehiulated all sources of air pollutants. As a result of the cle type (in the case of heavy duty engines NOx = 4.5
1968 law, dispute resolutions were passed under the 1970 g/kWh, PM = 0.25 g/kWh). In other words, the 1997/98
(Japanese: Air Pollution Dispute Resolution Act). As new vehicle standards are retroactively applied to older
a result of the 1970 law, in 1973 the rst installment of vehicles already on the road. Vehicle owners have two
four sets of new emissions standards were introduced. methods to comply:
Interim standards were introduced on January 1, 1975
and again for 1976. The nal set of standards were in1. Replace old vehicles with newer, cleaner models
troduced for 1978.* [11] While the standards were introduced they were not made immediately mandatory,
2. Retrot old vehicles with approved NOx and PM
instead tax breaks were oered for cars which passed
control devices
them.* [12] The standards were based on those adopted
by the original US Clean Air Act of 1970, but the test cyVehicles have a grace period, between 8 and 12 years
cle included more slow city driving to correctly reect the
from the initial registration, to comply. The grace period
Japanese situation.* [13] The 1978 limits for mean emisdepends on the vehicle type, as follows:
sions during a Hot Start Testof CO, hydrocarbons,
and NOx were 2.1 grams per kilometre (3.38 g/mi) of
Light commercial vehicles (GVW 2500 kg): 8
CO, .25 grams per kilometre (0.40 g/mi) of HC, and
years
.25 grams per kilometre (0.40 g/mi) of NOx respec*
tively. [13] Maximum limits are 2.7 grams per kilome Heavy commercial vehicles (GVW > 2500 kg): 9
tre (4.35 g/mi) of CO, .39 grams per kilometre (0.63
years
g/mi) of HC, and .48 grams per kilometre (0.77 g/mi)
of NOx. The "10 - 15 Mode Hot Cycle" test, used to
Micro buses (11-29 seats): 10 years
determine individual fuel economy ratings and emissions
Large buses ( 30 seats): 12 years
observed from the vehicle being tested, use a specic test*
*
*
ing regime. [14] [15] [16]
Special vehicles (based on a cargo truck or bus): 10
In 1992, to cope with NOx pollution problems from
years
existing vehicle eets in highly populated metropoli Diesel passenger cars: 9 years
tan areas, the Ministry of the Environment adopted
the (Japanese: Law Concerning Special Measures
to Reduce the Total Amount of Nitrogen Oxides Furthermore, the regulation allows fulllment of its reEmitted from Motor Vehicles in Specied Areas), quirements to be postponed by an additional 0.5-2.5
called in short The Motor Vehicle NOx Law. The regula- years, depending on the age of the vehicle. This delay
tion designated a total of 196 communities in the Tokyo, was introduced in part to harmonize the NOx and PM
Saitama, Kanagawa, Osaka and Hyogo Prefectures as ar- Law with the Tokyo diesel retrot program.
eas with signicant air pollution due to nitrogen oxides The NOx and PM Law is enforced in connection
emitted from motor vehicles. Under the Law, several with Japanese vehicle inspection program, where nonmeasures had to be taken to control NOx from in-use ve- complying vehicles cannot undergo the inspection in the
hicles, including enforcing emission standards for speci- designated areas. This, in turn, may trigger an injunced vehicle categories.
tion on the vehicle operation under the Road Transport
The regulation was amended in June 2001 to tighten the Vehicle Law.
32.8. REFERENCES
32.5.5
Israel
113
32.8 References
[1] Archived November 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
[2] Vehicle and Engine Regulations. Environment Canada.
Jul 17, 2013.
[3] How Stu Works: CARB
32.6 Africa
32.6.1
South Africa
South Africas rst clean fuels programme was implemented in 2006 with the banning of lead from petrol and
the reduction of sulphur levels in diesel from 3 000 parts
per million (ppm) to 500ppm, along with a niche grade
of 50ppm.
The Clean Fuels 2 standard, expected to begin in 2017,
includes the reduction of sulphur to 10ppm; the lowering
of benzene from 5 percent to 1 percent of volume; the
reduction of aromatics from 50 percent to 35 percent of
volume; and the specication of olens at 18 percent of
volume.
[14] http://www.walshcarlines.com/pdf/Global%20Vehicle%
20Emissions%20Standards%20Tables.pdf
Japanese
gasoline emission limits page 28
Flexible-fuel vehicle
Fuel eciency
[16] fuel$aver.govt.nz
114
Federal Income Tax Credits for Hybrids placed in
service.
Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends:
1975 Through 2008
EU
Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 13 December 1999, relating
to the availability of consumer information on fuel
economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars PDF (140 KB).
Council Directive 80/1268/EEC Fuel consumption
of motor vehicles.
Chapter 33
As of October 2015, the available editions of eGRID contain data for years 2012, 2010, 2009, 2007, 2005, 2004, 33.2 Data summary
and 1996 through 2000. eGRID is unique in that it links
air emissions data with electric generation data for United
eGRID data include emissions, dierent types of emisStates power plants.* [1]
sion rates, electricity generation, resource mix, and heat
input. eGRID data also include plant identication,
location, and structural information. The emissions
33.1 History
information in eGRID include carbon dioxide (CO2 ),
nitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), methane
eGRID2012 was released by EPA on October 8, (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O),and carbon dioxide equiv2015. It is the 10th edition and contains year 2012 alent (CO2 e). CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O are greenhouse
data.
gases (GHG) that contribute to global warming or climate
change. NO and SO2 contribute to unhealthy air quality
eGRID2010 Version 1.0 with year 2010 data was and acid rain in many parts of the country. eGRID's rereleased on February 24, 2014.
source mix information includes the following fossil fuel
eGRID2009 Version 1.0, with year 2009 data was resources: coal, oil, gas, other fossil; nuclear resources;
and the following renewable resources: hydroelectric
release on May 10, 2012.
(water), biomass (including biogas, landll gas and di eGRID2007 Version 1.0 was released on February gester gas), wind, solar, and geothermal.
23, 2011 and Version 1.1 was released May 20, eGRID2012 data is presented as an Excel workbook with
2011.
nine data worksheets and a table of contents. The eGRID
eGRID2005 Version 1.0 was released in October workbook contains data at the boiler, generator, and plant
2008 and Version 1.1 was released in January 2009. levels and aggregated data by state, power control area,
eGRID subregion, NERC region, and U.S. The work eGRID2004 Version 1.0 was released in December book also includes a worksheet that displays the grid gross
2006; Version 2.0 was released in early April 2007; loss (%).
and Version 2.1, was released in late April 2007 and eGRID2012 also contains the Technical Support Docuupdated for typos in May 2007.
ment (PDF), Summary Tables (PDF), Subregion GHG
output emission rates (PDF) for CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O (for
GHG inventory and registry work), NERC region Map
(JPG), eGRID2012 subregion map (JPG), and release
notes (TXT). These les are available as separate downloadable les or all of them are contained in a ZIP le, "all
eGRID2012 les.The current eGRID version and all
eGRID1998 was released in March and September previous versions are available in a ZIP le, "all eGRID
2001.
les (1996-2012)". This les can be downloaded from
eGRID2000 Version 1.0 was released in December 2002; Version 2.0 was released in April
2003; and Version 2.01 was released in May
2003. (eGRID2000 replaced eGRID versions 1996
through 1998).
115
116
Electricity generation
33.5 References
[1] EPA - Clean Energy - EE Action Plan
Air pollution
Powerscorecard.org
Combined cycle
Electric power
Electric utility
Chapter 34
118
34.1.1
119
Emissions by passenger class, and eects of seating
conguration
Least signicant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming eect; sulfate
particles reect radiation and have a small cooling eect.
In addition, they can inuence the formation and properties of clouds.* [19] All aircraft powered by combustion
will release some amount of soot.
120
Moreover, if other industries achieve signicant cuts in to 17 MT in 2012, at the UK's historic annual emission
their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviations share as growth rate of 7%. Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were
a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise. reduced to 3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030 would
be 28 MT, which is 70% of the UK's entire carbon emissions budget that year for all sectors of society. This
34.1.4 Future emission levels
work also suggests the foreseeable future which confronts
many other nations that have high dependency on aviaEven though there have been signicant improvements tion.Hypermobile Travelers,* [33] an academic study
in fuel eciency through aircraft technology and oper- by Stefan Gssling et al. (2009) in the book Climate
ational management as described here, these improve- Change and Aviation,* [34] also points to the dilemma
ments are being continually eclipsed by the increase in caused by the increasing hypermobility of air travelers
air trac volume.
both in particular nations and globally.* [35]
Continual increases in travel & freight
121
from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol
Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.* [46]
Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the ight
was high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and
a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.* [46] Also,
the majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners
but smaller piston aircraft, and with major modications
many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel.* [47] Another consideration is the vast amount of land that would
be necessary to provide the biomass feedstock needed
to support the needs of aviation, both civil and military.* [48]
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed
the world's rst commercial aviation test ight partially
using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel,
can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees
and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth
yields.* [49]* [50] Air New Zealand set several general
sustainability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such
biofuels must not compete with food resources, that they
must be as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they
should be cost competitive with existing fuels.* [51]
122
34.1.5
Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent yer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of anticompetitiveness,* [66] ethics,* [67] conict with society's
With most international conferences having
overall well-being,* [68] or climate eects.* [69] There is
hundreds if not thousands of participants, and
a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and
the bulk of these usually traveling by plane,
of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not alconference travel is an area where signicant
low the programs until 1992, then changing its policy bereductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions
cause its airlines were disadvantaged.* [66] In 2002, Norcould be made. ... This does not mean nonway banned domestic FFPs in order to promote compeattendance.(Reay, 2004)* [59]
tition among its airlines.* [70] In the U.S. in 1989, a vice
president of Brani said the government should conFor example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has al- sider ordering an end to frequent-yer programs, which
ready been successfully used to host several international he said allow unfair competition.* [71]
conferences,* [59] and technology has likely progressed
substantially since then. The Tyndall Centre for Climate A Canadian study said that because of competition no
Change Research has been systematically studying means airline could unilaterally end its FFP, but that a national
to change common institutional and professional prac- government could use its regulatory power to end the protices that have led to large carbon footprints of travel by grams broadly, which in Canada's case would also require
*
research scientists, and issued a report. (Le Qur et al. North America-wide cooperation. [68] In further analy*
*
*
sis,
a
Scandinavian
study
which
recommended
an end to
2015). [60] [61] [62]
frequent yer plans said, the only possible way of prohibiting FFPs successfully now that they have spread from
Ending incentives to yfrequent yer programs
the US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a
global basis. The basis exists: it could be done by the
Over 130 airlines have "frequent yer programs" based at World Trade Organization.* [66] A recent study which
least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments for surveyed frequent yers in the U.K. and Norway, looked
ights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163 into behavioral addition to frequent ying and theyer's
million people as reported in 2006.* [63] These programs dilemmaof the conict between the social and perbenet airlines by habituating people to air travel and,
Business and professional choices
123
sonal benets of ying and air travel's impact on climate International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit
change.* [69] It concluded that:
or reduce emissions and to nd a solution to the allocation
of emissions from international aviation in time for the
second period of the Kyoto Protocol starting from 2009;
Continued growth in both frequent ying
however, the Copenhagen climate conference failed to
practices and concern over air travel's climate
reach an agreement.* [76]
impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the
question of whether one or the other will reach
a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Selfregulation, external regulation, social norms,
technology and physical resources will continue to co-constitute the balance. An increasing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may
(re)frame ying as more open to collective external mitigation,meaning government action.* [69]
Recent research points to this failure as a substantial obstacle to global policy including a CO2 emissions reduction pathway that would avoid dangerous climate change
by keeping the increase in the average global temperature
below a 2 C rise.* [77]* [78]* [79]
As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO2
Potential for governmental constraints on demand
emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently
One means for reducing the environmental impact of avi- being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Asation is to constrain demand for air travel, through in- sembly in 2007,* [80] although the prospects of a comprecreased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Sev- hensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of
eral studies have explored this:
such a scheme are uncertain.
The UK study Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate
change and UK policy, notes that a 10% increase in
fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand,
and recommends that the British government should
manage demand rather than provide for it.* [72] This
would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes
"against the expansion of UK airport capacity
and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively.* [73]
A study published by the campaign group Aviation
Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by
levying 9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate
of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would
be reduced to 2%.* [74]
The ninth report of the House of Commons
Environmental Audit Select Committee, published
in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in
which future demand can be managed in line with
industry performance in achieving fuel eciencies,
so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.* [75]
34.1.6
Kyoto Protocol
Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are excluded from the scope of the rst period (2008-2012)
of the Kyoto Protocol, as are the non-CO2 climate effects. Instead, governments agreed to work through the
124
by trans-Atlantic airline ights the middle of the 21st century. The lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science,
at the University of Reading stated,air turbulence does
more than just interrupt the service of in-ight drinks. It
injures hundreds of passengers and aircrew every year -sometimes fatally. It also causes delays and damage to
planes.* [85]
34.2 Noise
Sustainable biofuels
Sustainable Oils
125
[29] IATA (2010, Nov.) Air Transport Market Analysis Accessed: 23 January 2011.
[16] SPM-2
[36] IATA/ATAG, Aviation & the Environment (1999) Aircraft fuel eciency has improved by some 50% over the
past 30 years
[37] Peeters P.M., Middel J., Hoolhorst A. (2005). Fuel eciency of commercial aircraft - An overview of historical
and future trends. National Aerospace Laboratory. NLRCR-2005-669, 37pp.
[38] Back to the Future: Return of the Turboprop?. By Irene
Kwan. Int'l Counc. on Clean Transport. 3 June 2014.
[39] Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe
(ACARE) Strategic Research Agenda (2002) These objectives include, inter alia, a 50% cut in CO2 and 80%
in Nox emissions[for new aircraft introduced in 2020
relative to new aircraft introduced in 2000].
[40] Timmis, A.; Hodzic, A.; Koh, L.; Bonner, M.; Soutis,
C.; Schafer, A.; Dray, L. (2014). Environmental impact assessment of aviation emission reduction through
the implementation of composite materials. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 20: 233243.
doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0824-0.
[41] EOS magazine November 2011
[42] Fuel Cell-powered Electric Nose Wheel Nears Flight
Tests, EV World, 9 Feb 2011.
[43] Tests prove electric-drive concept, Flight Global 9 Aug
2005.
[44] International Civil Aviation Organization Operational Opportunities to Minimize Fuel Use and Reduce Emissions
(2001)
126
[66] Storm, S. (1999). Air transport policies and frequent yer programmes in the European Community: a
Scandinavian perspective. Unit of Tourism Research,
[47] South Dakota State University (2006). Active Projects
Research Centre of Bornholm: 1105. CiteSeerX:
. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved
10.1.1.138.3305.
2008-02-19.
[48] Rapier R (2011, 20-Jan). Marginal Land Produces
Marginal Biomass. Consumer Energy Report
[68] Tretheway MW (1989) Frequent Flyer Programs: Marketing Bonanza or Anti-Competitive Tool? (30:1), p.445.
[54] Purdue Research Park (December 2009). Indiana Airline Fuel Developer Moves Ahead With Testing. Retrieved 2009-12-17.
[55] 50 Percent Biofuels Now Allowed in Jet Fuel. Renewable Energy World. 1 July 2011.
[56] Meg Cichon (2 December 2011). FAA Awards $7.7
Million for Advancement of Aviation Biofuels. Renewable Energy World.
[57]The Bill, by Peter Wedel, distributed by GermanWatch.
[58] Marshall, G. (2009, 24-July). Why We Still Dont Believe
In Climate Change
[59] Reay DS (2004). New Directions: Flying in the face of
the climate change convention. Atmospheric Environment
(38:5, p.793-794).
[60] Le Qur, C. et al. 2015. Towards a culture of low-carbon
research for the 21st Century. Abstract page.
[61] Id. The Report.
[62] Nudging Climate Scientists To Follow Their Own Advice
On Flying. FiveThirtyEight. by Christie Aschwanden. 26
March 2015.
[63] The Economist (2005, 20-Dec), Frequent-yer miles Funny money.
[79] Bows-Larkin, A (2014). All adrift: aviation, shipping, and climate change policy. Clim. Policy: 122.
doi:10.1080/14693062.2014.965125.
[80] ICAO news release 30 November 2005 ICAO is also
considering market-based options to address engine emissions through the participation of aviation in emissions
trading schemes and the use of emissions levies related to
local air quality. Guidelines for Contracting States wishing to implement such measures are being formulated and
should be completed in time for the next regular Session
of the ICAO Assembly in the Fall of 2007, when direction
for future action will be set.
[81] European Commission, Reducing the Climate Change Impact of Aviation (2005)
[82] Directive 2008/101/EC of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 19 November 2008 amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to include aviation activities in the
scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading
within the Community (Text with EEA relevance)
[83] Keane, J. (2012) Brieng paper: The aviation industry, the European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme and
Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly
frameworks. Overseas Development Institute
[84] Lee, D. et al 2013 Brieng paper: Bridging the aviation CO2 emissions gap: why emissions trading is needed.
Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment
[85] Fasten your seatbelts: Climate change to increase ight
turbulence. RT News. 9 April 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
[86] Noise Pollution Clearinghouse. Aviation Noise. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
[87] Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew
[88] Phillips, Tony (25 October 2013). The Eects of Space
Weather on Aviation. Science News. NASA.
[89] Converting Cosmic Rays to Sound During a Transatlantic Flight to Zurich on YouTube
[90] NAIRAS (Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation
System)
127
an aviation policy for the UK which is in full accordance with the principles of sustainable development
Industry
Aviation: Benets Beyond Borders. Air Transport Action Group. information on the many industry measures underway to limit the impact of aviation on the environment
sustainableaviation.co.uk. Sustainable Aviation.
collective approach of UK aviation to tackling the
challenge of ensuring a sustainable future
The aviation sector's climate action framework
(PDF). Air Transport Action Group. November
2015.
Research
Aviation Sustainability Center. Washington State
University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Partnership for Air Transportation Noise and
Emissions Reduction. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Sustainable Sky Institute. Sustainable Sky Institute.
Alice Bows-Larkin.publications. ResearchGate.
Stefan Gssling. publications. Lund University
- Department of Service Management and Service
Studies.
David S. Lee (Climatologist). publications.
ResearchGate.
Studies
Aviation and the Global Atmosphere - Summary(PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. 1999.
Clearing the Air: The Myth and Reality of Aviation and Climate Change (PDF). European Federation for Transport and Environment and Climate
Action Network. 2006.
Guidelines to Defra / DECC's GHG Conversion Factors for Company Reporting (PDF).
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. 2012.
Stefan Gssling and Paul Upham (2009). Climate
Change and Aviation - Issues, Challenges and Solutions (PDF). Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-619-2.
Chapter 35
Exhaust gas
because of vehicle emissions.* [2] According to another
study from the same university, trac fumes alone cause
the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United
Kingdom.* [3]
35.1 Composition
The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen (N2 ),
water vapor (H2 O) (except with pure-carbon fuels), and
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (except for fuels without carbon);
these are not toxic or noxious (although carbon dioxide is
a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming). A
relatively small part of combustion gas is undesirable noxious or toxic substances, such as carbon monoxide (CO)
from incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (properly indicated as CHy , but typically shown simply as HC
on emissions-test slips) from unburnt fuel, nitrogen oxides (NO) from excessive combustion temperatures, and
particulate matter (mostly soot).
A diesel-powered truck emits an exhaust gas rich in black particulate matter when starting its engine.
35.5. TYPES
129
Spark-ignition engines
See also: Automobile emissions control
In spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases.
The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but
is around these levels:
This table DOES NOT correctly reect graph presented
on page 6 of referenced document!
The 10% oxygen for dieselis likely if the engine was
idling, e.g. in a test rig. It is much less if the engine is
running under load.
operating temperature. The duration of this startup phase has been reduced by advances in materials
and technology, including computer-controlled fuel
injection, shorter intake lengths, and pre-heating of
fuel and/or inducted air.
35.5 Types
35.5.1
Internal-combustion engines
Flue gas
130
When oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, ground
level ozone is formed, a primary ingredient in smog. A
Steam engines
2005 U.S. EPA report gives road vehicles as the second
In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is largest source of VOCs in the U.S. at 26% and 19% are
now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful from non road equipment which is mostly gasoline and
diesel stations.* [12] 27% of VOC emissions are from solwork.
vents which are used in the manufacturer of paints and
paint thinners and other uses.* [13]
NOx
35.6.3 Ozone
Ozone is benecial in the upper atmosphere,* [14] but at
ground level, ozone irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity.* [15] It
also has many bad eects throughout the ecosystem.* [16]
Smog in New York City as viewed from the World Trade Center
in 1988.
131
oxygen to bodily tissues. In 2011, 52% of carbon monox- 35.7 Pollution reduction
ide emissions were created by mobile vehicles in the
U.S.* [18]
Emission standards focus on reducing pollutants contained in the exhaust gases from vehicles as well as
from industrial ue gas stacks and other air pollution
exhaust sources in various large-scale industrial facili35.6.5 Hazardous air pollutants (toxics)
ties such as petroleum reneries, natural gas processChronic (long-term) exposure to benzene (C6 H6 ) dam- ing plants, petrochemical plants and chemical produc*
*
ages bone marrow. It can also cause excessive bleeding tion plants. [28] [29] However, these are often referred
and depress the immune system, increasing the chance to as ue gases. Catalytic converters in cars intend to
of infection. Benzene causes leukemia and is associ- break down the pollution of exhaust gases using a cataated with other blood cancers and pre-cancers of the lyst. Scrubbers in ships intend to remove the sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) of marine exhaust gases. The regulations on
blood.* [19]* [20]
marine sulfur dioxide emissions are tightening, however
only a small number of special areas worldwide have been
designated for low sulfur diesel fuel use only.
35.6.6
Particulate
PM2.5 )
35.6.8
Water vapor
matter
(PM10
and
One of the advantages claimed for advanced steam technology engines is that that they produce smaller quantities of toxic pollutants (e.g. oxides of nitrogen) than
The health eects of inhaling airborne particulate matpetrol and diesel engines of the same power. They proter have been widely studied in humans and animals and
duce larger quantities of carbon dioxide but less carbon
include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and
monoxide due to more ecient combustion.
premature death. Because of the size of the particles,
*
they can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs. [21] A
2011 UK study estimates 90 deaths per year due to passenger vehicle PM.* [22] In a 2006 publication, the U.S. 35.8 Health studies
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) state that in
2002 about 1 per-cent of all PM10 and 2 per-cent of all Researchers from the University of California, Los AnPM2.5 emissions came from the exhaust of on-road motor geles School of Public Health say preliminary results of
vehicles (mostly from diesel engines).* [23]
their statistical study of children listed in the California
Cancer Registry born between 1998 and 2007 found that
trac pollution may be associated with a 5% to 15% increase in the likelihood of some cancers.* [30] A World
35.6.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Health Organization study found that diesel fumes cause
an increase in lung cancer.* [31]
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Motor vehicle CO2
emissions are part of the anthropogenic contribution to
the growth of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere
which is causing climate change.* [24] Motor vehicles 35.9 Localised eects
are calculated to generate about 20% of the European
Union's man-made CO2 emissions, with passenger cars The California Air Resources Board (C.A.R.B.) found in
contributing about 12%.* [25] European emission stan- studies that 50% or more of the air pollution (smog) in
dards limit the CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and Southern California is due to car emissions.
light vehicles. The European Union average new car CO2
emissions gure dropped by 5.4% in the year to the rst
quarter of 2010, down to 145.6 g/km.* [26]
35.10 See also
Water recovery
There has been research into ways that troops in deserts
can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust
gases. * [27]
132
[6] Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and MediumDuty Passenger Vehicle -- Tier 2 Exhaust Emission Standards. Emission Standards Reference Guide. United
States Environmental Protection Agency. 14 November
2012.
[7] Self-Study Programme 230: Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emissions (PDF). AUDI. April 2000. Retrieved 23 March
2012.
[8] turbofast.com
[9] Health. Nitrogen Dioxide. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 14 February 2013.
Automobile exhaust
Emission standard
European emission standards
Flue gas
Kyoto protocol
Landll gas
Mobile source air pollution
[10] The Regional Transport of Ozone: New EPA Rulemaking on Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (EPA-456/F-98-006)"
(PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency.
September 1998.
[11] State and County Emission Summaries: Nitrogen Oxides. Air emission sources. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[12] State and County Emission Summaries: Volatile Organic Compounds. Air emission sources. United States
Environmental Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[13] Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)". Toxic Substances Hydrology Program. United States Geological
Survey (USGS). 12 April 2013.
[14] http://www.epa.gov/ozone/basicinfo.html
[15] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/ozonepollution/health.
html
[16] http://www.epa.gov/groundlevelozone/ecosystem.html
35.11 References
[1] Omidvarborna; et al. Characterization of particulate
matter emitted from transit buses fueled with B20 in idle
modes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
2 (4): 23352342. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2014.09.020.
[2] Caiazzo, Fabio; Ashok, Akshay; Waitz, Ian A.;
Yim, Steve H.L.; Barrett, Steven R.H. (November
2013). Air pollution and early deaths in the United
States.
Part I: Quantifying the impact of major
sectors in 2005. Atmospheric Environment (Elsevier) 79: 198208. Bibcode:2013AtmEn..79..198C.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.081. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
[3] Roland Pease.Trac pollution kills 5,000 a year in UK,
says study. BBC News.
[4] Pulkrabek W.W. (2004) Engineering Fundamentals of
the Internal Combustion Engine. Pearson Prentice Hall,
new Jersey
[5] Average Annual Emissions and Fuel Consumption for
Passenger Cars and Light Trucks(PDF). Transportation
and Air Quality. United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
[17] Omaye ST. (2002). Metabolic modulation of carbon monoxide toxicity. Toxicology 180 (2): 139
150. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00387-6. PMID
12324190.
[18] State and County Emission Summaries: Carbon Monoxide. Air Emission Sources. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[19] Exhaust emissions: What comes out of your car's exhaust?". Automobile Association Developments Limited.
23 February 2012.
[20] Air Toxics from Motor Vehicles(PDF). Transportation
and Air Quality (United States Environmental Protection
Agency).
[21] Region 4: Laboratory and Field Operations PM 2.5
(2008).PM 2.5 Objectives and History. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
[22] Mazzi, Eric A.; Dowlatabadi, Hadi (2007). Air Quality
Impacts of Climate Mitigation: UK Policy and Passenger
Vehicle Choice. Environmental Science & Technology
41 (2): 387. doi:10.1021/es060517w.
[23] Transportation Air Quality: Selected Facts and Figures
. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway
Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
133
Chapter 36
Flue gas
36.1 Scrubbing
At power plants, ue gas is often treated with a series of
chemical processes and scrubbers, which remove pollutants. Electrostatic precipitators or fabric lters remove
particulate matter and ue-gas desulfurization captures
the sulfur dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels, particularly coal. Nitrogen oxides are treated either by modications to the combustion process to prevent their formation, or by high temperature or catalytic reaction with
ammonia or urea. In either case, the aim is to produce
nitrogen gas, rather than nitrogen oxides. In the United
States, there is a rapid deployment of technologies to
remove mercury from ue gastypically by adsorption
on sorbents or by capture in inert solids as part of the
ue-gas desulfurization product. Such scrubbing can lead
to meaningful recovery of sulfur for further industrial
use.* [2]
Technologies based on regenerative capture by amines for
the removal of CO2 from ue gas have been deployed to
provide high purity CO2 gas to the food industry and for
enhanced oil recovery. They are now under active research as a method for CO2 capture for long-term storage as a means of greenhouse gas remediation, and have
begun to be implemented in a limited way commercially
(e.g. the Sleipner West eld in the North Sea, operating
since 1996).* [3]
134
36.3. REFERENCES
Integrated gasication combined cycle (often referred to as IGCC)
Landll gas
36.3 References
[1] Fossil fuel combustion ue gases Milton R. Beychok, Encyclopedia of Earth, 2012.
[2] Sulfur C. Michael Hogan, Encyclopedia of Earth, 2011.
[3] Sleipner West
[4] Conventional coal-red power plant Scroll down to the
section entitled Control of air pollutant emissions.
135
Chapter 37
Flue-gas desulfurization
37.1 Methods
As stringent environmental regulations regarding SO2
The G. G. Allen Steam Station scrubber
emissions have been enacted in many countries, SO
2 is now being removed from ue gases by a variety of
methods. Below are common methods used:
For a typical coal-red power station, ue-gas desulfurization (FGD) may remove 95 percent or more of the SO
Wet scrubbing using a slurry of alkaline sorbent, 2 in the ue gases.
usually limestone or lime, or seawater to scrub gases;
Spray-dry scrubbing using similar sorbent slurries;
37.2 History
With the construction of large-scale power plants in England in the 1920s, the problems associated with large volumes of SO
136
137
138
circulation pump
bottom fraction
oxidizing gas
limestone
gypsum
2 (gas) CaSO
3 (solid) + CO2 (gas)
To promote maximum gasliquid surface area and residence time, a number of wet scrubber designs have been
used, including spray towers, venturis, plate towers, and
mobile packed beds. Because of scale buildup, plugging,
or erosion, which aect FGD dependability and absorber
eciency, the trend is to use simple scrubbers such as
spray towers instead of more complicated ones. The conguration of the tower may be vertical or horizontal, and
ue gas can ow cocurrently, countercurrently, or crosscurrently with respect to the liquid. The chief drawback
of spray towers is that they require a higher liquid-to-gas
ratio requirement for equivalent SO
2 removal than other absorber designs.
Venturi-rod scrubbers Main article: venturi scrubber
139
plication of this reaction is also known as the Wellman
Lord process.
37.4.3
It is possible to scrub sulfur dioxide by using a cold solution of sodium sulte, this forms a sodium hydrogen
sulte solution. By heating this solution it is possible to
reverse the reaction to form sulfur dioxide and the sodium
sulte solution. Since the sodium sulte solution is not
consumed, it is called a regenerative treatment. The ap-
140
FGD has been tted by RWE npower at Aberthaw Power
Station in south Wales using the seawater process and
works successfully on the 1580MW plant.
Scrubber
The highest SO
2 removal eciencies (greater than 90%) are achieved
by wet scrubbers and the lowest (less than 80%) by dry
scrubbers. However, the newer designs for dry scrubbers
are capable of achieving eciencies in the order of 90%.
37.8 References
[1] Biondo, S.J.; Marten, J.C. (October 1977).A History of
Flue Gas Desulphurization Systems Since 1850. Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association 27 (10): 94861.
[2] Beychok, Milton R., Coping With SO2 , Chemical Engineering/Deskbook Issue, 21 October 1974
[3] Nolan, Paul S., Flue Gas Desulfurization Technologies for
Coal-Fired Power Plants, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, U.S., presented by Michael X. Jiang at the CoalTech 2000 International Conference, November 2000,
Jakarta, Indonesia
[4] Rubin, Edward S.; Yeh, Sonia; Hounshell, David A.; Taylor, Margaret R. (2004). Experience curves for power
plant emission control technologies. Journal International Journal of Energy Technology and Policy 2 (12):
5269. horizontal tab character in |journal= at position 8
(help)
[5] Beychok, Milton R., Comparative economics of advanced
regenerable ue gas desulfurization processes, EPRI CS1381, Electric Power Research Institute, March 1980
[6] REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE
GASES IN THERMAL PLANTS
[7] IAEA Factsheet about pilot plant in Poland.
[8] Haifeng, Wu. Electron beam application in gas waste
treatment in China (PDF). Proceedings of the FNCA
2002 workshop on application of electron accelerator.
Beijing, China: INET Tsinghua University.
An alternative to removing sulfur from the ue gases after burning is to remove the sulfur from the fuel before
or during combustion. Hydrodesulfurization of fuel has
been used for treating fuel oils before use. Fluidized bed
combustion adds lime to the fuel during combustion. The [9]
lime reacts with the SO2 to form sulfates which become
[10]
part of the ash.
141
Chapter 38
38.2 References
142
143
Chapter 39
Flue-gas stack
replaces, or other small sources within residential
abodes, restaurants, hotels, or other public buildings and
small commercial enterprises, their ue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys.
39.1 History
The rst industrial chimneys were built in the mid-17th
century when it was rst understood how they could improve the combustion of a furnace by increasing the draft
of air into the combustion zone.* [2] As such, they played
an important part in the development of reverberatory
furnaces and a coal-based metallurgical industry, one
of the key sectors of the early Industrial Revolution.
Most 18th-century industrial chimneys (now commonly
referred to as ue gas stacks) were built into the walls of
the furnace much like a domestic chimney. The rst freestanding industrial chimneys were probably those erected
at the end of the long condensing ues associated with
smelting lead.
A ue gas stack at GRES-2 Power Station in Ekibastuz,
Kazakhstan, the tallest of its kind in the world (420 meters)* [1]
145
began to disappear from the industrial landscape. Building materials changed from stone and brick to steel and
later reinforced concrete, and the height of the industrial
chimney was determined by the need to disperse combustion ue gases to comply with governmental air pollution
control regulations.
1
1
To
Ti
The above equation is an approximation because it assumes that the molar mass of the ue gas and the outside
air are equal and that the pressure drop through the ue
gas stack is quite small. Both assumptions are fairly good
but not exactly accurate.
Q=CA
2gH
Ti To
Ti
146
The composition of the combustion ue gas, which is known as the Good Engineering Practice (GEP)"
determines the ue-gas density.
stack height.* [7]* [8] In the case of existing ue gas stacks
that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution disper The frictional resistance to the ow of the ue gases sion modelling studies for such stacks must use the GEP
through the chimney or stack, which will vary with stack height rather than the actual stack height.
the materials used to construct the chimney or stack.
The heat loss from the ue gases as they ow through
the chimney or stack.
The local atmospheric pressure of the ambient air,
which is determined by the local elevation above sea
level.
The calculation of many of the above design factors requires trial-and-error reiterative methods.
Government agencies in most countries have specic
codes which govern how such design calculations must be
performed. Many non-governmental organizations also
have codes governing the design of chimneys and stacks
(notably, the ASME codes).
39.7 References
[1] Diagram of 25 tallest ue gas stacks worldwide
[2] Douet, James (1988). Going up in Smoke:The History of
the Industrial Chimney, Victorian Society, London, England. Victorian Society Casework Reports
[3] Natural Ventilation Lecture 2
[4] Perry, R.H. and Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (6th Edition (page 9-72) ed.).
McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-049479-7.
[5] Natural Ventilation Lecture 3
Chapter 40
Fugitive emissions
Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from
pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended
or irregular releases of gases, mostly from industrial activities. As well as the economic cost of lost commodities,
fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate
change. A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for
the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had
a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17
million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide, or 12 per cent
of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector.* [1] Venting of natural gas, aring, accidental releases and storage
losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent.
purposes.
Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards. Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from
oil reneries and chemical plants pose a long term health
risk to workers and local communities. In situations
where large amounts of ammable liquids and gases are
contained under pressure, leaks also increase the risk of
re and explosion.
Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair,
leading to reduced fugitive emissions. The cameras use
infrared imaging technology to produce video images in
which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be
clearly identied.
Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves, pipe connections, mechanical seals, or
related equipment. Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and
storage tanks. Because of the huge number of potential
leak sources at large industrial facilities and the diculties in detecting and repairing some leaks, fugitive emissions can be a signicant proportion of total emissions.
Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small, gases
that have serious health or environmental impacts can
cause a signicant problem.
To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities. Routine inspections of process equipment with gas
detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the
leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action. Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces
the likelihood of leaks.
New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions. One technology, known as dierential absorption
lidar (DIAL), can be used to remotely measure concentration proles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to
several hundred meters from a facility. DIAL has been
used for renery surveys in Europe for over 15 years. A
pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a renery were fteen times higher than
those previously reported using the emission factor approach. The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17%
of the renery throughput.* [2]
40.2 References
147
148
Chapter 41
Gas are
150
151
aring decreased by about 20%. The most signicant reductions in terms of volume were made in Russia (down
40%) and Nigeria (down 29%).* [12]* [17]
41.4 References
[1] EPA/452/B-02-001, Section 3.0: VOC Controls, Section 3.2: VOC Destruction Controls, Chapter 1: Flares.
(A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report, dated
September 2000.)
[2] A. Kayode Coker (2007). Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical And Petrochemical Plants, Volume 1
(4th ed.). Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 732737.
ISBN 0-7506-7766-X.
[3] Sam Mannan (Editor) (2005). Lee's Loss Prevention in
the Process Industries: Hazard Identication, Assessment
and Control, Volume 1 (3rd ed.). Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann. pp. 12/6712/71. ISBN 978-0-7506-78575.
[4] Milton R. Beychok (2005). Fundamentals of Stack
Gas Dispersion (Fourth ed.). self-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2. (See Chapter 11, Flare Stack Plume Rise).
[5] A Proposed Comprehensive Model for Elevated Flare
Flames and Plumes, David Shore, Flaregas Corporation,
AIChE 40th Loss Prevention Symposium, April 2006.
[6] Leer, William (2008). Petroleum Rening in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. p. 9.
[7] Product Overview Ignition Systems, Smitsvonk, Novem-
152
41.7 Media
Chapter 42
42.1 References
[1] http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/appcd/emissions/sec_gmap.
html
153
Chapter 43
Global Emissions InitiAtive (GEIA) is a community effort dedicated to atmospheric emissions information exchange and competence building. GEIA was created in
1990 under the (IGBP) and is a joint IGAC / iLEAPS
/ AIMES activity. GEIA is governed by an international steering committee * [1] and hosts biennial conferences.* [2]
43.1 Goals
Access: Make emissions data and information about
emissions more readily available
Analysis: Improve the scientic basis for emissions
information and policy making
Community: Strengthen the science and policy relationships to enhance access to and analysis of emissions
information
43.2 Partnerships
Emissions of atmospheric Compounds & Compilation of Ancillary Data (ECCAD) provides data access to many emissions inventory datasets.* [3]
Chapter 44
Haze
For other uses, see Haze (disambiguation).
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon
A weak cold front, associated with smog, in the Yellow Sea. The
cold front, while moving south, picked up the smog from eastern
China into a smog front
156
Haze often occurs when dust and smoke particles accumulate in relatively dry air. When weather conditions
block the dispersal of smoke and other pollutants they
concentrate and form a usually low-hanging shroud that
impairs visibility and may become a respiratory health
threat. Industrial pollution can result in dense haze, which
is known as smog.
44.2 Obscuration
Haze causes issues in the area of terrestrial photography,
where the penetration of large amounts of dense atmosphere may be necessary to image distant subjects. This
results in the visual eect of a loss of contrast in the subject, due to the eect of light scattering through the haze
particles. For these reasons, sunrise and sunset colors appear subdued on hazy days, and stars may be obscured at
night. In some cases, attenuation by haze is so great that,
toward sunset, the sun disappears altogether before reaching the horizon.* [7] Haze can be dened as an aerial form
of the Tyndall eect therefore unlike other atmospheric
eects such as cloud and fog, haze is spectrally selective:
shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more, and longer
(red/infrared) wavelengths are scattered less. For this reason many super-telephoto lenses often incorporate yellow
lters or coatings to enhance image contrast.
Since 1991, haze has been a particularly acute problem in Southeast Asia. The main source of the haze
has been res occurring in Sumatra and Borneo. In response to the 1997 Southeast Asian haze, the ASEAN
countries agreed on a Regional Haze Action Plan (1997).
In 2002, all ASEAN countries except Indonesia signed
the Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, but the
pollution is still a problem today. Under the agreement
the ASEAN secretariat hosts a co-ordination and support
unit.* [2] During the 2013 Southeast Asian haze, Singapore experienced a record high pollution level, with the
3-hour Pollution Standards Index reaching a record high Infrared (IR) imaging may also be used to penetrate haze
of 401.* [3]
over long distances, with a combination of IR-pass opIn the United States, the Interagency Monitoring of Pro- tical lters (such as the Wratten 89B) and IR-sensitive
tected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program was detector.
developed as a collaborative eort between the US EPA
and the National Park Service in order to establish the
chemical composition of haze in National Parks and es- 44.3 See also
tablish air pollution control measures in order to restore
the visibility to pre-industrial levels.* [4] Additionally, the
Arctic haze
Clean Air Act requires that any current visibility prob Asian brown cloud
lems be remedied, and future visibility problems be prevented, in 156 Class I Federal areas located throughout
Coecient of haze
the United States. A full list of these areas is available on
*
EPA's website. [5]
Saharan Air Layer
Smog
Trail Smelter dispute
44.1.1
International disputes
Transboundary Haze
Haze is no longer a domestic problem. It has become one
of the causes of international disputes among neighboring countries. Haze migrates to adjacent countries and
thereby pollutes other countries as well. One of the most
recent problems concerned the two neighboring countries
Malaysia and Indonesia. In 2013, due to forest res in Indonesia, the capital city of Malaysia Kuala Lumpur and
surrounding areas became shrouded in a pall of noxious
fumes, smelling of ash and coal for more than a week,
in the countrys worst environmental crisis since 1997.
The main sources of the haze are Indonesias Sumatra
Island, Kalimantan, and Riau, where farmers, plantation
owners and miners have set hundreds of res in the forests
to clear land during dry weather. Winds blow most of the
fumes across the narrow Strait of Malacca to Malaysia, although parts of Indonesia are also aected.* [6] The 2015
Southeast Asian haze constitutes an ongoing crisis.
44.4 Notes
[1] WMO Manual on Codes
[2] ASEAN action hazeonline
[3] Singapore haze hits record high from Indonesia res.
BBC News. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
[4] IMPROVE Visibility Program
[5] Federal Class 1 Areas
[6] http://www.nbcnews.com/id/8908221/ns/world_
news-environment/#.VXPyvvmUdvA
157
Chapter 45
45.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material from the
CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition.
158
Chapter 46
1-Hydroxypyrene
1-Hydroxypyrene is a human metabolite. It can be found
in urine of outdoor workers exposed to air pollution.* [1]
Experiments in pig show that urinary 1-hydroxypyrene is
a metabolite of pyrene, when given orally.* [2]
46.3 References
[1] Is urinary 1-hydroxypyrene a valid biomarker for exposure to air pollution in outdoor workers? A meta-analysis.
Manuela Ciarrocca, Maria Valeria Rosati, Francesco
Tomei, Assuntina Capozzella, Giorgia Andreozzi, Gianfranco Tomei, Alessandro Bacaloni, Teodorico Casale,
Jean Claude Andr, Mario Fioravanti, Maria Fernanda
Cuartas and Tiziana Caciari, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 24, 17-26 (January/February 2014), doi:10.1038/jes.2012.111
[2] Identication of 1-hydroxypyrene as a major metabolite of pyrene in pig urine. S. D. Keimig, K. W.
Kirby, D. P. Morgan, J. E. Keiser, and T. D. Hubert,
Xenobiotica, 1983, Vol. 13, No. 7 , Pages 415-420,
doi:10.3109/00498258309052279
[3] Urinary monohydroxylated phenanthrenes and hydroxypyrene the eects of smoking habits and changes
induced by smoking on monooxygenase-mediated
159
Chapter 47
Hypermobility (travel)
Hypermobile travelers are highly mobile individuals
who take frequent trips, often over great distances.
They account for a large share of the overall kilometres travelled, especially by air.* [1] These people
contribute signicantly to the overall amount of airmiles
own within a given society.* [2] Although concerns over
hypermobility apply to several modes of transport, the
environmental impact of aviation and especially its greenhouse gas emissions have brought particular focus on ying.* [3]* [4] Among the reasons for this focus is that these
emissions, because they are made at high altitude, have a
climate impact that is leveraged by a factor commonly estimated to be 2.7 higher than the same emissions if made
at ground-level.* [5]
Although the amount of time people have spent in motion has remained constant since 1950, the shift from
feet and bicycles to cars and planes has increased the
speed of travel vefold.* [6] This results in the twin eects
of wider and shallower regions of social activity around
each person (further exacerbated by electronic communication which can be seen as a form of virtual mobility),
and a degradation of the social and physical environment
brought about by the high speed trac (as theorised by
urban designer Donald Appleyard).
47.2 References
[4] Anderson K (2008). (Presentation slides): Reframing climate change: from long-term targets to emission pathways.
160
47.2. REFERENCES
161
Chapter 48
HYSPLIT
The Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model (HYSPLIT) * [1] is a computer model that is
used to compute air parcel trajectories and dispersion or
deposition of atmospheric pollutants. It was developed
by NOAA and Australia's Bureau of Meteorology.
One popular use of HYSPLIT is to establish whether high
levels of air pollution at one location are caused by transport of air contaminants from another location. HYSPLIT's back trajectories, combined with satellite images
(for example, from NASA's MODIS satellites), can provide insight into whether high air pollution levels are
caused by local air pollution sources or whether an air
pollution problem was blown in on the wind.* [2]
HYSPLIT is rather unusual in that it may be run in clientserver mode (HYSPLIT-WEB) from the NOAA website,
allowing members of the public to select gridded historical or forecast datasets, to congure model runs, and retrieve model results with a web browser.
48.1 References
[1] http://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.php
[2] http://www.sonomatech.com/assets/pdfs/AGU2012_
IndonesiaFires.pdf
162
Chapter 49
163
164
lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are the leading causes
of disease and death from exposure to smoke. Cataracts
and blindness, lung cancer, tuberculosis, premature births
and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused
by IAP.
Women and primarily girls spend excess time each day
in collecting fuel-wood in Kenya which exposes them to
even further hazards including vulnerability to rape and
also fractures from the weight of carrying heavy loads.
This time could be spent in more productive ways such
as attending school or income production. The use of
biomass coupled with inecient cooking apparatus leads
to a web of social and environmental concerns which directly links to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.
49.2 Interventions
49.2.1
Early interventions
The following information represents one successful intervention known as the Kenya Smoke and Health Project
(19982001)* [6] which involved fty rural households in
two separate regions, Kajiado and West Kenya. These
areas were chosen due to dierent climate, geographic,
and cultural implications. Community participation was
the primary focus for this project and as a result, those
involved indicated the results far exceeded their expectations. Local women's groups and, in the case of
the project in West Kenya, men were actively involved.
By involving the end-users the project resulted in more
widespread acceptance and created the further benet of
providing local income.
Three key interventions were discussed and disseminated;
ventilation by enlarging windows or opening eaves spaces,
adding smoke hoods over the cooking area, or the option of installing an improved cook stove such as the
Upesi stove. Smoke hoods are free-standing units that
act like ues or chimneys in their eort to draw smoke
out of the dwelling. They can be used over traditional
open res and this study showed they contribute to considerably lower levels of IAP. The smoke hood models
were made with hard manila paper and then transferred to
heavy-gauge galvanized sheet metal and manufactured locally. This resulted in further employment opportunities
for the artisans who were trained by the project. The Upesi stove, made of clay and kiln-red, was developed by
Practical Action and East African partners to utilize wood
and agricultural wastes. Because this stove was designed
and adapted for local needs it produced several winning
features. Not only does it cut the use of fuel-wood by
165
also had some success in encouraging the use of improved stoves among at-risk populations. Begun in the
mid-1980s, this program provides subsidies to encourage
families to purchase the longer-lasting chulhas and have
a chimney installed. A 2005 study showed that stoves
with chimneys are associated with a lower incidence of
cataracts in women.* [13] Much of the available informaVarious benets were realized including improved health; tion from India is more of a characterization of the issue
and there is less data available from intervention trials.
the most important aspect to each of the villagers involved. The people reported less internal heat allowing China has been particularly successful at encouraging the
for better sleep, fewer headaches and less fatigue, less eye use of improved stoves, with hundreds of millions of
irritation and coughs and dizziness. Safety increased due stoves installed since the beginning of the project in the
to the smoke hoods preventing goats and children from early 1980s. The government very intentionally targeted
falling into the re and less soot contamination was ob- poorer, rural households, and by the late 1990s nearly
served, along with snakes and rodents not entering the 75% of such households containedimproved kitchens.
home. Windows allowed for the ability to view cattle * [14] A 2007 review of 3500 households showed an imfrom indoors, and also reduced kerosene needs due to provement in indoor air quality in intervention houseimproved interior lighting. Overall, the indoor environ- holds characterized by lower concentrations of small parment improved greatly from various simple things that ticles and carbon monoxide in household air.* [15] The
are taken for granted in modern western homes. Greater program in China involved intervention on a large scale,
indoor light also allows for more income generation for but the cost of stoves was heavily subsidized so it is not
women as they can do beadwork by the window when known if its success could be replicated.
weather doesn't allow for this work outdoors. Children
also benet from increased lighting for homework.
Interpersonal relationships developed among the women
due to the project, and men better supported their wives
initiative when the end result beneted them as well.
While initial eorts to improve stoves were limited in
success, current eorts are more successful due to the
recognition that sustainable domestic energy resources
are central to reducing poverty and hunger, improving healthand improving the lives of women and children* [6] The optimal short-term goal in minimizing rural poverty is to provide inexpensive and acceptable solutions to the local people. Not only can stoves contribute
to this intervention, but the use of cleaner fuels will also
provide further benets.
Similar improved-stove projects have proven successful
in other regions of the world. Improved stoves installed
as part of the Randomized Exposure Study of Pollution Indoors and Respiratory Eects (RESPIRE) study in
Guatemala were found to be acceptable to the population
and produce signicant health benets for both mothers and children.* [7] Mothers in the intervention group
had lower blood pressure and reductions in eye discomfort and back pain.* [8]* [9] Intervention households were
also found to have lower levels of small particles and carbon monoxide.* [10] Children in these households also
had lower rates of asthma.* [11] This initial pilot program
has evolved into CRECER (Chronic Respiratory Eects
of Early Childhood Exposure to Respirable Particulate
Matter), which will attempt to follow children in intervention households for a longer period of time to determine
whether the improved stoves also contribute to greater
health over the lifespan.* [12]
166
49.3.1
Sustainable options
Large-scale combustion of biomass is only feasible if carried out in a sustainable manner. Concern is paramount
for regeneration of renewable and sustainable fuel-wood
sources if it is to continue to be available long-term. Attempts at sustainable solutions in Kenya could include
developing energy crops (trees and shrubs) which would
also provide additional income for farmers. This solution
would benet cropland or rangeland prone to erosion and
ooding as the root systems and leaf litter would enhance
soil stability.* [16] Careful selection of regenerating varieties would be most sustainable because soil stability is
not disrupted due to tilling and planting. Some people
view this solution as a way to further exploit forests, but
with proper management of forest resources this could be
a viable solution.
49.3.2
Challenges
49.9. REFERENCES
49.9 References
[1] , Long, C., Valberg, P., 2014. Evolution of Cleaner Solid
Fuel Combustion, Cornerstone, http://cornerstonemag.
net/evolution-of-cleaner-solid-fuel-combustion/
[2] Smoke's increasing cloud across the globe, Practical Action, accessed 5 May 2007.
[3] Duo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R (2008). Indoor air
pollution, health and economic well-being. S.A.P.I.EN.S
1 (1).
[4] Health, Environment And The Burden Of Disease: A
Guidance Note, Cairncross, S., O'neill, D., McCoy., A.,
Sethi, D. 2003. DFID. Accessed 10 May 2007.
167
[5] Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the
Global Environment, Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12
May 2007.
[6] Kenya Smoke and Health Project, ITDG. 1998-2001. Accessed 5 May 2007.
[18] Mukesh Dherani; et al. (May 2008). Indoor air pollution from unprocessed solid fuel use and pneumonia risk
in children aged under ve years: a systematic review and
meta-analysis no.5 Genebra. Bull World Health Organization 86 (1): 321416.
168
Chapter 50
50.1.2 Radon
Main article: Radon
Radon is an invisible, radioactive atomic gas that results from the radioactive decay of radium, which may
be found in rock formations beneath buildings or in certain building materials themselves. Radon is probably the
most pervasive serious hazard for indoor air in the United
States and Europe, probably responsible for tens of thousands of deaths from lung cancer each year.* [5] There
are relatively simple test kits for do-it-yourself radon gas
testing, but if a home is for sale the testing must be done
by licensed person in some U.S. states. Radon gas enters buildings as a soil gas and is a heavy gas and thus
will tend to accumulate at the lowest level. Radon may
also be introduced into a building through drinking water particularly from bathroom showers. Building materials can be a rare source of radon, but little testing is
carried out for stone, rock or tile products brought into
building sites; radon accumulation is greatest for well insulated homes.* [6] The half life for radon is 3.8 days, indicating that once the source is removed, the hazard will
be greatly reduced within a few weeks. Radon mitigation methods include sealing concrete slab oors, basement foundations, water drainage systems, or by increasing ventilation.* [7] They are usually cost eective and
169
170
can greatly reduce or even eliminate the contamination to the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
and the associated health risks.
Hygienists (ACGIH), the time-weighted average (TWA)
limit for carbon monoxide (630-08-0) is 25 ppm.
50.1.3
Main articles: Mold health issues, Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
These biological chemicals can arise from a host of
means, but there are two common classes: (a) moisture induced growth of mold colonies and (b) natural
substances released into the air such as animal dander
and plant pollen. Mold is always associated with moisture,* [8] and its growth can be inhibited by keeping humidity levels below 50%. Moisture buildup inside buildings may arise from water penetrating compromised areas of the building envelope or skin, from plumbing leaks,
from condensation due to improper ventilation, or from
ground moisture penetrating a building part. In areas
where cellulosic materials (paper and wood, including
drywall) become moist and fail to dry within 48 hours,
mold mildew can propagate and release allergenic spores
into the air.
In many cases, if materials have failed to dry out several
days after the suspected water event, mold growth is suspected within wall cavities even if it is not immediately
visible. Through a mold investigation, which may include
destructive inspection, one should be able to determine
the presence or absence of mold. In a situation where
there is visible mold and the indoor air quality may have
been compromised, mold remediation may be needed.
Mold testing and inspections should be carried out by an
independent investigator to avoid any conict of interest
and to insure accurate results; free mold testing oered
by remediation companies is not recommended.
There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds (mycotoxins). However, exposure to hazardous
levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most
cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are
not at signicant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air
quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore
cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties
is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that Several initiatives envisage to reduce indoor air contamination by limiting VOC emissions from products. There
already have asthma, a serious respiratory disease.
are regulations in France and in Germany, and numerous voluntary ecolabels and rating systems containing
low VOC emissions criteria such as EMICODE,* [12]
50.1.4 Carbon monoxide
M1,* [13] Blue Angel* [14] and Indoor Air Comfort* [15]
as well as California Standard CDPH Section
One of the most acutely toxic indoor air contaminants is in Europe,
*
01350
[16]
and several others in the USA. These initiacarbon monoxide (CO), a colourless, odourless gas that
tives
changed
the marketplace where an increasing numis a byproduct of incomplete combustion of fossil fuber
of
low-emitting
products has become available during
els. Common sources of carbon monoxide are tobacco
the
last
decades.
smoke, space heaters using fossil fuels, defective central
heating furnaces and automobile exhaust. By depriving At least 18 Microbial VOCs (MVOCs) have been
the brain of oxygen, high levels of carbon monoxide can characterised* [17]* [18] including 1-octen-3-ol, 3lead to nausea, unconsciousness and death. According methylfuran, 2-pentanol, 2-hexanone, 2-heptanone,
171
50.1.6 Legionella
Legionellosis or Legionnaire's Disease is caused by a waterborne bacterium Legionella that grows best in slowmoving or still, warm water. The primary route of exposure is through the creation of an aerosol eect, most
commonly from evaporative cooling towers or showerheads. A common source of Legionella in commercial
buildings is from poorly placed or maintained evaporative
cooling towers, which often release water in an aerosol
which may enter nearby ventilation intakes. Outbreaks
in medical facilities and nursing homes, where patients
are immuno-suppressed and immuno-weak, are the most
commonly reported cases of Legionellosis. More than
one case has involved outdoor fountains in public attractions. The presence of Legionella in commercial building
water supplies is highly under-reported, as healthy people
require heavy exposure to acquire infection.
Many common building materials used before 1975 contain asbestos, such as some oor tiles, ceiling tiles, shingles, reproong, heating systems, pipe wrap, taping
muds, mastics, and other insulation materials. Normally,
signicant releases of asbestos ber do not occur unless
the building materials are disturbed, such as by cutting,
sanding, drilling, or building remodelling. Removal of
asbestos-containing materials is not always optimal because the bers can be spread into the air during the
removal process. A management program for intact
asbestos-containing materials is often recommended instead.
When asbestos-containing material is damaged or disintegrates, microscopic bers are dispersed into the air. Inhalation of asbestos bers over long exposure times is
associated with increased incidence of lung cancer, in
particular the specic form mesothelioma. The risk of
lung cancer from inhaling asbestos bers is also greater
to smokers. The symptoms of the disease do not usually
appear until about 20 to 30 years after the rst exposure
to asbestos.
Legionella testing typically involves collecting water samples and surface swabs from evaporative cooling basins,
shower heads, faucets/taps, and other locations where
warm water collects. The samples are then cultured and
colony forming units (cfu) of Legionella are quantied as
cfu/Liter.
Asbestos is found in older homes and buildings, but ocLegionella is a parasite of protozoans such as amoeba, curs most commonly in schools and industrial settings.
and thus requires conditions suitable for both organisms. The US Federal Government (www.osha.gov) and some
The bacterium forms a biolm which is resistant to chem- states have set standards for acceptable levels of asbestos
ical and antimicrobial treatments, including chlorine. Re- bers in indoor air. There are particularly stringent regumediation for Legionella outbreaks in commercial build- lations applicable to schools.
ings vary, but often include very hot water ushes (160
F; 70 C), sterilisation of standing water in evaporative
cooling basins, replacement of shower heads, and in some 50.1.9 Carbon dioxide
cases ushes of heavy metal salts. Preventative measures
include adjusting normal hot water levels to allow for 120 Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a relatively easy to measure surF at the tap, evaluating facility design layout, removing rogate for indoor pollutants emitted by humans, and corfaucet aerators, and periodic testing in suspect areas.
relates with human metabolic activity. Carbon dioxide
at levels that are unusually high indoors may cause occupants to grow drowsy, to get headaches, or to function at
50.1.7 Other bacteria
lower activity levels. Humans are the main indoor source
of carbon dioxide in most buildings. Indoor CO2 levels
There are many bacteria of health signicance found in are an indicator of the adequacy of outdoor air ventilation
indoor air and on indoor surfaces. The role of microbes relative to indoor occupant density and metabolic activity.
in the indoor environment is increasingly studied using To eliminate most complaints, the total indoor CO level
2
modern gene-based analysis of environmental samples. should be reduced to a dierence of less than 600 ppm
Currently eorts are under way to link microbial ecolo- above outdoor levels. The National Institute for Occupagists and indoor air scientists to forge new methods for tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) considers that indoor
analysis and to better interpret the results.* [19]
air concentrations of carbon dioxide that exceed 1,000
There are approximately ten times as many bacterial ppm are a marker suggesting inadequate ventilation.* [21]
cells in the human ora as there are human cells in the The UK standards for schools say that carbon dioxide in
172
all teaching and learning spaces, when measured at seated
head height and averaged over the whole day should not
exceed 1,500 ppm. The whole day refers to normal school
hours (i.e. 9:00am to 3:30pm) and includes unoccupied
periods such as lunch breaks. In Hong Kong, the EPD established indoor air quality objectives for oce buildings
and public places in which a carbon dioxide level below
1,000 ppm is considered to be good.* [22] European standards limit carbon dioxide to 3,500 ppm. OSHA limits
carbon dioxide concentration in the workplace to 5,000
ppm for prolonged periods, and 35,000 ppm for 15 minutes. These higher limits are concerned with avoiding loss
of consciousness (fainting), and do not address impaired
cognitive performance and energy, which begin to occur
at lower concentrations of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide concentrations increase as a result of human occupancy, but lag in time behind cumulative occupancy and intake of fresh air. The lower the air exchange rate, the slower the buildup of carbon dioxide to
quasisteady stateconcentrations on which the NIOSH
and UK guidance are based. Therefore, measurements
of carbon dioxide for purposes of assessing the adequacy
of ventilation need to be made after an extended period of steady occupancy and ventilation - in schools at
least 2 hours, and in oces at least 3 hours - for concentrations to be a reasonable indicator of ventilation adequacy. Portable instruments used to measure carbon
dioxide should be calibrated frequently, and outdoor measurements used for calculations should be made close in
time to indoor measurements. Corrections for temperature eects on measurements made outdoors may also be
necessary.
50.1.10 Ozone
Ozone is produced by ultraviolet light from the Sun
hitting the Earth's atmosphere (especially in the ozone
layer), lightning, certain high-voltage electric devices
(such as air ionizers), and as a by-product of other types
of pollution.
Ozone exists in greater concentrations at altitudes commonly own by passenger jets. Reactions between ozone
and onboard substances, including skin oils and cosmetics, can produce toxic chemicals as by-products. Ozone
itself is also irritating to lung tissue and harmful to human
health. Larger jets have ozone lters to reduce the cabin
concentration to safer and more comfortable levels.* [24]
Outdoor air used for ventilation may have sucient ozone
to react with common indoor pollutants as well as skin oils
and other common indoor air chemicals or surfaces. Particular concern is warranted when using greencleaning products based on citrus or terpene extracts, because
these chemicals react very quickly with ozone to form
toxic and irritating chemicals as well as ne and ultrane
particles. Ventilation with outdoor air containing elevated ozone concentrations may complicate remediation
attempts.* [25]
173
to grow and release oxygen when they consume CO2.
A study published in the journal Environmental Science
& Technology considered uptake rates of ketones and
aldehydes by the peace lily (Spathiphyllum clevelandii)
and golden pothos (Epipremnum aureum.) Akira Tani
and C. Nicholas Hewitt found Longer-term fumigation results revealed that the total uptake amounts were
30100 times as much as the amounts dissolved in the
leaf, suggesting that volatile organic carbons are metabolized in the leaf and/or translocated through the petiole.
*
[32] It is worth noting the researchers sealed the plants
in Teon bags.No VOC loss was detected from the bag
when the plants were absent. However, when the plants
were in the bag, the levels of aldehydes and ketones both
decreased slowly but continuously, indicating removal by
the plants.* [33] Studies done in sealed bags do not faithfully reproduce the conditions in the indoor environments
of interest. Dynamic conditions with outdoor air ventilation and the processes related to the surfaces of the building itself and its contents as well as the occupants need to
be studied.
For the past several years, there have been many debates
among indoor air quality specialists about the proper definition of indoor air quality and specically what constitutes acceptableindoor air quality.
One technique to reduce energy consumption while maintaining adequate air quality, is demand controlled ventiPlants also appear to reduce airborne microbes, molds, lation. Instead of setting throughput at a xed air replaceand increase humidity.* [30] However, the increased hu- ment rate, carbon dioxide sensors are used to control the
midity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even rate dynamically, based on the emissions of actual buildVOCs.* [31]
ing occupants.
174
One way of quantitatively ensuring the health of indoor
air is by the frequency of eective turnover of interior
air by replacement with outside air. In the UK, for example, classrooms are required to have 2.5 outdoor air
changes per hour. In halls, gym, dining, and physiotherapy spaces, the ventilation should be sucient to limit
carbon dioxide to 1,500 ppm. In the USA, and according to ASHRAE Standards, ventilation in classrooms is
based on the amount of outdoor air per occupant plus
the amount of outdoor air per unit of oor area, not air
changes per hour. Since carbon dioxide indoors comes
from occupants and outdoor air, the adequacy of ventilation per occupant is indicated by the concentration indoors minus the concentration outdoors. The value of
615 ppm above the outdoor concentration indicates approximately 15 cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per
adult occupant doing sedentary oce work where outdoor air contains 385 ppm, the current global average
atmospheric CO2 concentration. In classrooms, the requirements in the ASHRAE standard 62.1, Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, would typically result
in about 3 air changes per hour, depending on the occupant density. Of course the occupants aren't the only
source of pollutants, so outdoor air ventilation may need
to be higher when unusual or strong sources of pollution
exist indoors. When outdoor air is polluted, then bringing
in more outdoor air can actually worsen the overall quality of the indoor air and exacerbate some occupant symptoms related to outdoor air pollution. Generally, outdoor
country air is better than indoor city air. Exhaust gas leakages can occur from furnace metal exhaust pipes that lead
to the chimney when there are leaks in the pipe and the
pipe gas ow area diameter has been reduced.
175
On the international level, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate (ISIAQ), formed in 1991,
organises two major conferences, the Indoor Air and the
Healthy Buildings series.* [40] ISIAQ's journal Indoor
Air is published 6 times a year and contains peer-reviewed
scientic papers with an emphasis on interdisciplinary
studies including exposure measurements, modeling, and
health outcomes.* [41]
Second-hand smoke
176
50.8 Notes
[1] KMC Controls. What's Your IQ on IAQ and IEQ.
Retrieved 5 October 2015.
[2] Bruce, N; Perez-Padilla, R; Albalak, R (2000). Indoor
air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge.. Bulletin of the World
Health Organization 78 (9): 107892. PMID 11019457.
[3] Duo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R (2008). Indoor air
pollution, health and economic well-being. S.A.P.I.EN.S
1 (1).
[4] Ezzati M, Kammen DM (November 2002). The health
impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data
needs. Environ Health Perspect. 110 (11): 1057
68. doi:10.1289/ehp.021101057. PMC 1241060. PMID
12417475.
[5] U.S. EPA Indoor Environment Division, Radon.
Epa.gov. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[6] C.Michael Hogan and Sjaak Slanina. 2010, Air pollution.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and Cutler
Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
[7] Radon Mitigation Methods. Radon SolutionRaising
Radon Awareness. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
[8] of WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and
mold. Report on a working group meeting, 17-18 October
2007
[9] U.S. EPA IAQ - Organic chemicals. Epa.gov. 201008-05. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[10] Logue, J. M. et al. (2011) Hazard assessment of chemical air contaminants measured in residences. Indoor Air
21(2): 92-109
[11] California IAQ Information: Volatile Organic Compounds
[12] Emicode. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[13] M1. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[14] Blue Angel. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[15] Indoor Air Comfort. Indoor Air Comfort. Retrieved
2012-03-02.
[16] CDPH Section 01350. Eurons.com. Retrieved 201203-02.
[17] Smelly Moldy Houses.
[18] Meruva NK, Penn JM, Farthing DE (November
2004).
Rapid identication of microbial VOCs
from tobacco molds using closed-loop stripping and
gas chromatography/time-of-ight mass spectrometry. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 31 (10): 4828.
doi:10.1007/s10295-004-0175-0. PMID 15517467.
[19] Microbiology of the Indoor Environment, microbe.net
50.9 References
May, Jerey C.; Ouellette, Connie L. May ; with
a contribution by John J., Reed, Charles E. (2004).
The mold survival guide for your home and for your
health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8018-7938-8. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
May, Jerey C. (2001). My house is killing me! : the
home guide for families with allergies and asthma.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8018-6730-9.
May, Jerey C. (2006). My oce is killing me! : the
sick building survival guide. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-83422.
Salthammer, T., ed. (1999). Organic Indoor Air
Pollutants Occurrence, Measurement, Evaluation.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-527-29622-0.
Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M. (1991). Indoor air pollution: A health perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4125-9.
Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M. & McCarthy, J.F.
(2001). Indoor Air Quality Handbook. NY:
McGrawHill. ISBN 0-07-445549-4.
Tichenor, B. (1996). Characterizing Sources of Indoor Air Pollution and Related Sink Eects. ASTM
STP 1287. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. ISBN
0-8031-2030-3.
http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/
airindoorairpollution.html - Website of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA)
Study: Bad In-Flight Air Exacerbated by Passengers
Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio. September 21, 2007.
Outdoor ozone and building related symptoms in the
BASE study
177
Chapter 51
Indoor bioaerosol
Indoor bioaerosol is bioaerosol in an indoor environment. Bioaerosols are natural or articial particles
of biological (microbial, plant, or animal) origin suspended in the air. These particles are also referred to
as organic dust. Bioaerosols may consist of bacteria,
fungi (and spores and cell fragments of fungi), viruses,
microbial toxins, pollen, plant bers, etc.* [1] Size of
bioaerosol particles varies from below 1 m to 100 m
in aerodynamic diameter;* [2] viable bioaerosol particles can be suspended in air as single cells or aggregates of microorganism as small as 110 m in size.* [3]
Since bioaerosols are potentially related to various human health eects* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] and the indoor environment provides a unique exposure situation,* [7] concerns about indoor bioaerosols have increased over the
last decade.
51.1.2 Factors
inuencing
bioaerosol generation
Indoor bioaerosols may originate from outdoor air and
indoor reservoirs.* [3]* [4] Although outdoor bioaerosols
cannot easily migrate into large buildings with complex ventilation systems, certain categories of outdoor
bioaerosols (i.e., fungal spores) do serve as major sources
for indoor bioaerosols in naturally ventilated buildings
at specic periods of time (i.e., growing seasons for
fungi).* [3] Major indoor sources for bioaerosols at residential homes include human occupants, pets, house dust,
organic waste, as well as the heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) system.* [3]* [4]* [6]* [8]* [9] Several studies have identied human activities as an important source for indoor bioaerosols.* [3]* [8]* [10]* [11]
Human bodies can generate bioaerosols directly through
activities like talking, sneezing, and coughing,* [10]
while other residential activities (i.e., washing, ushing toilet, sweeping oor) can generate bioaerosols indirectly.* [8]* [10] Since microorganisms can accumulate
and grow on dust particles, house dust is a potential
source of bioaerosols.* [4] In a study by Wouters et al.,* [6]
they investigated the eects of indoor storage of organic
indoor
178
179
toms like allergic rhinitis, and particles with aerodynamic
diameter less than 5 m can reach the alveoli and hence
lead to serious illnesses such as allergic alveolitis.* [3]
Because of the conrmed and potential adverse health effects associated with indoor bioaerosol, some concentration limits for total number of bioaerosol particles are
recommended by dierent agencies and organizations
as follow: 1000 CFUs/m3 (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)), 1000 CFUs/m3
(American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)) with the culturable count for total bacteria not exceeding 500 CFUs/m3 .* [10] Note that for
most types of indoor bioaerosols, the establishment of
specic concentration limits or acceptance levels presents
multiple challenges (e.g., dierences on sampling and
analysis method, irrelevance of sampling units to human exposure measurement; multiplicity and variability
of composition, etc.).* [18]
180
tion.* [5]
51.3.2
In previous research on indoor bioaerosol in residential environments, microorganisms have been quantied by conventional culture-based techniques, in which
colony forming units (CFU) on selective media are
counted.* [30] Cultivating methods have several disadvantages. Culture-based methods are known to underestimate environmental microbial diversity, based on the
fact that only a small percentage of microbes can be
cultivated in the laboratory. This underestimation is
likely to be signied for the quantication of bioaerosol,
since colony counts of airborne microbes are typically
quite dierent from direct counts.* [31] Culture-based
methods also need relatively long incubation times (over
24 hours) and are labor-intensive.* [29] Consequently,
culture-based methods are no longer suitable for effective and rapid identication and quantication of
bioaerosol,* [29] and non-culture based methods, such as
immunoassays, molecular biological tests, and optical,
and electrical methods, have been developing over the
past few decades.* [29]
detection, standard curves need to be developed to calibrate nal results. One study indicated thatcurves used
for quantication by qPCR needs to be prepared using
the same environmental matrix and procedures as handling of the environmental sample in questionand that
reliance on the standard curves generated with cultured
bacterial suspension (a traditional approach) may lead to
substantial underestimation of microorganism quantities
in environmental samples.* [32] Microarray techniques
Major culture-independent identication/quantication also face the challenge of natural sequence diversity and
methods adopted in previous bioaerosol studies in- potential cross-hybridization in complex environmental
clude polymerase chain reaction (PCR),* [17] quantita- bioaerosols).* [33]
tive polymerase chain reaction (qPCR),* [32] microarray (PhyloChip),* [33] uorescent in situ hybridization
(FISH),* [34] ow cytometry* [34] and solid-phase cytometry,* [18] immunoassay (i.e., enzyme-linked im- 51.4 Concentration levels in diermunosorbent assay (ELISA)).* [28] The well-known PCR
ent geographical regions
is a powerful tool in identifying and even quantifying the
biological origin of bioaerosols. PCR alone cannot ac- Concentration levels of indoor bioaerosols in dierent recomplish all the tasks related to bioaerosol detection; in- gions of the world recorded in published literatures are
stead it usually serves as the preparation tool for subse- summarized as Table 2.
quent processes like DNA sequencing, microarray, and
community ngerprinting techniques. A typical procedure for PCR-based bioaerosol analysis is shown in Fig51.5 Approaches to control indoor
ure 1.
Molecular biological methods for bioaerosol are signicantly faster and more sensitive than conventional
culture-based methods, and they are also able to reveal
a larger diversity of microbes. Targeting the variation in
the 16S rRNA gene, a microarray (PhyloChip) was used
to conduct comprehensive identication of both bacterial and archaeal organisms in bioaerosols.* [33] New U.S.
EPA methods have been developed to utilize qPCR to
characterize indoor environment for fungal spores.* [5]
In a study by Lange et al.,* [34] FISH method successfully identied eubacteria in samples of complex native
bioaerosols in swine barns. Nonetheless, molecular biological tools have limitations. Since PCR methods target
DNA, viability of cells could not be conrmed in some
cases.* [18] When qPCR technique is used for bioaerosol
bioaerosols
Based on the sources and the inuencing factors for indoor bioaerosols discussed in the section on Sources
and Inuencing Factors, corresponding remedial actions could be taken to control related contamination.
Potentially eective strategies include: 1) limiting entrance of outdoor aerosols; 2) keeping the relative humidity level below high levels (<60%);* [7] 3) installing appropriate ltration devices to air ventilation system to inlet ltered outdoor air into indoor environment; 4) reducing/removing contaminant sources (i.e., indoor organic
waste). As in the U.S., due to the increase in tuberculosis
in the mid-1980s, indoor air treatment has developed substantially during the past two decades.* [5] Current or de-
51.6. REFERENCES
181
veloping indoor air purication technologies include l- [14] Verreault, D., S. Moineau, and C. Duchaine, Methods for
sampling of airborne viruses. Microbiology and Molecutration, aerosol ultraviolet irradiation, electrostatic prelar Biology Reviews, 2008. 72(3): p. 413-444.
cipitation, unipolar ion emission, and photocatalytic oxi*
dation. [5]
51.6 References
[1] Douwes, J., et al., Bioaerosol health eects and exposure
assessment: Progress and prospects. Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 2003. 47(3): p. 187-200.
[2] Sanchez-Monedero, M.A., et al., Eect of the aeration
system on the levels of airborne microorganisms generated at wastewater treatment plants. Water Research,
2008. 42(14): p. 3739-3744.
[3] Pastuszka, J.S., et al., Bacterial and fungal aerosol in indoor environment in Upper Silesia, Poland. Atmospheric
Environment, 2000. 34(22): p. 3833-3842.
[4] Chao, H.J., et al., Populations and determinants of airborne fungi in large oce buildings. Environmental
Health Perspectives, 2002. 110(8): p. 777-782.
[5] Peccia, J., et al., A role for environmental engineering and
science in preventing bioaerosol-related disease. Environmental Science & Technology, 2008. 42(13): p. 46314637.
[6] Wouters, I.M., et al., Increased levels of markers of microbial exposure in homes with indoor storage of organic
household waste. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2000. 66(2): p. 627-631.
[7] Burge, H., Bioaerosol - prevalence and health eects in
the indoor environment. Journal of Allergy and Clinical
Immunology, 1990. 86(5): p. 687-701.
[8] Chen, Q. and L.M. Hildemann, The Eects of Human Activities on Exposure to Particulate Matter and
Bioaerosols in Residential Homes. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(13): p. 4641-4646.
[15] Dekoster, J.A. and P.S. Thorne, Bioaerosol concentrations in noncomplaint, complaint, and intervention homes
in the Midwest. American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal, 1995. 56(6): p. 573-580.
[16] Law, A.K.Y., C.K. Chau, and G.Y.S. Chan, Characteristics of bioaerosol prole in oce buildings in Hong Kong.
Building and Environment, 2001. 36(4): p. 527-541.
[17] Peccia, J. and M. Hernandez, Incorporating polymerase
chain reaction-based identication, population characterization, and quantication of microorganisms into aerosol
science: A review. Atmospheric Environment, 2006.
40(21): p. 3941-3961.
[18] Vanhee, L.M.E., H.J. Nelis, and T. Coenye, Rapid Detection and Quantication of Aspergillus fumigatus in Environmental Air Samples Using Solid-Phase Cytometry.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(9): p.
3233-3239.
[19] Redlich, C.A., J. Sparer, and M.R. Cullen, Sick-building
syndrome. Lancet, 1997. 349(9057): p. 1013-1016.
[20] Cooley, J.D., et al., Correlation between the prevalence of
certain fungi and sick building syndrome. Occupational
and Environmental Medicine, 1998. 55(9): p. 579-584.
[21] Gyntelberg, F., et al., Dust and the sick building syndrome. Indoor Air-International Journal of Indoor Air
Quality and Climate, 1994. 4(4): p. 223-238.
[22] Teeuw, K.B., C. Vandenbrouckegrauls, and J. Verhoef,
Airborne gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin in sick
building syndrome - a study in Dutch governmental oce
buildings. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1994. 154(20):
p. 2339-2345.
[23] Li, C.S., C.W. Hsu, and M.L. Tai, Indoor pollution and
sick building syndrome symptoms among workers in daycare centers. Archives of Environmental Health, 1997.
52(3): p. 200-207.
[10] Kalogerakis, N., et al., Indoor air quality - bioaerosol measurements in domestic and oce premises. Journal of
Aerosol Science, 2005. 36(5-6): p. 751-761.
[25] Harrison, J., et al., An investigation of the relationship between microbial and particulate indoor air pollution and
the sick building syndrome. Respiratory Medicine, 1992.
86(3): p. 225-235.
[11] Li, C.S. and P.A. Hou, Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms. Science of the Total Environment, 2003.
305(1-3): p. 169-176.
[12] Sanchez-Monedero, M.A., E.I. Stentiford, and C. Mondini, Bioltration at composting facilities: Eectiveness
for bioaerosol control. Environmental Science & Technology, 2003. 37(18): p. 4299-4303.
[13] Bauer, H., et al., Bacteria and fungi in aerosols generated by two dierent types of wastewater treatment plants.
Water Research, 2002. 36(16): p. 3965-3970.
182
[29] Moon, H.S., et al., Dielectrophoretic Separation of Airborne Microbes and Dust Particles Using a Microuidic
Channel for Real-Time Bioaerosol Monitoring. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(15): p. 58575863.
[30] Li, C.S. and T.Y. Huang, Fluorochrome in monitoring indoor bioaerosols. Aerosol Science and Technology, 2006.
40(4): p. 237-241.
[31] Fierer, N., et al., Short-term temporal variability in airborne bacterial and fungal populations. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2008. 74(1): p. 200-207.
[32] An, H.R., G. Mainelis, and L. White, Development and
calibration of real-time PCR for quantication of airborne
microorganisms in air samples. Atmospheric Environment, 2006. 40(40): p. 7924-7939.
[33] Brodie, E.L., et al., Urban aerosols harbor diverse and dynamic bacterial populations. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
2007. 104(1): p. 299-304.
[34] Lange, J.L., P.S. Thorne, and N. Lynch, Application of
ow cytometry and uorescent in situ hybridization for
assessment of exposures to airborne bacteria. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology, 1997. 63(4): p. 15571563.
[35] Wan, G.H. and C.S. Li, Indoor endotoxin and glucan in
association with airway inammation and systemic symptoms. Archives of Environmental Health, 1999. 54(3): p.
172-179.
[36] Tsai, F.C. and J.M. Macher, Concentrations of airborne
culturable bacteria in 100 large US oce buildings from
the BASE study. Indoor Air, 2005. 15: p. 71-81.
[37] Jo, W.K. and Y.J. Seo, Indoor and outdoor bioaerosol levels at recreation facilities, elementary schools, and homes.
Chemosphere, 2005. 61(11): p. 1570-1579.
Chapter 52
184
Chapter 53
53.1 Focus
The focus of IUAPPA is the development and implementation of more eective policies for the prevention
and control of air pollution, the protection of the environment and the adoption of sustainable development
.* [2] IUAPPA wants to achieve the adoption and eective implementation of policies which can secure a clean
and healthy atmospheric environment, together with scientists, policy-makers, regulators, business and citizen
groups with this same objective.
The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum was initiated by IUAPPA and the Stockholm Environment Institute.* [3] European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations (EFCA) was founded by
the core of European members of the International Union
of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations, IUAPPA * [4]
53.2 Governance
Service
de
The IUAPPA secretariat is in Burgess Hill, West Sussex, The World Clean Air Congress, rst organized by
United Kingdom. The president is Kil-Choo Moon of the IUAPPA in 1966, is held every two or three years. It is
Korea Institute of Science and Technology and the direc- one of the major international gatherings on atmospheric
185
186CHAPTER 53. INTERNATIONAL UNION OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ASSOCIATIO
sciences and policy with 1.500 participants. Some of the
more recent congresses are;
53.8 References
[1] Joachim Radkau: The Age of Ecology. Wiley, 2014
53.6 Awards
[12] http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk
[13] Home. Air & Waste Management Association.
53.7 Publications
Ranjeet Sokhi (ED.): World Atlas of Atmospheric
Pollution. The World Atlas was developed in conjunction with the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations (IUAPPA) and the Global Atmospheric
Pollution Forum.
IUAPPA Three Year Review: 2007 - 2010 (PDF)
Over 1000 IUAPPA related publications (Google
scholar).
187
Chapter 54
Line source
For electromagnetic linear sources, the principal early advances in computer modeling arose in the Soviet Union
and USA when the end of World War II and the Cold
War were fought partially by progress in electronic warfare, including the technologies of active antenna arrays.
189
The New Jersey Turnpike was one of the earliest line sources
analyzed for noise
phenomenon was perfected, the rst applications of linear source noise modeling became systematic. After passage of the National Environmental Policy Act and Noise
Control Act,* [3] the demand for detailed analysis soared,
and decision makers began to look to acoustical scientists
for answers regarding the planning of new roadways and
the design of noise mitigation. The intensity of roadway
noise is governed by the following variables: trac operations (speed, truck mix, age of vehicle eet), roadway
surface type, tire types, roadway geometrics, terrain, micrometeorology and the geometry of area structures.
Due to the complexity of the variables, a line source
acoustic model must be a computer model that can analyze sound levels in the vicinity of roadways. The rst
meaningful models arose in the late 1960s and early
1970s. Two of the leading research teams were BBN
in Boston and ESL Inc. of Sunnyvale, California. Both
of these groups developed complex mathematical models to allow the study of alternate roadway designs, trafc operations and noise mitigation strategies in an arbitrary setting.* [4] Later model alterations have come into
widespread use among state Departments of Transportation and city planners, but the accuracy of early models
has had little change in 40 years.
190
in phototherapy, where output radiation from the tube
can be accurately modeled by treating the tube as a line
source.* [6] On a larger scale, an illuminated roadway may
act as a line source of light pollution.
54.6 References
[1] Michael Hogan, Theoretical basis for atmospheric diusion from a linear source, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication IR-29, Sunnyvale, Ca., May
4, 1970
[2] Richard J. Venti, Atmospheric diusion models for roadway sources, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication ET-22, Sunnyvale, Ca., October 5,
1970.
[3] Public Law No. 92-574, 86 Stat. 1234 (1972) Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, codication amended
at 42 U.S.C. 4901-4918 (1988)
[4] John Shadely, Acoustical analysis of the New Jersey Turnpike widening project between Raritan and East Brunswick,
Bolt Beranek and Newman, 1973
[5] United States Geological Survey runo precipitation algorithm
[6] David Robert Grimes, Chris Robbins, Neil John O'Hare.
Dose Modeling in Ultraviolet phototherapy, Medical
Physics, 37(10) October 2010
Chapter 55
Liquid-to-gas ratio
An important parameter in wet scrubbing systems is the
rate of liquid ow. It is common in wet scrubber terminology to express the liquid ow as a function of the gas
ow rate that is being treated. This is commonly called
the liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G ratio) and uses the units of
gallons per 1,000 actual cubic feet or liters/cubic meter
(l/m).
55.1 Bibliography
Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
National Asphalt Pavement Association. 1978. The
Maintenance and Operation of Exhaust Systems in
the Hot Mix Batch Plant. 2nd ed. Information Series 52.
Depending on scrubber design, a minimum volume of liquid is required to wetthe scrubber internals and create sucient collection targets. After a certain optimum
point, adding excess liquid to a particulate wet scrubber
does not increase eciency and in fact, could be counterproductive by causing excessive pressure loss. Liquid-togas ratios for gas absorption are often higher, in the range
of 20 to 40 gallons per 1,000 actual ft (3 to 6 litres per
actual m).
192
55.3 References
[1] US EPA Air Pollution Training Institute developed in collaboration with North Carolina State University, College
of Engineering (NCSU)
Chapter 56
56.1 References
[1] WHO Air Quality Guideline Page 11
[2] WHO Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database
2014
[3] USA Today The most polluted city is? Hint: Not Beijing
193
Chapter 57
Low-carbon emission
The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor (H2 O). Carbon dioxide is
the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG)
and the most signicant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the
U.S. (with 82-84% of all U.S. emissions).* [1] Increases
in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil
fuel use and land-use change.* [2]
Low-carbon economy
Sustainable mobility technology
57.3 References
Chapter 58
Low-emission zone
196
58.2.3 Singapore
Since 2008, there were plans for the low emission zone
to take place in Singapore, but however this will take effect should Volvo B10TL, Dennis Trident 3, Volvo B9TL
The cities of Gothenburg, Lund, Malm, Helsingborg, (CDGE) and Volvo B10BLE gets phased out.
Mlndal and Stockholm have Low Emission Zones.
58.1.2
Sweden
United Kingdom
Congestion pricing
Ecopass
Electric car
List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
Plug-in electric vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Road space rationing
Sustainable transport
Transit mall
Zero-emissions vehicle
58.4 References
58.1.4
58.2 Elsewhere
58.2.1
Hong Kong
197
Chapter 59
Mist
For other uses, see Mist (disambiguation).
suspended water phase can congeal. Thus even such unMist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of usual sources as small particulates from volcanic eruptions, releases of strongly polar gases, and even the
magnetospheric ions associated with polar lights can in
right conditions trigger the formation of mist.
59.1 Description
The only dierence between mist and fog is visibility.* [1]
The phenomenon is called fog, if the visibility is one kilometre (1,100 yards) or less (in the UK for driving purposes the denition of fog is visibility less than 100 metres (UK Highway Code rule 226),* [2] for pilots the distance is 1 kilometre). Otherwise it is known as mist. Seen
from a distance, mist is bluish, and haze is more brownish.
59.3 Examples
59.5. REFERENCES
59.5 References
[1] http://www.rcn27.dial.pipex.com/cloudsrus/mistnfog.
html
[2] Driving in adverse weather conditions (226 to 237)".
www.gov.uk.
[3] WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ICE FOG AND
FREEZING FOG?". theweatherprediction.com.
199
Chapter 60
60.1.2
Route optimization
60.1.3
201
Biofuels
unburned
hydrocarbons
(UHC)
and
202
60.3.1
Engines
203
sions created by their proportion of the ight. Money
generated is put to projects around the world to invest
in green technology such as renewable energy and research into future technology. Airlines oering carbon osets include British Airways, easyJet, Continental
Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Lufthansa and Qantas although there are many more carriers participating in such
schemes.* [16]* [17]* [18]* [19]
A Continuous Descent Approach, or CDA, not only reduces fuel burn but also allows airlines to provide quieter
approaches for part of the descent to a runway. As the
engines are at close to idle power, less noise emissions
are produced and combined with new engine technology,
the reductions in noise emissions can be large.* [9]
British Airways' carbon osetting scheme involves paying a fee dependant on aircraft type, class of travel and
distance own and therefore prices vary. Funds generated are currently awarded to three renewable energy
projects around the world: Bayin'aobao wind farm in
Inner Mongolia, Faxinal dos Guedes hydroelectric power
plant in Brazil and Xiaohe hydroelctric power plant in
Gansu Province, China.* [20]
60.6 References
[1] International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport
Bureau (ATB) (n.d.).Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved 2010-05-01.
[2] Enviro.aero (n.d.). What is the impact of ying?". Retrieved 2010-05-01.
204
Chapter 61
There are a number of dierent mobile sources of air pollution, some contributing more to pollution than others.
As mentioned previously, mobile sources are regulated
dierently from stationary sources due to the large number of sources and their ability to move from one location
to another. Dierent mobile sources operate dierently
and generate dierent emission types and levels. The
E.P.A. dierentiates between mobile sources by classifying them as either on-road vehicles or non-road vehicles.* [2] On-road vehicles and non-road vehicles are often subject to dierent regulations.
205
206
61.1.1
Road sources
Cars
Light Duty and Heavy Duty Trucks
Buses
Motorbikes
61.1.2
Non-road sources
Particulate Matter: Atmospheric particulate matter or airborne particulate matter is the term for solid
or liquid particles found in the air. Some particles
are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke,
but ne particulate matter is tiny and is generally
not visible to the naked eye. Fine particulate matter
is a health concern because very ne particles can
reach the deepest regions of the lungs. Health effects include asthma, dicult or painful breathing,
and chronic bronchitis, especially in children and the
elderly.* [8]
Aircraft
Motorboats (Diesel and Gasoline)
Locomotives
Construction Equipment
61.2 Major
regulated
source pollutants
mobile
There are a number of dierent pollutants that are emitted by mobile sources. Some make up a large portion
of the total air concentration for that particular pollutant
while others do not make up as much of the total air concentration.* [3]
207
208
61.5.2 Taxes
Another common policy instrument used by governments
to inuence market behavior is taxation. In the case of
mobile source air pollution, the United States government has established many dierent taxes to limit emissions from various mobile sources. Perhaps one of the
most well known is the gas guzzler tax, established by the
Energy Tax Act of 1978. The act set minimum fuel economy standards for all new cars sold in the United States.
Governments may also oer tax credits to encourage certain types of behavior within market economies. For example, if a government wants to encourage consumers
to purchase more fuel-ecient vehicles, the government
could oer tax credits to eectively lower the price of
each vehicle. The logic of this approach is consistent with
209
61.5.4
Voluntary programs
Other important policy instruments that can be utilized by governments are voluntary programs. These
programs bring together various stakeholders with the
goal of achieving some particular policy outcome.
The Department of Energy, for example, created the
"Clean Cities" program to reduce petroleum use in the
transportation sector. The Clean Cities program partners with more than 80 volunteer organizations throughout the United States, developing public-private partnerships that promote alternative fuels and advanced vehicles, fuel blends, fuel economy, hybrid vehicles, and idle
reduction.* [24] The three primary goals of the program
are
"Clean Construction USA" is an additional voluntary program administered by EPA that promotes the reduction
of diesel exhaust emissions from construction equipment
and other construction vehicles. The program encourages
proper operations and maintenance, the use of emissionreducing technologies, and the use of cleaner fuels.* [27]
61.5.5 Subsidies
Subsidies are another powerful policy tool used by governments to inuence economic behavior. Subsidies can
take many forms, ranging from tax credits to direct cash
payments. To limit mobile source pollution from airports, for example, the Federal Aviation Administra-
210
tion's "Voluntary Airport Low Emission Program" provides funding to U.S. commercial service airports located in air quality non attainment and maintenance areas. While the funding can be used to reduce emissions
from both mobile and stationary sources at the airport,
much of the program's emphasis is on mobile source
emission reduction. The program promotes the use of
electric ground support equipment, such as electric bag
tugs that take luggage from the airplane to the baggage
claim. Other airport equipment that can be electronically
operated include various types of belt loaders, along with
the pushback tractors that assist airplanes when departing
from the gate.
Another important goal of the program is to install underground fuel hydrants at airports. These would eliminate 61.5.7 Marketable allowances
the need for fuel trucks, an important source of mobile
emissions. The Voluntary Airport Low Emission Pro- Leaded gasoline
gram was established under the Vision 100 Century of
Aviation Reauthorization Act of 2003.
Lead was originally added to fuel as an additive to prevent engine knocking. In the 1970s, virtually all gasoline
used in the United States contained lead with an average
61.5.6 Command and control: perfor- concentration of almost 2.4 grams per gallon. By the mid
mance standards
1970s, the EPA began formulating plans to phase lead out
of fuel for two main reasons. There was growing concern
Numerous states have emissions-testing programs to limit over lead's potential eects on human health, especially
pollution from on-road vehicles, such as cars and light- with respected hypertension and cognitive development
duty trucks. Each of these vehicles must meet specic in children. Additionally, the introduction of the catalytic
emissions targets before being allowed to obtain or re- converter in new automobiles manufactured after 1975
new vehicle registrations. Many of these programs are required an adjustment to the fuel standards. Catalytic
administered on the local and county level. For example, converters were utilized in new automobiles to help meet
the Clean Air Car Check is a vehicle emissions-testing the hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide
program for all vehicles registered in Lake and Porter emission standards mandated by the 1970 Clean Air Act.
counties in Indiana. The two counties were designated as Unfortunately, the catalytic converters could only funcnon-attainment areas for ozone levels in 1977 by the Envi- tion properly with unleaded fuel.
ronmental Protection Agency. By 1990, the two counties
In order to protect human health and ensure that catalytic
were reclassied as severe non-attainment areas, a desconverters were operating properly, the EPA required
ignation which requires states to create State Implementhat the average lead content of all gasoline sold be retation Plans to attain and maintain certain air pollution
duced from 1.7 grams per gallon after January 1, 1975
standards. Although the counties were again reclassied
to 0.5 grams per gallon by January 1, 1979. Eventually,
in 2010, this time as attainment areas, the two counties
the EPA lowered the average lead concentration standard
will maintain their vehicle inspection and maintenance
goal to 0.1 gm/gal by January 1, 1986. The EPA dened
program because it is a key piece of Indiana's plan to
averagesin a way that allowed reners who owned more
prevent backsliding so that the area can remain in attainthan one renery to average ortradeamong reneries
ment.* [28]
to satisfy their lead limits each quarter. Taking note of the
trading that was taking place, the EPA permitted reners
to bank credits for use until the end of 1987. EPA enCorporate Average Fuel Eciency standard
forcement relied on reporting requirements and random
*
According to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy stan- testing of gasoline samples. [30]
dard (CAFE) regulation, which was enacted in 1975, every seller of automobiles in the US had to achieve by 1985
a minimum sales-weighted average fuel eciency of 27.5
miles per gallon (MPG). This standard had to be achieved
for domestically produced and imported cars separately.
Failure to meet the prescribed standard incurred a penalty
of $5 per car per 1/10 of a gallon that the corporate average fuel economy fell below the standard. The rst idea
about the environmental impact of the CAFE regulation
61.7. REFERENCES
reduction of a pollutant. Lead credit trading as a percentage of lead use rose above 40 percent by 1987. An
estimated 20 percent of reneries participated in trading
early in the program, eventually rising to 60 percent of
reneries.* [32]
Benzene in gasoline
In 2007, the Mobile Source Air Toxics Rule was created
to help limit the hazardous emissions generated as a result of fuel combustion in mobile sources. Benzene is one
particular component of gasoline that is known to pose a
hazard to human health. In 2007, benzene concentrations
in gasoline averaged 1% by volume. The EPA mandated
reners and importers to begin producing gasoline with
annual an average benzene content no greater than 0.62%
beginning in 2011. The EPA has listed certain technologies that can be utilized in order to achieve the new standards, but reners can petition the EPA to approve additional technologies.
Reners and importers could earn credits by reducing
benzene levels below 0.62% before 2011. These credits could be auctioned to other companies, essentially
creating a marketable allowance approach for reducing
benzene content in gasoline. The nationwide banking
and trading system does nave some limitations. No individual rener or importer could produce gasoline with
benzene concentrations exceeding 1.3% by volume, even
with credits.* [33]
The nal rule can be found at the EPA's website. Control
of Hazardous Air Pollutants From Mobile Sources:Early
Credit Technology Requirement Revision
211
[5] EPA - Emission Facts: Average Carbon Dioxide Emissions Resulting from Gasoline and Diesel Fuel http://
www.epa.gov/oms/climate/420f05001.htm
[6] EPA - Nitrogen Oxides http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/nox.htm
[7] EPA - Hydrocarbons http://www.epa.gov/oms/invntory/
overview/pollutants/hydrocarbons.htm
[8] EPA - Particulate Matter http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/pm.htm
[9] OAR webpage.
[10] art=1&Count=200&Expand=10See FAR Part 33 Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines Check |url=
value (help).
[11] FAA policies (PDF).
[12] FHWA site.
[13] NHTSA site.
[14] .
[15] NHTSA website.
[16] http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/gas-label-1.htm#1
[17] http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/gas-label-2.htm#1
[18] EPA webpage.
[19] Department of Energy.
[20] Block, Sandra (March 18, 2011). USA Today.
[21] Department of Energy website.
[22] Department of Energy.
[23] Biofuels: Myth vs. Fact (Department of Energy)"
(PDF).
[24] DOE website.
[25] NHTSA website.
Air Pollution
Emissions Standards
Emissions Trading
Motor Vehicle Emissions
61.7 References
[1] EPA - What are Mobile Sources? http://www.epa.gov/
otaq/invntory/overview/examples.htm
[2] EPA - On-road Vehicles and Engines http://www.epa.gov/
otaq/hwy.htm
[3] EPA - Mobile Source Emissions - Past, Present, and Future http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/results/
allmobile.htm
[4] EPA - Carbon Monoxide http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/carbonmon.htm
Chapter 62
Multi-eect Protocol
produced domestically due to pollution arriving from one
or more upwind countries.* [2]
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidication, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone (known
as the Multi-eect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol) is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidication, eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting
emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by
2010. As of August 2014, the Protocol had been ratied
by 26 parties, which includes 25 states and the European
Union.* [1]
213
also contain reduction commitments, expressed as a per- in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, the acidication of
centage reduction compared to 2005 emission levels, that forests and lakes was halted in large parts of Europe. ReParties should meet in 2020.
duction of NO emissions from trac has less than originally expected. The Protocol required only modest am Annexes 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 list 'limit values' for monia emission reductions and therefore in most parts of
deposition will be reduced only
specic emission sources, such as for combustion Europe, excess nitrogen
*
by
a
small
percentage.
[13]
plants, electricity generation, cement production or
dry cleaning. Best available techniques are required
to control emissions. With the exception of Annex
9, all the emission limit values specied were also
updated in 2012 by the Parties.
62.2.2
214
The Parties agreed to include more stringent emission reduction commitments for 2020, including reduction targets for particulate matter (PM). Subsequently, the technical annexes were also amended to update them with improved emission limit values. The protocol now also includes, as the rst international agreement between countries, measures addressing short-lived climate forcers,
such as black carbon.* [15]
The work to revise the Protocol was coordinated by the
Working Group on Strategies and Review and supported
by varies technical groups, such as the Expert Group on
Techno-Economic Issues.
62.4 References
[1] Status and ratications.
[2] UK Atmosphere, Climate and Information Program material on CLRTAP and associated Protocols
http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/acid_rain/Older/
International_Agreements.html
[3] Miljstyrelsen. .mst.dk. 2006-07-23. Retrieved 201307-15.
[4] Status of ratication http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/
status/99multi_st.htm
[5] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=16
[6] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=18
[7] Reference document:
National emission ceilings prescribed by the NEC directive http:
//www2.dmu.dk/AtmosphericEnvironment/Expost/
database/docs/NEC_tables.pdf
[8] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=27
[9] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=31
[10] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=36
[11] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=55
[12] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=64
[13] Review of the Gothenburg Protocol. Report of the Task
Force on Integrated Assessment Modelling and the Centre
for Integrated Assessment Modelling - PBL Netherlands
Environmental Assessment Agency. Pbl.nl. 2007-1231. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
[14] Archived July 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
[15] Parties adopt new air pollution and climate change related areas of work for the Air Convention. UNECE.
Retrieved 2013-07-15.
Chapter 63
63.1 References
[1] The First National Air Pollution Symposium. SRI
International. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
[2] Nielson, Donald (2006). A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's
First Half Century. Menlo Park, California: SRI International. pp. 918 921. ISBN 978-0-9745208-1-0.
[3] Gibson, Weldon B. (1986). SRI: The Take-O Days. Los
Altos, California: Stanford Research Institute. pp. 48, 55,
149, 168, 181. ISBN 0-86576-103-5.
215
Chapter 64
64.1 References
216
Chapter 65
A more recent study in Japan found that the volatile organic chemicals in a new minivan were over 35 times the
health limit the day after its delivery. In four months levels had fallen under the limit but increased again in the
hot summer months, taking three years to permanently remain below the limit. The limits were set by the Japanese
health ministry in response to more car owners suering
*
Some recommend keeping new cars well ventilated while from sick building syndrome. [7] A Daily Telegraph arti*
driving, especially during the summer. A 1995 analy- cle [8] on the study described the enjoyment of new car
sis* [3] of the air from a new Lincoln Continental found smell as akin to glue-sning".
over 50 volatile organic compounds, which were iden- Yet another study showed little toxicity in new car
tied as coming from sources such as cleaning and odors.* [9]
lubricating compounds, paint, carpeting, leather and vinyl
treatments, latex glue, and gasoline and exhaust fumes.
An analysis two months after the initial one found a signicant reduction in the chemicals. The researchers observed that the potential toxicity of many of these com- 65.3 Reproduction
pounds could pose a danger to human health.
The total volatile organic compound levels can reach
7,500 micrograms per cubic meter.* [4] Concentrations
decayed approximately 90% over a three-week period.
Over sixty chemical compounds were identied inside the
interiors of the four vehicles in this study.
New-car spraysare available that purportedly reproduce the smell of a new car in older vehicles using an
aerosol spray.
218
65.4 References
[1] Chemical and Engineering News, 2002, 80(20), 45; http:
//pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/stuff/8020stuff.html
[2] ecocenter.org
[3] Overton, Santford V., Manura, John J.Identication Of
Volatile Organic Compounds In a New Automobile. Scientic Instrument Services, Inc. Archived from the original
on March 7, 2005. Retrieved July 9, 2005.
[4] Grabbs, James S., Corsi, Richard L., Torres, Vincent
M., Volatile Organic Compounds in New Automobiles: Screening Assessment, Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 10, October, 2000.
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2000)126:10(974)
[5] OBNOXIOUS ODORA Lemon Makes
[6] "New car drivers exposed to toxic emissions", Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Research Organisation,
December 19, 2001.
[7] jama-english.jp
[8] Clover, Charles (15 January 2003). Enjoying the smell
of a new car 'is like glue-sning'". The Daily Telegraph.
[9] Choi, Charles (6 April 2007). That New-Car Smell?
Not Toxic, Study Finds. Live Science.
Chapter 66
66.5 References
[1] Unmasking the Surgical Mask: Does It Really Work?".
medpagetoday.com. 5 October 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
[2] CDC NIOSH-Approved N99 Particulate Filtering
Facepiece Respirators Suppliers List. cdc.gov. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
Chapter 67
67.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material from the
CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition.
220
Chapter 68
222
TA Luft
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
68.4 References
[1] About NILU, www.nilu.no
[2] The Fram Centre, Framsenteret.no
[3] NILU's Companies (Innovation nilu), www.nilu.no
[4] Innovation nilu
[5] Portseye
Chapter 69
w =
cmin
cmax
and let
{
w=
PM2.5 AQI map, calculated utilizing NowCast, courtesy US EPA
w
1
2
if w > 12 ,
if w 12 .
The NowCast is a weighted average of hourly air monitoring data used by the United States Environmental Pro12 i1
tection Agency for real-time reporting of the Air Quality N owCast = i=1 w ci .
12
i1
Index (AQI) for PM (PM10 or PM2.5 ) or Ozone data.
i=1 w
The PM NowCast is computed from the most recent 12
hours of PM monitoring data, but the NowCast weights
the most recent hours of data more heavily than an ordinary 12-hour average when pollutant levels are changing.
The PM NowCast is used in lieu of a 24-hour average PM
concentration in the calculation of the AQI until an entire calendar day of hourly concentrations has been mon-
223
i=1 ci
12
224
N owCast =
I=
Ihigh Ilow
(C Clow ) + Ilow
Chigh Clow
w=
cmin
cmax
8
wi1 ci
i=1
8
i1 .
i=1 w
69.3 Example
Consider a day when the hourly average PM2.5 concentration is zero for all hours of the day, except for a single hour from noon to 1 pm, where a monitor records a
concentration pulse of 71 micrograms per cubic meter
(g/m3 ). According to the equation above, the Nowcast
is 71/2 g/m3 =35.5 g/m3 the hour after the pulse, two
hours later it is 71/4 g/m3 =17.8 g/m3 and three hours
later it is 71/8 g/m3 = 8.9 g/m3 . To calculate the corresponding AQI values, each NowCast concentration is
69.4 References
[1] Air Quality 101. AirNow API. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[2] How Does AirNow Make the Current PM2.5Air
Quality Index (AQI) maps?". AirNow. Retrieved 25
September 2014.
[3]US Experience on Emergency Response System(PDF).
US Environmental Protection Agency. 24 June 2014. pp.
5557. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[4] Transitioning to a new NowCast Method (PDF). US
Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 15 April
2015.
[5] Computing the NowCast(PPTX). US Environmental
Protection Agency. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[6] Ozone NowCast. AirNow. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
[7] AQI Calculator: Concentration to AQI. AirNow. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
69.4. REFERENCES
225
Chapter 70
70.2 References
[1] PCAP Advisory Committee. Presidential Climate Action Project. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Chapter 71
retene and methoxyphenols from wood smoke, odd nalkanes and even n-alkanoic acids from vegetative detritus, cholesterol and the C16 and C18 n-alkanoic acids
from cooking, and lighter n-alkanes from brake wear.* [5]
Chemical analysis of ambient and source samples is performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry,
and the chemical prole of the emission sources can be
compared to an ambient sample using chemical mass balance techniques to identify the ambient mass contribution
from each pollution source. This approach assumes that
an ambient air sample has particulate matter contributions from a linear combination of emission sources. If
the chemical compositions of local sources are not available, source apportionment models such as positive ma71.1 Requirements
trix factorization and principal components analysis can
be used by employing statistical methods to identify emisIn order to be used as a tracer, a compound must be sions sources from time series of ambient samples.
emitted preferentially by some sources and not by others, giving the emission source a relatively unique chemical makeup. The compound must react slowly enough 71.4 References
in the atmosphere that it is chemically conserved from
the emission source to the receptor site where an ambi- [1] Pope, C Arden; et al. (2002).Cancer, cardiopulmonary
ent sample may be taken. Additionally, a tracer species
mortality, and long-term exposure to ne particulate air
should not be formed in the atmosphere and it should not
pollution. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 287 (9): 11321141.
volatilize during transport so that mass balance is maindoi:10.1001/jama.287.9.1132. PMID 11879110.
tained.* [2] Tracer compounds must then be of primary
origins (not formed in the atmosphere), which are created [2] Cass, Glen R (1998). Organic molecular tracers for
particulate air pollution sources. TrAC Trends in Anthrough condensation and coagulation of mainly combusalytical Chemistry 17 (6): 356366. doi:10.1016/S0165*
tion and biological sources. [3]
9936(98)00040-5.
[3] H Seinfeld and N. Pandis. Atmospheric chemistry and
physics: from air pollution to climate change. (2006)
71.2 Examples
Samples have been analyzed from many known biogenic
and anthropogenic emissions sources such as diesel and
gasoline vehicles, cigarette smoke, road dust, vegetative
detritus, wood smoke, and meat cooking. Examples
of some results of preferential emissions from sources
include hopanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
steranes * [4] from dierent types of mobile sources,
227
228
Chapter 72
229
Chapter 73
neries, coal-red power plants). Therefore, Ozone Action Days occur most frequently in the Midwestern United
States. In recent years, many sites have taken steps to help
reduce the amount of pollutants they discharge.
Secondary sources include automotive emissions (leaky
auto exhaust systems, excessive engine idling) and liberal
use of household chemicals or sprays. It is believed that
nearly fty percent of pollutant ozone molecules are attributed to the presence of these * [3]
73.3 Notication
73.1 Surface ozone vs. the ozone
layer
Heavy industries make up a high percentage of pollutants causing ground ozone. Without drastically altering
or eliminating industrial production in an area altogether,
air quality improvements are very slight, though noticeable. Non-industrial pollutants, while not thought of to
be a major pollutant group, can be more controlled with
more positive change occurring.
73.6. REFERENCES
Bring lunch to work
Walk or ride a bicycle
Limit the use of lawn mowers and outdoor grills to
after 6:00 pm
Limit the use of aerosol cans around the home (for
example, hair gel instead of hair spray)
Conserve energy
Turn home air conditioning thermostat up (at
least 78)
Turn o or unplug electrical devices when not
in use
Some cities, such as Phoenix, Arizona and Evansville,
Indiana, prohibit outdoor burning during Ozone Action
Days.
73.6 References
[1] Archived September 29, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[2] SETRPC. SETRPC. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
[3] Archived September 29, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
231
Chapter 74
Particulates
This article is about particles suspended in air. For general discussion of particulate types, see Particle Distribution of particles.
For other uses, see Particulates (disambiguation).
Atmospheric particulate matter also known as
0.001
0.01
10
100
1000
Mold Spores
House Dust Mite Allergenes
Bacteria
Cat Allergenes
Types of Dust
Viruses
Heavy Dust
Settling Dust
Suspended Atmospheric Dust
Cement Dust
Particulate Contaminants
Gas Molecules
0.0001
0.1
Pollen
Biological Contaminants
0.0001
Fly Ash
Oil Smoke
Smog
Tabacco Smoke
Soot
Gaseous
Contaminants
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
particulate matter (PM) or particulates are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone.* [3] Sources of particulate matter can be manmade or natural. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely aect human health.
Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include:
PM2.5 * [6]
PM10 (PM10 is particulate matter with a mean aerodynamic diameter of 10 m)
233
solution); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an acidic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol
droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas), all of which
may contribute to the health eects of particulates.* [14]
Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong lightscatterers.* [15] This is mainly because the presence of
sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size
that scatters light eectively.
234
ne particulates, and may be operated continuously without requiring frequent shutdowns for maintenance.* [22]
Wet scrubbers pass the dirty air through a scrubbing solution (usually a mixture of water and other compounds)
allowing the particulate to attach to the liquid molecules.
Electrostatic precipitators electrically charge the dirty air
as it passes through. The now charged air then passes by
large electrostatic plates which attract the charged particle in the airstream collecting them and leaving the now
clean air to be exhausted or recirculated.
Fabric lters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry.* [23] They work by forcing
dust laden air through a bag shaped fabric lter leaving
the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag
and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be
exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester
and berglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE
(commonly known as Teon). The excess dust buildup is
then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.
-1.5
Albedo
Linear contrails
Cloud albedo
effect
Direct effect
Black carbon
on snow
Stratospheric
water vapour
Ozone
Solar irradiance
-1
Greenhouse
gases
Net anthropogenic
component
-0.5
Land use
N20
Aerosols
Stratospheric
0.5
CH4
CO2
1.5
Tropospheric
Halocarbons
74.6.1
235
magnitude of the resultant radiative forcing due to the direct eect of an aerosol is dependent on the albedo of
the underlying surface, as this aects the net amount of
radiation absorbed or scattered to space. e.g. if a highly
scattering aerosol is above a surface of low albedo it has a
greater radiative forcing than if it was above a surface of
high albedo. The converse is true of absorbing aerosol,
with the greatest radiative forcing arising from a highly
absorbing aerosol over a surface of high albedo.* [24] The
direct aerosol eect is a rst order eect and is therefore
classied as a radiative forcing by the IPCC.* [26] The
interaction of an aerosol with radiation is quantied by
the single-scattering albedo (SSA), the ratio of scattering
alone to scattering plus absorption (extinction) of radiation by a particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering
dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases
as absorption increases, becoming zero for innite absorption. For example, sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of
1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has
an SSA of 0.23, showing that it is a major atmospheric
aerosol absorber.
Indirect eect
Direct eect
236
Semi-direct eect
permeating an EC buckyball. BC from fossil fuels is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report
of the IPCC, 4AR, to contribute a global mean radiative
forcing of +0.2 W/m (was +0.1 W/m in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0.1 to
+0.4 W/m. Bond et al., however, states thatthe best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W/m
with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W/m"
with total direct forcing by all black carbon sources,
without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W/m"* [37]
74.6.2
Sulfate aerosol
Main article: stratospheric sulfur aerosols
Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions
Sulfate aerosol has two main eects, direct and indirect. The direct eect, via albedo, is a cooling eect
that slows the overall rate of global warming: the IPCC's
best estimate of the radiative forcing is 0.4 watts per
square meter with a range of 0.2 to 0.8 W/m* [36]
but there are substantial uncertainties. The eect varies
strongly geographically, with most cooling believed to be
at and downwind of major industrial centres. Modern
climate models addressing the attribution of recent climate change take into account sulfate forcing, which appears to account (at least partly) for the slight drop in
global temperature in the middle of the 20th century. The
indirect eect (via the aerosol acting as cloud condensation nuclei, CCN, and thereby modifying the cloud properties -albedo and lifetime-) is more uncertain but is believed to be a cooling.
237
10 micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles, but
has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Because of their
small size, particles on the order of ~10 micrometers or
less (PM10 ) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs
such as the bronchioles or alveoli.* [49]
Similarly, so called ne PM, (often referred to as PM2.5 ),
tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the
lung (alveolus), and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to aect other organs.
Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their
size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To
avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to
indicate the dierent degrees of relative penetration of
a PM particle into the cardiovascular system. Inhalable
particles penetrate no further than the bronchi as they
are ltered out by the cilia. Thoracic particles can penetrate right into terminal bronchioles whereas PM which
can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence
the circulatory system are termed respirable particles.
In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of
dust entering nose and mouth which may be deposited
anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is
the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within
the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).* [50]
The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers
(nanoparticles), may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system.* [51] Nanoparticles can pass through
cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including
the brain. Particles emitted from modern diesel engines
(commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or
DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometer). These soot particles also carry
carcinogens like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface.
Particulate mass is not a proper measure of the health
hazard, because one particle of 10 m diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100
nm diameter, but is much less hazardous, as it unlikely to
enter the alveoli. Legislative limits for engine emissions
based on mass are therefore not protective. Proposals for
new regulations exist in some countries, with suggestions
to limit the particle surface area or the particle count (numerical quantity) instead.
The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption is also dependent upon air ow rates and the partial
pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a
specic contaminant is dependent upon the form in which
74.7.1 Size, shape and solubility matter
it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends
*
The size of the particle is a main determinant of where upon the breathing rate of the subject. [52]
in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest Another complexity not entirely documented is how the
when inhaled. Larger particles are generally ltered in shape of PM can aect health, except for the needle-like
the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate shape of asbestos which can lodge itself in the lungs. Gematter smaller than about 10 micrometers, can settle in ometrically angular shapes have more surface area than
the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. The
See also: Environmental impact of the coal industry
238
rounder shapes, which in turn aects the binding capac- wide..* [61] Short-term exposure at elevated concentraity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous sub- tions can signicantly contribute to heart disease. A 2011
stances.
study concluded that trac exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of heart attack in the general public, the cause of 7.4% of all attacks.* [62]
74.7.2
Health problems
The largest US study on acute health eects of coarse particle pollution between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter. was published 2008 and found an association with
hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases.* [63] After taking into
account ne particle levels (PM 2.5 and less), the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer
statistically signicant, which means the eect is due to
the subsection of ne particles.
Particulate matter studies in Bangkok Thailand from
2008 indicated a 1.9% increased risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and 1.0% risk of all disease for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter. Levels averaged 65
in 1996, 68 in 2002, and 52 in 2004. Decreasing levels
may be attributed to conversions of diesel to natural gas
combustion as well as improved regulations.* [64]
74.9. REGULATION
239
the lung cancer rate rose 22%. For PM2.5 there was 74.9.9 Taiwan
a 36% increase in lung cancer per 10 g/m3.* [8] In a
2014 metaanalysis of 18 studies globally including the Taiwan has set limits for particulates in the air:* [79]* [80]
ESCAPE data, for every increase of 10 g/m3 in PM2.5,
the lung cancer rate rose 9%.* [66]
74.9.1
Australia
74.9.2
Canada
In Canada the standard for particulate matter is set nationally by the federal-provincial Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment (CCME). Jurisdictions
(provinces) may set more stringent standards. The
CCME standard for particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) as of
2015 is 30 g/m3 (daily average, i.e. 24-hour period, 3year average, 98th percentile).* [68]
74.9.3
China
74.9.4
European Union
On 22 January 2009, a formal information request letThe European Union has established the European emis- ter* [85] was sent to manufacturers who produce or imsion standards which include limits for particulates in the port carbon nanotubes in California, or who may export
carbon nanotubes into the State.* [86] This letter constiair:* [70]
tutes the rst formal implementation of the authorities
placed into statute by AB 289 and is directed to manufacturers of carbon nanotubes, both industry and academia
74.9.5 Hong Kong
within the State, and to manufacturers outside California
*
Hong Kong has set limits for particulates in the air: [71] who export carbon nanotubes to California. This request
for information must be met by the manufacturers within
one year. DTSC is waiting for the upcoming 22 January
2010 deadline for responses to the data call-in.
74.9.6
Japan
Japan has set limits for particulates in the air:* [72]* [73]
74.9.7
Russia
74.9.8
South Korea
South Korea has set limits for particulates in the Key points in the Colorado Plan include reducing emisair:* [76]* [77]
sion levels and solutions by sector. Agriculture, transLimit on annual average of PM2.5 will be lowered to 20 portation, green electricity, and renewable energy reg/m3 in 2020.* [78]
search are the main concepts and goals in this plan. Politi-
240
74.10.3 Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia's capital city Ulaanbaatar has an annual average
mean temperature of about 0 C, making it the world's
coldest capital city. About 40% of the population lives
in apartments, 80% of which are supplied with central
heating systems from 3 combined heat and power plants.
In 2007, the power plants consumed almost 3.4 million
tons of coal. The pollution control technology is in poor
condition.
The other 60% of the population reside in shantytowns
(Ger districts), which have developed due to the country's new market economy and the very cold winter seasons. The poor in these districts cook and heat their
wood houses with indoor stoves fueled by wood or coal.
The resulting air pollution is characterized by raised sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide levels and very high concentrations of airborne particles and particulate matter
(PM).* [18] Annual seasonal average particulate matter
concentrations have been recorded as high as 279 g/m3
(micrograms per cubic meter). The World Health Organization's recommended annual mean PM10 level is 20
g/m3 ,* [91] which means that Ulaanbaatar's PM10 annual mean levels are 14 times higher than recommended,
and that it has left Northern China's most polluted cities
in its wake.
74.10.1
Australia
74.10.2
China
[3] Seinfeld, John; Spyros Pandis (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change
(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. p. 97. ISBN 0-471-17816-0.
[4] Thoracic and respirable particle denitions for human
health risk assessment
[5] Particulate Matter | Air & Radiation | US EPA
[6] PM2.5 is correctly dened as particulate matter with a
mean aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 m, nih though most
often quoted as being of a diameter of less than 2.5 m
see description of PM denition here
74.12. REFERENCES
241
[7] Health | Particulate Matter | Air & Radiation | US EPA. [21] Eect Of Particulate Matter On Plants Climate, EcosysEpa.gov. 17 November 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
tem and Human Health (PDF). www.ijates.com. April
2014. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
[8] Ole Raaschou-Nielsen; et al. (July 10, 2013). Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts: [22] Dry Dust Collection Systems & Bulk Handling | Cyclonprospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts
aire. Cyclonaire. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
for Air Pollution Eects (ESCAPE)". The Lancet Oncology 14 (9): 81322. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279- [23] Dominick DalSanto. The Encyclopedia of Dust Collection.
1. PMID 23849838. Retrieved July 10, 2013. Particulate
matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence
[24] Haywood, James; Boucher, Olivier (2000). Estiin Europe.
mates of the direct and indirect radiative forcing due
to tropospheric aerosols: A review. Reviews of Geo[9] Omidvarborna; et al.
Recent studies on soot
physics 38 (4): 513. Bibcode:2000RvGeo..38..513H.
modeling for diesel combustion.
Renewable
doi:10.1029/1999RG000078. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
and Sustainable Energy Reviews 48:
635647.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.019.
[25] Twomey, S. (1977).
The inuence of pollu[10] Hardin, Mary; Kahn, Ralph. Aerosols and Climate
tion on the shortwave albedo of clouds. Journal
Change.
of the Atmospheric Sciences 34 (7): 11491152.
Bibcode:1977JAtS...34.1149T.
doi:10.1175/1520[11] Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Soil dust
0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2.
. Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1. UNEP. 2001.
[26] Forster, Piers; Venkatachalam Ramaswamy; Paulo Ar[12] Perraud, V.; Bruns, E. A.; Ezell, M. J.; Johnson,
taxo; Terje Berntsen; Richard Betts; David W Fahey;
S. N.; Yu, Y.; Alexander, M. L.; Zelenyuk, A.;
James Haywood; 2007; et al. Contribution of Working
Imre, D.; Chang, W. L.; Dabdub, D.; Pankow, J. F.;
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IntergovFinlayson-Pitts, B. J. (30 January 2012). Nonequiernmental Panel on Climate Change in Climate Change
librium atmospheric secondary organic aerosol for2007: The Physical Science Basis,. In S. Solomon,
mation and growth. Proceedings of the National
D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. AvAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America
eryt, M.Tignor, and H.L. Miller. Changes in Atmospheric
109 (8): 283641. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.2836P.
Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. Cambridge, United
doi:10.1073/pnas.1119909109. PMID 22308444.
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 129234.
[13] Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Sea salt
. Climate Change 2001: Working Group 1. UNEP. 2001. [27] 6.7.8 Discussion of Uncertainties. IPCC Third Assess[14] Int Panis, L.L.R. (2008).The Eect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates. Open Environmental Sciences 2:
4753. doi:10.2174/1876325100802010047.
[15] Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Primary
biogenic aerosols. Climate Change 2001: Working Group
1. UNEP. 2001.
[16] Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols: Carbonaceous aerosols. Climate Change 2001: Working Group
1. UNEP. 2001.
[17] Felicity Barringer (18 February 2012). Scientists Find
New Dangers in Tiny but Pervasive Particles in Air Pollution. The New York Times. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
Fine atmospheric particles smaller than one-thirtieth of
the diameter of a human hair were identied more than
20 years ago as the most lethal of the widely dispersed
air pollutants in the United States. Linked to both heart
and lung disease, they kill an estimated 50,000 Americans
each year.
[18] Mongolia: Air Pollution in Ulaanbaatar Initial Assessment of Current Situations and Eects of Abatement
Measures (PDF). The World Bank. 2010.
[19] Click for more detail.
[20] Click for more detail.
242
74.12. REFERENCES
243
[78] 5 20 ..
?
'' ' ' ?
[79] " ". Environmental Protection Administration, ROC. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
[80] FEATURE: Air pollution reason for concern: groups Taipei Times
[81] Pm Naaqs | Us Epa. Epa.gov. Retrieved 1 February
2015.
[82] Environmental Protection Agency Particulate Matter
(PM-10)". Epa.gov. 28 June 2006. Retrieved 1 February
2015.
[83] Nanotechnology web page. Department of Toxic Substances Control. 2008. Archived from the original on 1
January 2010.
[84] Chemical Information Call-In web page. Department
of Toxic Substances Control. 2008.
[85] Wong, Jerey (22 January 2009), Call in letter (PDF)
244
[89] Oliver Milman (1 April 2015). Call for action on pollution as emissions linked to respiratory illnesses double
. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 April 2015. emissions of
a key pollutant linked to respiratory illness have doubled
over the past ve years
[90] Consulate General of the United States of America
Guangzhou, China (n.d.). U.S. Consulate Air Quality
Monitor and StateAir. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
[91] WHO | Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health
Chapter 75
75.1 Results
The PNGV programovercame many challenges and has
forged a useful and productive partnership of industry and
government participants,* [2] resulting in three concept cars that demonstrate the feasibility of a variety of
new automotive technologieswith Diesel-electric transmission.* [3]
GM, Ford, and Chrysler all created working concept vehicles of 5 passenger family cars that achieved at least 72
mpg.* [4] GM created the 80 mpg Precept, Ford created
the 72 mpg Prodigy, and Chrysler created the 72 mpg
ESX-3.
245
246
75.2 Criticisms
Ralph Nader called PNGV an eort to coordinate the
transfer of property rights for federally funded research
and development to the automotive industry. * [6]
PNGV was also criticized by some groups for a focus on
diesel solutions, a fuel that is seen by some as having inherently high air pollutant emissions. * [7]
Elizabeth Kolbert in her article in the 2007-11-05 New
Yorker Running on Fumes, noted that renewable energy
is the main problem, and that If someone, somewhere,
comes up with a source of power that is safe, inexpensive,
and for all intents and purposes inexhaustible, then we,
the Chinese, the Indians, and everyone else on the planet
can keep on truckin. Barring that, the car of the future
may turn out to be no car at all.
See peak oil.
75.3 Notes
[1] Departments of Commerce, Energy, Defense, Interior
and Transportation, the National Science Foundation
(NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), and Environmental Protection Agency
[2] National Research Council Review of the Research Program of the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles:
Seventh Report (2001)
[3] U.S. Department of Energy publication New concept
cars demonstrate clean, ecient transportation technologiespublished April 2001, accessed April 16, 2007
Chapter 76
Passive smoking
Second hand smokeredirects here. For the Sublime tral role in the debate over the harms and regulation of toalbum, see Second-hand Smoke.
bacco products. Since the early 1970s, the tobacco industry has viewed public concern over second-hand smoke
as a serious threat to its business interests.* [7] Harm to
bystanders was perceived as a motivator for stricter regulation of tobacco products. Despite the industry's awareness of the harms of second-hand smoke as early as the
1980s, the tobacco industry coordinated a scientic controversy with the aim of forestalling regulation of their
products.* [3]* :1242* [5]
76.1 Eects
Second-hand smoke causes many of the same diseases as
direct smoking, including cardiovascular diseases, lung
cancer, and respiratory diseases.* [1]* [2]* [8] These diseases include:
Cancer:
General: overall increased risk;* [9] reviewing
the evidence accumulated on a worldwide basis, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer concluded in 2004 that Involuntary
smoking (exposure to secondhand or 'environmental' tobacco smoke) is carcinogenic to humans.* [2]
Tobacco smoke in an Irish pub before a smoking ban came into
eect on March 29, 2004
248
Cervical cancer: A 2015 overview of systematic reviews found that exposure to second- 76.1.1 Risk to children
hand smoke increased the risk of cervical can Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).* [36] In his
cer.* [15]
2006 report, the US Surgeon General concludes:
Circulatory system: risk of heart disease,* [16] reThe
evidence is sucient to infer a causal relationduced heart rate variability.* [17]
ship between exposure to secondhand smoke and
sudden infant death syndrome.* [37] Secondhand
Epidemiological studies have shown that both
smoking has been estimated to be associated with
active and passive cigarette smoking increase
430 SIDS deaths in the United States annually.* [38]
*
the risk of atherosclerosis. [18]
Asthma* [39]* [40]
Lung problems:
Risk of asthma.* [19]
Risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)* [20]
According to a 2015 review, passive smoking
may increase the risk of tuberculosis infection
and accelerate the progression of the disease,
but the evidence remains weak.* [21]
Cognitive impairment and dementia: Exposure to
secondhand smoke may increase the risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in adults 50 and
over.* [22]
During pregnancy:
Maternal passive smoking increases the risk of nonsyndromic orofacial clefts by 50% among their children.* [48]
Prenatal and childhood passive smoke exposure does
not appear to increase the risk of inammatory
bowel disease.* [49]
Learning diculties,
developmental delays,
executive function problems,* [50] and neurobehavioral eects.* [51]* [52] Animal models suggest
a role for nicotine and carbon monoxide in
neurocognitive problems.* [43]
An increase in tooth decay (as well as related salivary biomarkers) has been associated with passive
smoking in children.* [53]
Increased
risk
of
tions.* [43]* [54]* [55]
middle
ear
infec-
76.2. EVIDENCE
76.2 Evidence
249
and a relative risk of 1.16 among those exposed to it
at work.* [69] Another meta-analysis conrmed the nding of an increased risk of lung cancer among women
with spousal exposure to secondhand smoke the following year. It found a relative risk of lung cancer of 1.29
for women exposed to secondhand smoke from their
spouses.* [70] A 2014 meta-analysis noted thatthe association between exposure to secondhand smoke and lung
cancer risk is well established.* [71]
A minority of epidemiologists have found it hard to understand how second-hand smoke, which is more diluted
than actively inhaled smoke, could have an eect that is
such a large fraction of the added risk of coronary heart
disease among active smokers.* [72]* [73] One proposed
explanation is that second-hand smoke is not simply a diluted version ofmainstreamsmoke, but has a dierent
composition with more toxic substances per gram of total particulate matter.* [72] Passive smoking appears to
be capable of precipitating the acute manifestations of
cardio-vascular diseases (atherothrombosis) and may also
have a negative impact on the outcome of patients who
suer acute coronary syndromes.* [74]
In 2004, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO)
reviewed all signicant published evidence related to tobacco smoking and cancer. It concluded:
These meta-analyses show that there is a
statistically signicant and consistent association between lung cancer risk in spouses of
smokers and exposure to second-hand tobacco
smoke from the spouse who smokes. The excess risk is of the order of 20% for women and
30% for men and remains after controlling for
some potential sources of bias and confounding.* [2]
Subsequent meta-analyses have conrmed these ndings.* [75]* [76]
The National Asthma Council of Australia cites studies
showing that second-hand smoke is probably the most
important indoor pollutant, especially around young children:* [77]
Smoking by either parent, particularly by the
mother, increases the risk of asthma in children.
The outlook for early childhood asthma is less
favourable in smoking households.
Children with asthma who are exposed to smoking
in the home generally have more severe disease.
Many adults with asthma identify ETS as a trigger
for their symptoms.
Doctor-diagnosed asthma is more common among
non-smoking adults exposed to ETS than those not
250
In France, exposure to second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause between 3,000* [78] and 5,000 premature
deaths per year, with the larger gure cited by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin during his announcement of
a nationwide smoke-free law:That makes more than 13
deaths a day. It is an unacceptable reality in our country
in terms of public health.* [79]
There is good observational evidence that smoke-free legislation reduces the number of hospital admissions for
heart disease.* [80]* [81]
76.2.1
Risk level
76.2.2
Biomarkers
76.3 Pathophysiology
A 2004 study by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer of the World Health Organization concluded
that non-smokers are exposed to the same carcinogens as
active smokers. Sidestream smoke contains more than
4,000 chemicals, including 69 known carcinogens. Of
special concern are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,
tobacco-specic N-nitrosamines, and aromatic amines,
such as 4-aminobiphenyl, all known to be highly carcinogenic. Mainstream smoke, sidestream smoke, and
second-hand smoke contain largely the same components, however the concentration varies depending on
type of smoke.* [2] Several well-established carcinogens
have been shown by the tobacco companies' own research
to be present at higher concentrations in sidestream
smoke than in mainstream smoke.* [90]
Second-hand smoke has been shown to produce more
particulate-matter (PM) pollution than an idling lowemission diesel engine. In an experiment conducted by
the Italian National Cancer Institute, three cigarettes were
left smoldering, one after the other, in a 60 m garage
with a limited air exchange. The cigarettes produced PM
pollution exceeding outdoor limits, as well as PM concentrations up to 10-fold that of the idling engine.* [91]
Second-hand tobacco smoke exposure has immediate and
substantial eects on blood and blood vessels in a way that
increases the risk of a heart attack, particularly in people already at risk.* [92] Exposure to tobacco smoke for
30 minutes signicantly reduces coronary ow velocity
reserve in healthy nonsmokers.* [93] Second-hand smoke
is also associated with impaired vasodilation among adult
nonsmokers.* [94] Second-hand smoke exposure also affects platelet function, vascular endothelium, and myocardial exercise tolerance at levels commonly found in
the workplace.* [95]
Pulmonary emphysema can be induced in rats through
acute exposure to sidestream tobacco smoke (30
cigarettes per day) over a period of 45 days.* [96] Degranulation of mast cells contributing to lung damage has also
been observed.* [97]
The term "third-hand smoke" was recently coined to identify the residual tobacco smoke contamination that remains after the cigarette is extinguished and second-hand
smoke has cleared from the air.* [98]* [99]* [100] Preliminary research suggests that by-products of third-hand
smoke may pose a health risk,* [101] though the magnitude of risk, if any, remains unknown. In October 2011,
it was reported that Christus St. Frances Cabrini Hospital
251
in Alexandria, Louisiana would seek to eliminate thirdhand smoke beginning in July 2012, and that employees
whose clothing smelled of smoke would not be allowed to
work. This prohibition was enacted because third-hand
smoke poses a special danger for the developing brains
of infants and small children.* [102]
In 2008, there were more than 161,000 deaths attributed
to lung cancer in the United States. Of these deaths,
an estimated 10% to 15% were caused by factors other
than rst-hand smoking; equivalent to 16,000 to 24,000
deaths annually. Slightly more than half of the lung cancer deaths caused by factors other than rst-hand smoking
were found in nonsmokers. Lung cancer in non-smokers
may well be considered one of the most common cancer
mortalities in the United States. Clinical epidemiology of
lung cancer has linked the primary factors closely tied to
lung cancer in non-smokers as exposure to second-hand
tobacco smoke, carcinogens including radon, and other
indoor air pollutants.* [103]
Environmental
Protection
252
76.6.1
Cancer Society (ACS), whose database Enstrom and Kabat used to compile their data, criticized the paper as
neither reliable nor independent, stating that scientists at the ACS had repeatedly pointed out serious aws
in Enstrom and Kabat's methodology prior to publication.* [125] Notably, the study had failed to identify a
comparison group of unexposedpersons.* [126]
Enstrom's ties to the tobacco industry also drew scrutiny;
in a 1997 letter to Philip Morris, Enstrom requested a
substantial research commitment... in order for me to
eectively compete against the large mountain of epidemiologic data and opinions that already exist regarding
the health eects of ETS and active smoking.* [127]
In a US racketeering lawsuit against tobacco companies,
the Enstrom and Kabat paper was cited by the US District Court as a prime example of how nine tobacco
companies engaged in criminal racketeering and fraud to
hide the dangers of tobacco smoke.* [128] The Court
found that the study had been funded and managed by
the Center for Indoor Air Research,* [129] a tobacco industry front group tasked with osettingdamaging
studies on passive smoking, as well as by Philip Morris
who stated that Enstrom's work was clearly litigationoriented.* [130] A 2005 paper in Tobacco Control argued that the disclosure section in the Enstrom and Kabat
BMJ paper, although it met the journal's requirements,
does not reveal the full extent of the relationship the authors had with the tobacco industry.* [131]
In 2006, Enstrom and Kabat published a meta-analysis of
studies regarding passive smoking and coronary heart disease in which they reported a very weak association between passive smoking and heart disease mortality.* [132]
They concluded that exposure to second-hand smoke increased the risk of death from CHD by only 5%, although this analysis has been criticized for including
two previous industry-funded studies that suered from
widespread exposure misclassication.* [5]
Gori
Gio Batta Gori, a tobacco industry spokesman and con-
Industry-funded studies and cri- sultant* [133]* [134]* [135] and an expert on risk utility
tiques
and scientic research, wrote in the libertarian Cato In-
253
In response, the WHO issued a press release stating that
the results of the study had been completely misrepresentedin the popular press and were in fact very much
in line with similar studies demonstrating the harms of
passive smoking.* [152] The study was published in the
Journal of the National Cancer Institute in October of the
same year, and concluded the authors foundno association between childhood exposure to ETS and lung cancer
riskbut did nd weak evidence of a doseresponse
relationship between risk of lung cancer and exposure to
spousal and workplace ETS.* [146] An accompanying
editorial summarized:
When all the evidence, including the important new data reported in this issue of the
Journal, is assessed, the inescapable scientic
conclusion is that ETS is a low-level lung carcinogen.* [153]
With the release of formerly classied tobacco industry documents through the Tobacco Master Settlement
Agreement, it was found (by Elisa Ong and Stanton
Glantz) that the controversy over the WHO's alleged suppression of data had been engineered by Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and other tobacco companies in an eort to discredit scientic ndings which
would harm their business interests.* [154] A WHO inquiry, conducted after the release of the tobacco-industry
documents, found that this controversy was generated by
the tobacco industry as part of its larger campaign to cut
the WHO's budget, distort the results of scientic studies
on passive smoking, and discredit the WHO as an institution. This campaign was carried out using a network
of ostensibly independent front organizations and international and scientic experts with hidden nancial ties
to the industry.* [155]
In 1995, Levois and Layard, both tobacco industry consultants, published two analyses in the journal Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology regarding the association
between spousal exposure to second-hand smoke and
heart disease. Both of these papers reported no association between second-hand smoke and heart disease.* [143]* [144] These analyses have been criticized for
failing to distinguish between current and former smokers, despite the fact that former smokers, unlike current
ones, are not at a signicantly increased risk of heart dis- EPA lawsuit
ease.* [5]* [145]
In 1993, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) issued a report estimating that 3,000 lung
World Health Organization controversy
cancer related deaths in the United States were caused by
passive smoking annually.* [156]
A 1998 report by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) on environmental tobacco smoke Philip Morris, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, and
(ETS) foundweak evidence of a dose-response relation- groups representing growers, distributors and marketers
ship between risk of lung cancer and exposure to spousal of tobacco took legal action, claiming that the EPA had
and workplace ETS.* [146]
manipulated this study and ignored accepted scientic
In March 1998, before the study was published, reports and statistical practices.
appeared in the media alleging that the IARC and the
World Health Organization (WHO) were suppressing information. The reports, appearing in the British Sunday
Telegraph* [147] and The Economist,* [148] among other
sources,* [149]* [150]* [151] alleged that the WHO withheld from publication of its own report that supposedly
failed to prove an association between passive smoking
and a number of other diseases (lung cancer in particular).
254
conducting the ETS Risk Assessment, disregarded inforwould then be 'ltered' by lawyers to eliminate
mation and made ndings on selective information; did
areas of sensitivity.* [164]
not disseminate signicant epidemiologic information;
deviated from its Risk Assessment Guidelines; failed to Philip Morris reported that it was putting "...vast amounts
disclose important ndings and reasoning"
of funding into these projects... in attempting to coordiIn 2002, the EPA successfully appealed this decision to nate and pay so many scientists on an* international basis
the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. to keep the ETS controversy alive. [164]
The EPA's appeal was upheld on the preliminary grounds
that their report had no regulatory weight, and the earlier 76.6.2
nding was vacated.* [158]
In 1998, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, through the publication by its National Toxicology
Program of the 9th Report on Carcinogens, listed environmental tobacco smoke among the known carcinogens,
observing of the EPA assessment that The individual
studies were carefully summarized and evaluated.* [159]
Tobacco-industry funding of research
76.6.3
On September 22, 1999, the U.S. Department of Justice led a racketeering lawsuit against Philip Morris
and other major cigarette manufacturers.* [172] Almost 7
years later, on August 17, 2006 U.S. District Court Judge
Gladys Kessler found that the Government had proven its
case and that the tobacco company defendants had violated the Racketeer Inuenced Corrupt Organizations Act
(RICO).* [3] In particular, Judge Kessler found that PM
and other tobacco companies had:
255
that second-hand tobacco smoke is harmful to nonsmokers, and
destroyed documents relevant to litigation.
The ruling found that tobacco companies undertook joint
eorts to undermine and discredit the scientic consensus that second-hand smoke causes disease, notably by
controlling research ndings via paid consultants. The
ruling also concluded that tobacco companies were fraudulently continuing to deny the health eects of ETS exposure.* [3]
On May 22, 2009, a three-judge panel of the U.S.
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit unanimously upheld the lower court's 2006 ruling.* [173]* [174]* [175]
76.7.1 Eects
conspired to minimize, distort and confuse the pubIn the rst 18 months after the town of Pueblo, Colorado
lic about the health hazards of smoking;
enacted a smoke-free law in 2003, hospital admis publicly denied, while internally acknowledging, sions for heart attacks dropped 27%. Admissions in
256
76.7.2
Public opinion
257
condensates of sidestream smoke, or observational stud- ondhand smoke.* [198] In contrast, a 2011 commentary
ies of cancer among pets.
in Environmental Health Perspectives argued that research
To simulate environmental tobacco smoke, scientists ex- intothirdhand smokerenders it inappropriate to refer
,
pose animals to sidestream smoke, that which emanates to passive smoking with the termsecondhand smoke
*
which
the
authors
stated
constitutes
a
pars
pro
toto.
[198]
from the cigarette's burning cone and through its paper, or a combination of mainstream and sidestream
smoke.* [2] The IARC monographs conclude that mice
with prolonged exposure to simulated environmental tobacco smoke, that is 6hrs a day, 5 days a week, for ve
months with a subsequent 4 month interval before dissection, will have signicantly higher incidence and multiplicity of lung tumors than with control groups.
The IARC monographs concluded that sidestream smoke
condensates had a signicantly higher carcinogenic eect
on mice than did mainstream smoke condensates.* [2]
76.8.1
Observational studies
Second-hand smoke is popularly recognised as a risk factor for cancer in pets.* [192] A study conducted by the
Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine and the
University of Massachusetts Amherst linked the occurrence of feline oral cancer to exposure to environmental tobacco smoke through an overexpression of the p53
gene.* [193] Another study conducted at the same universities concluded that cats living with a smoker were
more likely to get feline lymphoma; the risk increased
with the duration of exposure to secondhand smoke and
the number of smokers in the household.* [194] A study
by Colorado State University researchers, looking at cases
of canine lung cancer, was generally inconclusive, though
the authors reported a weak relation for lung cancer in
dogs exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. The
number of smokers within the home, the number of packs
smoked in the home per day, and the amount of time that
the dog spent within the home had no eect on the dog's
risk for lung cancer.* [195]
76.9 Terminology
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[171] The most current positions of major tobacco companies
20. doi:10.1136/tc.12.1.13. PMC 1759095. PMID
on the issue of passive smoking can be found on their web12612356.
sites. As of 13 January 2009, the following websites contain tobacco-industry positions on the topic:
[185] Barnoya J, Arvizu M, Jones MR, Hernandez JC, Breysse
PN, Navas-Acien A; Arvizu; Jones; Hernandez; Breysse;
British American Tobacco:
Navas-Acien (November 2010). Secondhand smoke
Imperial Tobacco:
exposure in bars and restaurants in Guatemala City: before and after smoking ban evaluation. Cancer Causes
Philip Morris: USA and International
Control 22 (1): 1516. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9673-8.
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company:
PMID 21046446.
[172] Litigation Against Tobacco Companies U.S. Department [186] Thomson G, Wilson N, Edwards R; Wilson; Edwards
of Justice
(June 2009). At the frontier of tobacco control: a
brief review of public attitudes toward smoke-free out[173] Appeal Ruling, U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of
door places. Nicotine Tob. Res. 11 (6): 58490.
Columbia Circuit, 22 May 2009
doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp046. PMID 19359392.
[174] Altria, Cigarette Makers Lose 'Lights' Ruling Appeal
[187] Geens, Andrew; Max Graham (March 2005). No ifs or
Bloomberg news, 22 May 2009
butts. Building Sustainable Design. Retrieved 2009-0128.
[175] U.S. appeals court agrees tobacco companies lied Reuters,
22 May 2009
[188] Drope J, Bialous SA, Glantz SA; Bialous; Glantz (March
[176] Smokers Daring Bloomberg To Ticket Them Under Park
2004). Tobacco industry eorts to present ventiBan
lation as an alternative to smoke-free environments in
265
Environmental Tobacco Smoke PDF (219 KB).
From the 11th Report on Carcinogens of the U.S.
National Institutes of Health
U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Coordinating Center for Health Promotion; National Center
for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; Oce on Smoking and Health (2006-06-27).
The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure
to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga.: Surgeon General of the United
States. O2NLM: WA 754 H4325 2006. Secondhand smoke exposure causes disease and premature
death in children and adults who do not smoke
World Health Organization; International Agency
for Research on Cancer (2004). Tobacco Smoke and
Involuntary Smoking (PDF). IARC monographs on
the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans 83.
Lyon, France: IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. ISBN 92832-1283-5.
Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet from the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Tobacco Smoke in the Workplace from the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Health Eects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke, from the California Environmental
Protection Agency
Environmental Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Children Aged 3-19 Years with and Without Asthma in
the United States, 1999-2010 National Center for
Health Statistics
Tobacco industry
Tobacco Company Strategies to Undermine Tobacco Control Activities PDF (1.55 MB): Report
of the Committee of Experts on Tobacco Industry
Documents from the World Health Organization
The Legacy Tobacco Documents Library and
British American Tobacco Documents Archive
from the University of California, San Francisco
Philip Morris USA Document Archive, made public
as a result of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement
Other links
Guidelines Protection from Exposure to Secondhand Smoke, by WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control
266
WHO Policy recommendations on protection from
exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke
Rodent smoke screen: Rat model shows tobacco
smoke exposure induces brain changes indicative of
nicotine dependence, in Science Daily
Kessler, Gladys (August 17, 2006). United States
of America v. Philip Morris et al.: Final Opinion of
Judge Gladys Kessler(PDF). United States District
Court for the District of Columbia.
How Secondhand Cigarette Smoke Changes Your
Genes
Chapter 77
Photoinitiator
Certain azo compounds (such as azobisisobutyronitrile),
can also photolytically cleave, forming two alkyl radicals
and nitrogen gas:
RCH2 -N=N-H2 CR 2 RCH2 + N2
These free radicals can now promote other reactions.
OH + CH4 CH3 + H2 O
267
268
77.2.2
Nitrogen dioxide
O + O3 2 O2
This set of reactions govern the production of ozone and
can combine to calculate its equilibrium concentration.
77.3 Commercial
and uses
photoinitiators
77.3.1 AIBN
Nitrogen dioxide can also be photolytically cleaved by Azobisisobutyronitrile, a commonly used industrial photoinitiator, and its breakdown into two radicals and nitrogen gas
photons of wavelength less than 400 nm* [2] producing
atomic oxygen and nitric oxide.
Main article: Azobisisobutyronitrile
NO2 NO + O
Azobisisobutyronitrile is a white powder often used as a
Atomic oxygen is a highly reactive species, and can ab- photoinitiator for vinyl-based polymers such as polyvinyl
chloride, also known as PVC. Because this particular
stract a H atom from anything, including water.
photoinitiator produces nitrogen gas (N2 ) upon decomposition, it is often used as a blowing agent to change the
O + H2 O 2 OH
shape and/or texture of plastics.
Nitrogen dioxide can be regenerated through a reaction
between certain peroxy-containing radicals and NO.
ROO+ NO NO2 + RO
77.2.3
Molecular oxygen
In the stratosphere, molecular oxygen (O2 ) is an important photoinitiator that begins the ozone-production process in the ozone layer. Oxygen can be photolyzed into
atomic oxygen by light with wavelength less than 240
nm.* [3]
O2 2O
Benzoyl peroxide, a common photoinitiator used in plastics production and in acne medication
77.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
269
DMPA
PEGDA
2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone
(radical photoinitiator)
TPT
trimethylolpropane triacrylate
(crosslinking monomer)
Acryloyl Chloride
(reactive acryl)
O
O
MeO OMe
O
O
O
n
Cl
O
O
Radical Generation
O
O
O
hv
MeO OMe
MeO OMe
MeO O
MeO
Me
Me
O
n
O
O
O
n
O
n
Me
77.3.3
Camphorquinone
77.5 References
[1] vanLoon, pp. 5253
[2] vanLoon, pp. 7479
[3] vanLoon, pp. 4849
[4] Benzoyl Peroxide, chemicalland21.com, accessed October 29, 2009
[5] Benzoyl Peroxide, http://www.about.com, accessed
October 29, 2009
[6] Liao KC, Hogen-Esch T, Richmond FJ, Marcu
L, Clifton W, Loeb GE (2008).
Percutaneous
ber-optic sensor for chronic glucose monitoring in
vivo (PDF). Biosens Bioelectron 23 (10): 145865.
doi:10.1016/j.bios.2008.01.012. PMID 18304798.
77.6 Bibliography
vanLoon, Gary W.; Duy, Stephen J. (2005). Environmental Chemistry: A Global Perspective. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19927499-1.
Chapter 78
Pollen count
Pollen count is the measurement of the number of grains
of pollen in a cubic meter of air. The higher the number,
the more people will suer if they are allergic to a particular pollen (hay fever). Usually, the counts are announced
for specic plants such as grass, ash, or olive. These are
tailored to what is usually a common plant in the area being measured.
One method of taking the sample uses a silicone greasecovered rod that is rotated in the air to collect the pollen.
The rod is rotated periodically during the collection period to gather samples through an entire 24-hour day. The
rod is then removed and taken to a lab where the collected
material is analyzed for the type of pollen and its concentration.
In the UK, the public announcement of the pollen count
was popularised by Dr. William Frankland, an immunologist.
According to a study by Leonard Bielory, M.D. that was
presented to the American College of Allergy, Asthma
& Immunology, climate changes are expected to cause
pollen counts to more than double by 2040.* [1]
78.1 References
[1] http://www.newswise.com/articles/
the-year-2040-double-the-pollen-double-the-allergy-suffering
270
Chapter 79
79.1 History
wind. These forest res have been attributed to the slashand-burn method favoured by several farmers to clear
their land, as opposed to a more expensive and inconvenient mechanical approach using excavators and bulldozers.* [8] In June 2013, severe haze hit Singapore, pushing
271
272
the nation's PSI into Hazardous levels for the rst time in
its history.* [9] Presently, the highest 3-hour PSI reading
on record in Singapore is 401 on 21 June 2013 at 12 noon
(GMT+8).* [10]
79.3 References
[1] PSI Reading. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[2] Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) On Haze. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15
April 2014.
[3] Govt says it will move towards publishing 24-hour PSI,
PM2.5 data on hourly basis. TODAY. 20 June 2013.
Retrieved 20 June 2013.
[4] Written Reply by Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for
the Environment and Water Resources to Parliamentary
Question on Air Quality Reporting. Ministry of the Environment & Water Resources (Singapore). 10 September
2012. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[5] Computation of the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)"
(PDF). National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[6] Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) On Haze. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 13
March 2016.
[7] PSI Readings. National Environment Agency. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
[8] Singapore hit by highest haze levels in 16 years. BBC
News. 18 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
[9] Haze in Singapore hits new high, PSI at 321 at 10pm
. The Straits Times. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June
2013.
[10] PSI hits new all-time high of 401 on Friday. Channel
NewsAsia. 21 June 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Chapter 80
Status of Ratication
Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants
Chapter 81
81.2 Sol-gel
One of the primary methods of optical air sensing involves taking a sol-gel, which is created by taking a sol, a
liquid with stable colloidal particles, and mixing it with a
gel, which is a three dimensional continuous network encompassing a liquid.* [4] The sol-gel is then exposed to a
certain indicator which becomes part of the sol-gel. Typically the production of a sol-gel follows a hydrolysis and
then condensation pathway.
Hydrolysis involves adding a hydrogen atom onto the
81.3 Fluorescence
Another example of portable optical air sensors can involve uorescence. One example of a uorescence based
sensor is an electronic nose, which can measure analytes
in vapor or air. It operates so that an analyte is detected
by dierent sensors in dierent ways to ensure what is
being measured can be dierentiated.* [9] As the vapor
ows into the system it is hit with a high intensity light
so that dierent organic dyes located in dierent small
holes, or micropores, emit a certain wavelength and varied intensity of light based on what vapor compound they
are in contact with. The light from the dierent sensors
can then be compiled and used to determine what analytes
were present. One large application of the uorescent
method is the detection of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).* [9] Another type of uorescent sensor fo-
274
81.5. REFERENCES
cuses on metal complexes, rather than organic complexes.
One example is the use of dirhodium tetracarboxylate
structure to detect nitrogen monoxide, a common pollutant. This involves a nitrogen monoxide molecule coming in and bonding to the dirhodium tetracarboxylate to
cause a shift in the intensity of the uorescence of the
molecule.* [10]
81.4 Future
The future of the portable air sensors is to design them
better able to detect small amounts and better able to
quantify the amounts that are detected. Most portable
sensors are now used in conjunction with some larger,
more accurate system within a lab. The advent of microfabrication techniques, microelectro-mechanical systems, energy ecient sensor circuits, and advanced computer power has allowed portable sensors to thrive, but
continued advancement of those components would further advance the benets of using portable systems.* [3]
81.5 References
[1] Brauer, M. (2011).Exposure Assessment for Estimation
of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Outdoor
Air Pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46: 652660.
[2] Ezzati, M (2002). Selected Major Risk Factors and
Global and Regional Burden of Disease. The Lancet
360 (9343): 13471360.
[3] Snyder, E. (2013). The Changing Paradigm of Air Pollution Monitoring.. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47: 11369
11377.
[4] Sol-Gel Methods (PDF).
[5] Carrington, N. (2006).
Inorganic Sensing using
Organofunctional Sol-Gel Materials. Acc. Chem. Res.
40: 343350.
[6] Lopez, T. (1996). Synthesis and Characterization of
Sol-Gel Hydrotalcites Structure and Texture. Langmuir
12: 189192.
[7] Prince, J. (2009). Proposed General Sol-Gel Method to
Prepare Multimetallic Layered Double Hydroxides: Synthesis, Characterization, and Envisaged Application.
Chem. Mater 21: 58265835.
[8] Garcia-Heras, M. (2005). Evaluation of Air Acidity
through Optical Sensors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:
37433747.
[9] Aernecke, M. (2009). Design, Implementation, and
Field Testing of a Portable Fluorescence-Based Vapor
Sensor. Anal. Chem. 81: 52815290.
[10] Hilderbrand, S. (2004). Dirhodium Tetracarboxylate
Scaolds as Reversible Fluorescence-Based Nitric Oxide
Sensors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126: 49724978.
275
Chapter 82
Ramboll Environ
Ramboll Environ, Inc., is a privately held, international
environmental, safety and health sciences consulting rm
headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. Formed by the December 2014 acquisition of ENVIRON by Danish-based
Ramboll* [2] the rm has operations across 128 oces
in 26 countries, with more than 2,100 consultants.* [3]
Ramboll Environ's work frequently involves addressing
interrelated scientic, business and policy issues to help
clients assess and mitigate potential risks, to ensure regulatory compliance or to achieve sustainable performance
targets.
82.2.1 Environment
82.1 History
The rm was founded as ENVIRON in Washington,
D.C., in 1982.
277
sures.* [19] This work includes product safety and stew- Environmental Council.
ardship, industrial hygiene and safety, risk assessment
and management, and industrial chemical safety evaluations.* [20]* [21]* [22]* [23]* [24]
82.4 Awards and
honors
At the request of the Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department the company developed a comprehensive air quality model system to address air quality concerns, including ozone, particulate matter, and other pollutants due to local sources, as well as transport from
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency USEPA seChina and other areas in Asia.* [25]
lected Principal Dr. Carl Adams to join its task force for
Ramboll Environ was engaged to deliver a wide range of the Wastewater Treatment and Related Modeling Techsocial and environmental services to international stan- nical Workshop.* [31] During the opening panel of the
dards related to a 13,000-km-long bre optic subma- rst task force meeting, Dr. Adams spoke on Zero
rine telecommunications cable system running the entire Discharge of Water from Hydrofracturing Activities, a
length of the Indian Ocean coast of Africa, from South unique concept he has developed to recycle 100 percent
Africa to Egypt.
of all wastewaters related to hydraulic fracturing activIn the United States, the rm has worked with the ities, including spills and rainwater. The concept inMarathon Petroleum Company at its major gulf coast volves no contact with air, ground and surface water or
*
renery in Garyville, Louisiana, to develop VOC soils. [32]
BioTreat, a patent-pending biotreatment solution to
reduce volatile organic compound emissions at oil and
chemical reneries. The company asserts that the system achieves regulatory compliance and cost savings of
an order of magnitude.* [26]
278
Principal Doug Daugherty co-authored a chapter inResponsible Mining: Case Studies in Managing Social &
Environmental Risks in the Developed World, a trade
book published by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration (SME) in January 2015.* [39] The chapter
details Molycorps Mountain Pass rare-earth resource
and processing facility in southeastern California as it
aims to become one of the largest rare-earth production
centers in the world in a sustainable way that minimize
environmental impacts.
Four Principals have contributed to The EU Environmen- [16] ENVIRON appointed on Georgia's largest container
freight port developmentWorld Port Development. Retal Liability: A Commentary. Written for lawyers and
trieved 2013-07-30.
others, this Oxford University Press publication examines
the legal, administrative, scientic, and economic issues [17] Chinese Drywall The Science and The MythsBuildrelating to the directive.* [41]
ing Health Sciences. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
In 2011, Dr. Joseph V. Rodricks, a co-founder and [18] Sun Chemical Issues Carbon Footprint Report Sun
Principal of ENVIRON International, prepared a chapChemical. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
ter on exposure science appearing in the third edition of
the National Academies of Sciences Reference Manual [19] Human Health ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
on Scientic Evidence.* [42] He has also written for the
[20] Study: No health risks at Samsung factories CNN.
International Journal of Toxicology.* [43]
Retrieved 2013-07-30.
82.6 References
[1] Company Overview of ENVIRON International Corporation Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Retrieved 2013-0607.
[2]Ramboll
Acquires
Environ(http:
//environment-analyst.com/7297/
ramboll-acquires-environ)
Environment
Analyst.
Retrieved 2015-06-28.
[3]Environment & Health(http://www.ramboll.com/
services/environment-and-health) Ramboll Group.
Retrieved 2015-06-28.
[4] Press Release: Steven H. Kahn Joins ENVIRONENVIRON. 04 June 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[5]Environ establishes presence in Mexico via acquisition
Environment Analyst. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[6]Environ Establishes Operations in MyanmarMyanmar
Business Today. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[7] News story on ENVIRON website 2014-12-17
[8] ENR: The Top 500 ENR. From the original on 29
April 2013, pp, 9, 10, and 14. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[9] Environment ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[31] Technical Worshop on Wastewater Treatment and Related ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
18 April 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[32] Dr. Carl Adams selected for USEPA task force on hydrofracturing waste water treatment ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[33] 2012 CCBJ Business Achievement Award Environmental Business International. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[34] Containerisation 2013 AwardsContainerisation International. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[35] ENVIRON wins award for environmental services to DP
World ENVIRON. 05 October 2012. Retrieved 201306-07.
[36] ENVIRON assists client in achieving Italy's rst LEED
Platinum building ENVIRON. 21 March 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[37] Patented & Innovative Cost-Saving Control Device for
Facility-Generated Volatile Organic Compound (VOC)
Emissions, Marathon ReneryAAEES. Retrieved 201306-07.
[38]2015 Publications(http://www.ramboll-environ.com/
news/publications) Ramboll Environ. Retrieved 201506-28.
[39]Responsible Mining(http://www.smenet.org/store/
mining-books.cfm/Responsible-Mining/373-1)
Society for Mining Metallurgy & Exploration. Retrieved
2015-06-26.
[40] Evaluation of gene expression changes in human primary
uroepithelial cells following 24-Hr exposures to inorganic
arsenic and methylated metabolites Wiley Online Library. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. 2013
March. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[41]The EU Environmental Liability Directive: A CommentaryOxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[42] Reference Guide on Exposure Science The National
Academies Press. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[43] Dr. Joseph V. RodricksInternational Journal of Toxicology. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
279
Chapter 83
RIMPUFF
RIMPUFF is a local-scale pu diusion model devel- it is suggested that either one of the following books be
oped by Ris DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable read:
Energy, Denmark.* [1] It is an emergency response model
to help emergency management organisations deal with
Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dischemical, nuclear, biological and radiological releases to
persion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modthe atmosphere.
eling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
RIMPUFF is in operational use in several European na Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
tional emergency centres for preparedness and predicDispersion (4th ed.). air-dispersion.com. ISBN 0tion of nuclear accidental releases (RODOS, EURANOS,
9644588-0-2.
ARGOS), chemical gas releases (ARGOS), and for airborne Foot-and Mouth Disease virus spread * [2]
83.4 References
83.1 Description
RIMPUFF builds from parameterized formulas for pu [2] The Foot and Mouth Disease
diusion, wet and dry deposition, and gamma dose radiation. Its range of application covers distances up to (Click on the blue uparrow to display the text portion rel~1000 km from the point of release.
evant to the reference)
RIMPUFF calculates the instantaneous atmospheric dispersion taking into account the local wind variability and
the local turbulence levels. The pu sizes represent in- 83.5 External links
stantaneous relative diusion (no averaging) and is calculated from similarity scaling theory. Pu diusion is
Model Documentation System - a detailed catalogue
patameterized for travel times in the range from a few
of the models developed in Europe.
seconds and up to ~1 day.
Wet and dry deposition is also calculated as a function of
local rain intensity and turbulence levels.
Chapter 84
281
282
2
= 0 (ucdx2q)(cos ) exp 2cy2 x2 dx
where:
x is the distance from the observer to the roadway
y is the height of the observer
u is the mean wind speed
is the angle of tilt of the line source relative to the reference frame
The source of virtually all roadway air pollution emissions is the
exhaust
c and d are the standard deviation of horizontal and vertical wind directions (measured in radians) respectively.
This equation was integrated into a closed form solution
using the error function (erf), and variations in geometry can be performed to include the full innite line,
line segment, elevated line, or arc made from segments.
In any case one can calculate three-dimensional contours of resulting air pollutant concentrations and use the
mathematical model to study alternative roadway designs,
various assumptions of worst case meteorology or varying
trac conditions (for example, variations in truck mix,
eet emission controls, or vehicle speed).
283
second-by-second modal emissions, and Gaussian pu
dispersion into a fully integrated system (a true simulation) that models individual vehicles as discrete moving
sources. TRAQSIM was developed as a next generation
model to be the successor to the current CALINE3 and
CAL3QHC regulatory models. The next step in the development of TRAQSIM is to incorporate methods to
model the dispersion of particulate matter (PM) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).
Several models have been developed that handle complex urban meteorology resulting from urban canyons
and highway congurations. The earliest such model
development (1968-1970) was by the Air Pollution
Control Oce of the U.S. EPA in conjunction with
New York City.* [8] The model was successfully applied to the Spadina Expressway in Toronto by Jack
Fensterstock of the New York City Department of
Air Resources,.* [9]* [10] Other examples include the
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center's* [11]
Canyon Plume Box model,* [12] now in version 3
(CPB-3), the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark's Operational Street Pollution Model
(OSPM), and the MICRO-CALGRID model, which
includes photochemistry, allowing for both primary and
secondary species to be modeled. Cornell University's
model, which resolves vehicle-induced turbulence
84.5 More recent model rene- CTAG
(VIT), road-induced turbulence (RIT),* [13] chemical
ments
transformation and aerosol dynamics of air pollutants
using turbulence reacting ow models. The CTAG model
The CALINE3 model is a steady-state Gaussian disper- has also been applied to characterize highway-building
sion model designed to determine air pollution concen- environments and study eects of vegetation barriers on
trations at receptor locations downwind of highways lo- near-road air pollution.
cated in relatively uncomplicated terrain. CALINE3 is
incorporated into the more elaborate CAL3QHC and
CAL3QHCR models. CALINE3 is in widespread use
84.6 Recent applications in legal
due to its user friendly nature and promotion in governmental circles, but it falls short of analyzing the complexcases
ity of cases addressed by the original Hogan-Venti model.
CAL3QHC and CAL3QHCR models are available in the
Recent health literature indicating that residents near maFortran programming language. They have options to jor roads face elevated rates of several adverse health outmodel either particulate matter or carbon monoxide, and
comes has prompted legal dispute over the responsibility
include algorithms to simulate queued trac at signalized of transportation agencies to use roadway air dispersion
intersections .
models to characterize the impacts of new and expanded
In addition, several more recent models have been de- roadways, bus terminals, truck stops, and other sources.
veloped that employ non-steady state Lagrangian pu Recently, the Sierra Club of Nevada sued the Nevada Dealgorithms.
The HYROAD dispersion model has partment of Transportation and the Federal Highway Adbeen developed through the National Cooperative High- ministration over its failure to assess the impact of the exway Research Program's Project 25-06, incorporating pansion of U.S. Route 95 in Las Vegas on neighborhood
ROADWAY-2 model pu and steady-state plume algo- air quality. The Sierra Club asserted that a supplemenrithms (Rao et al., 2002).
tal Environmental Impact Statement should be issued to
A second contentious case took place in East Brunswick,
New Jersey where the New Jersey Turnpike Authority
planned a major widening of the Turnpike. Again the
roadway air dispersion model was employed to predict
levels of air pollution for residences, schools and parks
near the Turnpike. After an initial hearing in Superior
Court where the ESL model results were set forth, the
judge ordered the Turnpike Authority to negotiate with
the plainti, Concerned Citizens of East Brunswick and
develop air quality mitigation for the adverse eects. The
Turnpike Authority hired ERT as its expert, and the two
research teams negotiated a settlement to this case using
the newly created roadway air dispersion models.
The TRAQSIM model, developed as part of a Ph.D dissertation with support by the U.S. Department of Transportation's Volpe National Transportation Systems Center's Air Quality Facility is currently under the care of
Wyle. The model incorporates dynamic vehicle behavior with a non-steady state Gaussian pu algorithm. Unlike HYROAD, TRAQSIM combines trac simulation,
address emissions of hazardous air pollutants and particulate matter from new motor vehicle trac. The plaintis
asserted that modeling tools were available, including the
Environmental Protection Agency's MOBILE6.2 model,
the CALINE3 dispersion model, and other relevant models. The defendants won in the U.S. District Court under
Judge Philip Pro, who ruled that the transportation agen-
284
cies had acted in a manner that was not arbitrary and
capricious,despite the agencies' technical arguments regarding the lack of available modeling tools being contradicted by a number of peer-reviewed studies published in
scientic journals (e.g. Korenstein and Piazza, Journal
of Environmental Health, 2002). On appeal to the U.S.
Ninth Circuit, the Appeals Court stayed new construction
on the highway pending the court's nal decision. The
Sierra Club and the defendants settled out of court, setting up a research program on the air quality impacts of
U.S. Route 95 on nearby schools.
A number of other high-prole cases have prompted environmental groups to call for dispersion modeling to be
used to assess the air quality impacts of new transportation projects on nearby communities, but to date state
transportation agencies and the Federal Highways Administration has claimed that no tools are available, despite models and guidance available through EPA's Support Center for Regulatory Air Models (SCRAM).
Among the more contentious of cases the Detroit Intermodal Freight Terminal and Detroit River International Crossing (Michigan, USA), and the expansion of
Interstate 70 East in Denver (Colorado, USA).
[2] Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-02. www.air-dispersion.com
[3] C.H. Bosanquet and J.L. Pearson, The spread of smoke
and gases from chimneys, Trans. Faraday Soc., 32:1249,
1936
[4] O.G. Sutton,The theoretical distribution of airborne pollution from factory chimneys, QJRMS, 73:426, 1947
[5] G.A. Briggs, A plume rise model compared with observations, JAPCA, 15:433-438, 1965
[6] Michael Hogan, Theoretical basis for atmospheric diusion from a linear source, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication IR-29, Sunnyvale, Ca., May
4, 1968
[7] Richard J. Venti, Atmospheric diusion models for roadway sources, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication ET-22, Sunnyvale, Ca., October 5,
1970.
[8] Fensterstock, J.C. et al, Reduction of air pollution
potential through environmental planning, JAPCA,
Vol.21,No.7, 1971.
In all of these cases, community-based organizations have [9] The Globe and Mail, 1971-01-21, James MacKenzie,
Pollution Predicted to be worse than New Yorks,
asserted that modeling tools are available, but transportaToronto.
tion planning agencies have asserted that too much uncertainty exists in all of the steps. A major concern for [10] The Globe and Mail, 1971-01-22, James MacKenzie,
community-based organizations has been transportation
Monoxide level safe on present Spadina, expert tells
OMB, Toronto.
agencies' unwillingness to dene the level of uncertainty
that they are willing to tolerate in air quality analyses, how
[11] Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
that compares to the Environmental Protection Agency's
guideline on air quality models, which addresses uncer- [12] Canyon Plume Box model
tainty and accuracy in model use.
84.8 References
[1] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion
estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X. www.crcpress.com
[13] Y. Wang and Zhang, K.M,Modeling near-road air quality using computational uid dynamics (CFD) model,
ES&T, 43:7778-7783, 2009
Chapter 85
Rolling coal
black coal can make visibility dicult.* [8]
In March 2015, Illinois General Assembly Representative Will Guzzardi published a bill proposing to impose
a $5,000 ne on anyone who removes or alters their vehicle's EPA emissions equipment. Guzzardi has made it
clear that The ne would come on top of any penalties
enforced by the current law that prohibits emissions tampering.* [9] In May 2015, New Jersey Governor Chris
Christie signed a bill into law which prohibits retrotting
diesel-powered vehicles to increase particulate emissions
for the purpose of coal rolling. Those found in violation
are subject to a ne by the state's Department of Environmental Protection. The bill was introduced by state
Assemblyman Tim Eustace after a pickup truck blasted
smoke at Eustace's Nissan Leaf while driving.* [10]
85.1 References
A Ford F-450 monster truck rolling coal, or blowing large
clouds of dark grey diesel smoke.
[1] Abel, David (July 28, 2014). Rules have diesel enthusiasts fuming. The Boston Globe. Retrieved July 30,
2014.
[2] Dahl, Melissa (July 24, 2014). Why Pickup Truck
Drivers Are Paying $5,000 to Pollute More. New York
(New York City). Retrieved January 25, 2016.
[3] Kulze, Elizabeth (June 16, 2014). ""RollinCoalIs Pollution Porn for Dudes With Pickup Trucks. Vocativ.
Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[4] Colbert Pokes Fun at Rolling Coal,the Insecure
Trucker Driver
s Response to Environmentalists. EcoWatch. July 18, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[5] Rolling coal: Canadian diesel truck lovers insist they're
not like U.S. counterparts. CTV News. July 16, 2014.
Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[6] Oberg, Jamie (July 18, 2014). Police warn drivers
against 'rolling coal'". KCTV. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[7] Political Protest Or Just Blowing Smoke? AntiEnvironmentalists Are Now 'Rolling Coal'". Hungton
Post. July 6, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[8] Boyd, Shaun. Lawmaker Wants To StopCoal Rollers
From Intentionally Blasting Black Smoke. CBS Denver.
Retrieved 7 April 2016.
286
[9] Illinois bill would make 'rolling coal' illegal. Autoblog.com. 27 March 2015.
[10] Bruce, Chris (May 13, 2015). Rolling coal now illegal
in New Jersey. Autoblog. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
Chapter 86
which do not appear to be connected. The key to discovery is the increased incidence of illnesses in general
with onset or exacerbation within a fairly close time frame
usually within a period of weeks. In most cases, SBS
symptoms will be relieved soon after the occupants leave
the particular room or zone.* [7] However, there can be
lingering eects of various neurotoxins, which may not
clear up when the occupant leaves the building. In some
casesparticularly in sensitive individualsthere can be
long-term health eects.
86.3 Workplace
Greater eects were found with features of the psychosocial work environment including high job demands and
low support. The report concluded that the physical environment of oce buildings appears to be less imporSeveral sick occupants may report individual symptoms tant than features of the psychosocial work environment
287
288
in explaining dierences in the prevalence of symptoms.
However, there is still a relationship between sick building syndrome and symptoms of workers regardless of
workplace stress.* [12]
Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and poor communication are often
seen to be associated with SBS, recent studies show that
a combination of environmental sensitivity and stress can
greatly contribute to Sick Building Syndrome.
Specic work-related stressors are related with specic
SBS symptoms. Workload and work conict are signicantly associated with general symptoms (headache, abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or nausea). While
crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are associated with upper respiratory symptoms.* [13]
Specic careers are also associated with specic SBS
symptoms. Transport, communication, healthcare, and
social workers have highest prevalence of general symptoms. Skin symptoms such as eczema, itching, and rashes
on hands and face are associated with technical work.
Forestry, agriculture, and sales workers have the lowest
rates of sick building syndrome symptoms.* [14]
Milton et al. determined the cost of sick leave specic for
one business was an estimated $480 per employee, and
about ve days of sick leave per year could be attributed
to low ventilation rates. When comparing low ventilation
rate areas of the building to higher ventilation rate areas,
the relative risk of short-term sick leave was 1.53 times
greater in the low ventilation areas.* [15]
Work productivity has been associated with ventilation
rates, a contributing factor to SBS, and theres a signicant increase in production as ventilation rates increase by
1.7% for every two-fold increase of ventilation rate.* [16]
86.4 Causes
86.5 Prevention
toxin-absorbing
plants,
sansevieria.* [18]* [19]* [20]
such
as
86.6 History
289
290
not have any known cure; alleviation consists of remov- [12] Bauer, R. M., Greve, K. W., Besch, E. L., Schramke, C.
J., Crouch, J., Hicks, A., . . . Lyles, W. B. (1992).
ing the aected person from the building associated with
The role of psychological factors in the report of buildingnon-specic symptoms. BRI, on the other hand, utirelated symptoms in sick building syndrome. Journal
lizes treatment appropriate for the contaminant identied
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(2), 213-219.
within the building (e.g., antibiotics for Legionnaires
doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.213
disease). In most cases, simply improving the indoor air
quality (IAQ) of a particular building will attenuate, or [13] Azuma, K., Ikeda, K., Kagi, N., Yanagi, U., & Osawa, H.
even eliminate, the acute symptoms of SBS, while re(2014).Prevalence and risk factors associated with nonmoval of the source contaminant would prove more efspecic building-related symptoms in oce employees in
Japan: Relationships between work environment, Indoor
fective for a specic illness, as in the case of BRI.* [25]
Air Quality, and occupational stress.Indoor Air, 25(5),
499-511. doi:10.1111/ina.12158
86.9 References
[1] Sick Building Syndrome. United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved 2009-02-19.
[2] Sundell, J; Lindval, T; Berndt, S (1994).Association between type of ventilation and airow rates in oce buildings and the risk of SBS-symptoms among occupants..
Eviron.Int. 20 (2): 239251.
[3] Rylander, R (1997). Investigation of the relationship
between disease and airborne (1P3)-b-D-glucan in buildings.. Med. Of Inamm. (6): 275277.
[4] Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental Quality.
New York: CRC Press. pp. 196-197. ISBN 1-56670402-2
[5] Teculescu, D.B. (1998). Sick Building Symptoms in
oce workers in northern France: a pilot study.. Int
Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 71: 353356.
[6] Apter, A (1994). Epidemiology of the sick building
syndrome.. Journ. Alergy. Clin. Immunol. (94): 277
288.
[7]Sick Building Syndrome. National Safety Council.
(2009) Retrieved April 27, 2009. nsc.org
[14] Norback, D., & Edling, C. (1991). Environmental, occupational, and personal factors related to the prevalence
of sick building syndrome in the general population. Occupational and Environmental Medicine,48(7), 451-462.
doi:10.1136/oem.48.7.451
[15] Milton, D. K., Glencross, P. M., & Walters, M. D.
(2000). Risk of Sick Leave Associated with Outdoor Air
Supply Rate, Humidication, and Occupant Complaints.
Indoor Air, 10(4), 212-221. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.
2000.010004212.x
[16] Wargocki, P., Wyon, D. P., Sundell, J., Clausen, G.,
& Fanger, P. O. (2000). The Eects of Outdoor Air
Supply Rate in an Oce on Perceived Air Quality, Sick
Building Syndrome (SBS) Symptoms and Productivity.
Indoor Air, 10(4), 222-236. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.
2000.010004222.x
[17] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013
[18] nasa techdoc 19930072988
[19] news.softpedia.com
[20] zone10.com
[21] How to deal with sick building syndrome: Guidance
for employers, building owners and building managers.
(1995). Sudbury: The Executive.
[22] Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental quality. New
York: CRC Press. pp. 196-197. ISBN 1-56670-402-2
[23] Sick Building Syndrome - Fact Sheet (PDF). United
States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved
2013-06-06.
[24] Sick Building Syndrome. National Health Service,
England. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
[25] Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick building syndrome.
Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/sbs.html.
291
Chapter 87
TA Luft
Germany has an air pollution control regulation titled
Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control(Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft) and commonly
referred to as the TA Luft.* [1]
The rst version of the TA Luft was established in 1964.
It has subsequently been revised in 1974, 1983, 1988 and
2002.* [2] Parts of the TA Luft have been adopted by other
countries as well.
In 1974, 10 years after the TA Luft was rst established,
the German government enacted the Federal Pollution
Control Act(Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz). It also has
subsequently been amended a number of times, the last
of which was in 2002.* [3] Although the rst version of
the TA Luft existed 10 years before the enactment of the
Federal Pollution Control Act, it is often called the
First General Administrative Regulationpertaining to
the Federal Pollution Control Act.
The German government created the Federal Ministry for
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
(Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit) in June, 1986* [4] and it is now responsible
for implementing the TA Luft regulation under theFederal Air Pollution Control Act.
87.1 Overview
The TA Luft is a comprehensive air pollution control regulation that includes:
lead compounds, cadmium and inorganic cadmium compounds, nickel and inorganic nickel
compounds, mercury and inorganic mercury compounds, thallium and inorganic thallium compounds, ammonia from farming and livestock breeding operations, inorganic gases and particulates,
organic substances and others.
Emission limits may also be set for hazardous, toxic,
carcinogenic or mutagenic substances as part of the
TA Luft review procedures.
Other limits or requirements related to stack heights
(for ue gases or other process vents) and for storing,
loading or working with liquid or solid substances.
Various requirements for sampling measuring and
monitoring emissions.
Listing of the industries subject to the requirements
of the TA Luft, such as mining, electric power generation, glass and ceramics, steel, aluminum and
other metals, chemical plants, oil rening, plastics,
food, and others.
Annex 3 is devoted to guidelines on: how the
atmospheric dispersion modeling required during
the TA Luft review is to be performed, and the acceptable type of dispersion model to be used. In
essence, the modeling must be in accordance with
the VDI Guidelines 3782 Parts 1 and 2, 3783 Part
8, 3784 Part 2, and 3945 Part 3.* [5]
A discussion of the scope of the TA Luft application, The full text of the TA Luft is available on the Interwhich is to review applications for licenses to con- net.* [1]
struct and operate new industrial facilities (or altered
existing facilities) and to determine whether the proposed new or altered facilities will comply with the
requirements of the TA Luft and the requirements 87.2 AUSTAL2000
of other air pollutant emission regulations promulAUSTAL2000 is an atmospheric dispersion model for
gated under the Federal Pollution Control Act.
simulating the dispersion of air pollutants in the ambi Air pollutant emission limits for dust, sulfur diox- ent atmosphere. It was developed by Ingenieurbro Janide, nitrogen oxides, hydrouoric acid and other icke* [6] in Dunum, Germany under contract to the Fedgaseous inorganic uorine compounds, arsenic and eral Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and
inorganic arsenic compounds, lead and inorganic Nuclear Safety. Although not named in the TA Luft, it is
292
87.6. REFERENCES
293
the reference dispersion model accepted as being in compliance with the requirements of Annex 3 of the TA Luft
and the pertinent VDI Guidelines.
87.6 References
Austal2000G is a similar model for simulating the dispersion of odours and it was also developed by Ingenieurbro Janicke. The development of Austal 2000G
was nanced by three German states: Niedersachsen,
Nordrhein-Westfalen and Baden-Wrttemberg.
Chapter 88
Toxic hotspot
Toxic hotspots are locations where emissions from specic sources such as water or air pollution may expose
local populations to elevated health risks, such as cancer.* [1] These emissions contribute to cumulative health
risks of emissions from other sources nearby. Urban,
highly populated areas around pollutant emitters such
as old factories and waste storage sites are often toxic
hotspots.
While air pollution hotspots aect a variety of popu- enacted in 1987, seeks to collect emission data, deterlations, some groups are more likely to be located in mine health risks, and notify local residents of major
hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in ex- risks.* [11] By identifying hotspots regulators hope these
294
295
88.2.1
There are multiple eorts and strategies to spur legislation for equitable environmental conditions in lowincome communities. There are many environmental justice groups and organizations in the Bay Area that encourage community participation in pursuing environmental
justice. For example, data is collected by a Communitybased participatory research (CBPR) and collaborated
with West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project
(WOEIP) in order to nd eective and accurate ndings to prove injustice and eventually spur reform in environmental policy. These research eorts can be used to
document and communicate trends in air quality in West
Oakland to policy makers.* [14] Eectiveness of eorts
by these groups are multiplied by and increasing availability of environmental poverty lawyers who empower
legislation in the legal system.* [17]
296
can result in inequality in which communities of color the Constitution because it violates equal protection of
bear a disproportionate burden of pollution and, there- residentspublic health.* [35]
fore, suer from greater environmental health risks.* [27] Los Angeles is known for the nations worst air quality
Because Richmond is an air pollution hotspot, Richmond and its sharp inequalities in environmental exposures
residents have applied dierent strategies since the 1980s .* [36] Wilmington, Los Angeles is a neighborhood loto try to improve local air quality. The rst EJ movement cated on the southern part of Los Angeles, California.
in the area started in the late 1980s, when the activist tried 54,512 people live in Wilmington, the median houseto stop construction of a garbage incinerator near North hold income is $40,627, about 86 percentage of them are
Richmond.* [28] Sixteen years later, local citizen utilizes Latino and only 5.1% of Wilmington residents 25 or older
Bucket Brigadesto document a handful of criteria air have a four-year degree.* [37]
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide [SO2], carbon monox- Wilmington, most of its residents are ethnic minorities,
ide [CO], nitrous dioxide [NO2], and ozone [O3].This is possible to bear more environmental burden than other
study involves citizens to actively collecting the samples communities in Los Angeles because it is located next to
of emissions from Chevrons reneries, especially dur- several sources of air pollution. For example, Wilminging accidents, res, leaks, and explosions.The sniers ton has the highest concentration of reneries in the
alert thesamplersto collect the air samples when they State. Emissions from reneries in Wilmington include
notice a problem.Thesamplersthen contact the Coor- carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and benzene.* [38] Wilmdinator to check the bucket and perform the paperwork ington has higher concentration of diesel particulate matbefore submitting the samples to the Laboratory, in which ter due to emissions from diesel trucks from the ports
the results will be reported to CBE, an environmental jus- of Los Angeles and Long Beach.* [39] The risks associtice organization. The Bucket Brigadesdid not only ated with diesel are often underestimated since existing
raise the awareness local citizens to ght against the air epidemiological studies cannot isolate exposure to diesel
pollution in their area, but also their participation.* [29]
PM.* [39] However, exposure to diesel particulate matter
As the number of activists and participants grew in numbers, their position in the battle against environmental
injustice was further fortied with the election Greenparty mayor of Richmond, Gayle McLaughlin, as well as
three new council members sympathetic to their cause in
2008.* [30] In July 2008, despite the council failure to halt
the Chevrons plan to build more reneries in the area
due to rising gasoline prices during that time, the council
succeeded to acquire $61 million from the oil company
for community programs.* [31]
PG&E operates a compressor station in Hinkley for natural gas transmission pipelines. The natural gas has to be
re-compressed approximately every 350 miles (560 km),
and the station uses large cooling towers to cool the gas after it has been compressed. Between 1952 and 1966, the
water used in these cooling towers contained hexavalent
chromium now recognized as a carcinogen to prevent
297
rust in the machinery. The water was stored between uses ing the Castle Bravo accident, $15.3 million was paid to
in unlined ponds, which allowed it to percolate into the Japan.* [46]
groundwater. This severely contaminated the groundwater, aecting soil and contaminating water wells near the
compressor station, with a plume approximately 2 miles 88.4.2 Nevada Test Site
(3.2 km) long and nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) wide.* [43]
Main article: Nevada Test Site
The Nevada Test Site (NTS), is a United States Depart-
The Castle Bravo test of 1954 spread nuclear fallout across the
Marshall Islands, parts of which were still inhabited.
Mushroom cloud from the Nevada Test Site seen from downtown
Las Vegas.
298
88.4.3
The Soviet Union conducted 456 nuclear tests at Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their [10] Risk Assessment. EPA. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
eect on the local people or environment. The full im- [11] Overview of the Air ToxicsHot SpotsInformation and
pact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by
Assessment Act. California Environmental Protection
Agency Air Resources Board. 9 October 2013.
Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test
site closed in 1991.
[12] Indiana University (23 May 2011). Emissions trading
88.6 References
[1] Glossary of Air Pollution Terms. Retrieved 4 May
2014.
[2] Bhopal Disaster. Retrieved 26 April 2014.
88.6. REFERENCES
[21] List of Air Emissions That Chevrons Richmond Renery Project Could Increase If Mitigation Is Not Required
According To The Revised Draft EIR*" (PDF). Communities for a Better Environment. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[22]Fenceline Monitoring Chemical Denitions. Richmond
Community Air Monitoring Program. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[23] Manuel Pastor; James Sadd; Rachel Morello-Frosch
(2007). Still toxic after all these years (PDF). Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[24] State & County QuickFacts: Richmond (city), California. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[25] Brody, Julia Green; Morello-Frosch R; Zota A; Brown
P; Prez C; Rudel RA. (November 2009). Linking exposure assessment science with policy objectives for environmental justice and breast cancer advocacy: the northern California household exposure
study. American Journal of Public Health 99: S600
S609. doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.149088. Retrieved 30
April 2014.
[26] Schlosberg, David (2003). The Justice of Environmental
Justice: Reconciling Equity, Recognition, and Participation
in a Political Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press.
[27] Morello-Frosch, Rachel A (2002). Discrimination
and the political economy of environmental inequality
(PDF). Environment and Planning C website 20 (4): 477
496. doi:10.1068/c03r. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
[28] Cheryl Katz; Jane Kay (2012). "'We are Richmond.' A
beleaguered community earns multicultural clout.. Environmental Health News. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[29] O'rourke, Dara; Gregg P. Macey (2003). Community environmental policing: Assessing new strategies of
public participation in environmental regulation(PDF).
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 22 (3): 383
414. doi:10.1002/pam.10138. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[30] Jane Kay; Cheryl Katz (June 5, 2012). We are Richmond. A Beleaguered Community Earns Multicultural
Clout. Environmental Health News. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[31] Jones, Carolyn (July 18, 2008). Richmond Council Oks
Chevron Renery Plan. SF Gate. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[32] Environment. Chevron Richmond. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[33] Bonorris, Steven (February 15, 2010). Environmental
Justice for All: A Fifty State Survey of Legislation, Policies and Cases (PDF). University of California Hasting
College of the Law (4th Edition).
[34] O
Rourke, Dara; Macey, G. P. (2003).Community Environmental Policing: Assessing New Strategies of Public
Participation in Environmental Regulation(PDF). Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 22 (3).
299
Chapter 89
Twomey eect
The Twomey eect describes how cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN), possibly from anthropogenic pollution,
may increase the amount of solar radiation reected by
clouds. This is an indirect eect.
Aerosol particles can act as CCN's creating more droplets
which have a smaller size distribution. This increases the
cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger, leading to a cooling of between 0.3 and 1.8 Wm* 2.* [1]
For example we observe trails of white clouds from ships
crossing the oceans due to this eect.
89.2 References
[1] IPCC 4th Assessment Report, 2005
89.3 Bibliography
Twomey, S. (December 1974). Pollution and
the planetary albedo. Atmos. Environ. 8
(12): 12516. Bibcode:1974AtmEn...8.1251T.
doi:10.1016/0004-6981(74)90004-3.
Twomey, S. (July 1977). The Inuence of
Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds
(PDF). J. Atmos. Sci. 34 (7): 114952.
Bibcode:1977JAtS...34.1149T. doi:10.1175/15200469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2.
Rosenfeld, D. (2006). Aerosol-Cloud Interactions Control of Earth Radiation and Latent
Heat Release Budgets. Space Sci Rev 125
(1-4): 149157. Bibcode:2006SSRv..125..149R.
doi:10.1007/s11214-006-9053-6.
300
Lohmann, U. (2006).
Aerosol Eects on
Clouds and Climate. Space Sci Rev 125 (1Bibcode:2006SSRv..125..129L.
4): 129137.
doi:10.1007/s11214-006-9051-8.
Chapter 90
90.1 References
[1] http://test.ourhomeground.com/entries/definition/dust_
dome
301
Chapter 91
Pa = 0.9877a
The conversion equations depend on the temperature
at which the conversion is wanted (usually about 20 to Given an atmospheric pollutant concentration at an atmo25 degrees Celsius). At an ambient air pressure of 1 spheric pressure of 1 atmosphere (i.e., at sea level altitude), the concentration at other altitudes can be obtained
atmosphere (101.325 kPa), the general equation is:
from this equation:
ppmv = mg/m3
(0.08205 T )
M
mg/m3 = ppmv
M
(0.08205 T )
Ca = C 0.9877a
As an example, given a concentration of 260 mg/m at sea
level, calculate the equivalent concentration at an altitude
of 1,800 meters:
C a = 260 0.9877* 18 = 208 mg/m at 1,800 meters
altitude
Notes:
303
not always) dened as being measured at 0 C and 1 Likewise, a standard cubic meter of dry gas is often deatmosphere of pressure.
noted as dscmor scmd(again, by environmental
A standard cubic foot (scf) is the USA expression of gas agencies in the USA).
volume at standard conditions and it is often (but not always) dened as being measured at 60 F and 1 atmo- 91.5.1 Correcting to a dry basis
sphere of pressure. There are other denitions of standard gas conditions used in the USA besides 60 F and 1 If a gaseous emission sample is analyzed and found to
atmosphere.
contain water vapor and a pollutant concentration of say
40 ppmv, then 40 ppmv should be designated as thewet
That being understood:
basispollutant concentration. The following equation
1 Nm of any gas (measured at 0 C and 1 atmocan be used to correct the measured wet basisconsphere of absolute pressure) equals 37.326 scf of that
centration to a "dry basis" concentration:* [3]
gas (measured at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of absolute
pressure).
1 kmol of any ideal gas equals 22.414 Nm of that gas dry basis concentration = (wet basis concentration)/(1w)
at 0C and 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure ... and
1 lbmol of any ideal gas equals 379.482 scf of that gas Thus, a wet basis concentration of 40 ppmv in a gas having 10 volume percent water vapor would have a dry basis
at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure.
concentration = 40 ( 1 - 0.10 ) = 44.44 ppmv.
Notes:
kmol = kilomole or kilogram mole
lbmol = pound mole
304
CHAPTER 91. USEFUL CONVERSIONS AND FORMULAS FOR AIR DISPERSION MODELING
91.7 References
[1] Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas
[2] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th Edition ed.). author-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2.
[3] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60,
Appendix A-3, Test Method 4.
[4] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60,
Appendix B, Performance Specication 2.
[5] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60.
Chapter 92
Daniel A. Vallero
Daniel A. Vallero is an American environmental author* [1]* [2] and scientist. He was born in East St. Louis,
Illinois and grew up in Collinsville, Illinois. He received a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in city
and regional planning from Southern Illinois UniversityEdwardsville. He also earned a masters in civil and environmental engineering (environmental health sciences)
from the University of Kansas and a PhD in civil and
environmental engineering from Duke University with a
thesis on "Dicarboximide Fungicide Flux to the Lower
Troposphere from an Aquic Hapludult Soil* [3]* [4]
92.1 Career
Vallero is recognized internationally for advancing the
state of environmental science and engineering, as an author, educator, engineer and scientic researcher. He has
appeared on news and other shows, recently discussing
plastic recycling on NBC's Today Show (http://www.
today.com/video/today/51620316) and on MSNBC, and
current state of ethics in research at universities.* [5] He
began his professional career in the Kansas City regional
oce of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
1976 and has worked in numerous other scientic venues
since then.* [6] He directed the Science, Technology and
Human Values Program at Duke University from 1997 to
2005. Beginning in 2005, he has been adjunct Professor
of Engineering Ethics at Duke University, with a joint appointment in the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, and the Trinity School of Arts and Sciences.
He held appointments also at the University of MissouriKansas City, North Carolina Central University, and as
science sta member on Energy and Power Subcommittee of the United States House of Representatives.
In his twelve books, Vallero has taken the systems view
of living systems, and discussed the social aspects of
engineering. As such he has bridged biomedical engineering with environmental engineering. As a leader in
engineering ethics, he has served the National Academy
of Engineering as a member of the Online Ethics Committee and the Executive Board of the National Institute
of Engineering Ethics. Vallero has also advised Sigma Xi,
universities and other institutions on science and research
92.2 Works
Vallero is a pioneer of green engineering and the application of life cycle analysis to engineering design. He was
among the rst to question the sustainability and ethics
of using corn as a source of ethanol fuel. His reasoning
was that current farming practice's dependence on fossil
fuels needed to grow (including fertilizer and pesticides),
harvest and ferment the corn is highly inecient thermodynamically. The use of corn for fuel is especially problematic, since only the seed are used, not to mention the
misuse of an important part of the global food supply.* [7]
Vallero argued that other crops are much more sustainable, especially those that make use of the whole plant,
including cellulosic material, like switchgrass (Panicum
virgatum).
In the book, DUST: The inside Story of its Role in the
September 11th Aftermath,* [8] the late American scientist Paul Lioy credited Vallero with leading the way
to sampling of hazardous air pollutants in and around
Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks on the World
Trade Center. Lioy collaborated with Vallero in establishing a protocol for characterizing exposure in risk assessments following such emergencies. Lioy and Vallero
coined the term 5 Rsto delineate how exposure assessment varies during the ve stages following a disaster:
1. Rescue; 2. Recovery; 3. Reentry; 4. Restoration; and
5. Rehabitation.* [9]
With architect, Chris Brasier, Vallero coined the term
synthovation,as a new design process for green engineering and green architecture.* [10] A combination of
synthesis and innovation, sustainable design does not consider innovation to be an interruption (feedback loop) to
the design process as in traditional concept to completiondesign. Rather, innovations are to be expected
and integrated. Diering from the traditional step-wise
process, synthovation is a spiral, dynamic, and continuously moving process toward completion of the design
and throughout the life of the project, including end-of
life recycling and design for disassembly, a component
of design for environment (DfE), with innovations added
305
306
92.2.1
Books
Vallero, D.A. (2007). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, 4th Edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam,
Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN 0750682272.
400 pages.
Reviewd by Don MacKay. Environmental Reviews 2008 v16 p181(1)
Vallero, D.A., (2007). Biomedical Ethics for Engineers: Ethics and Decision Making in Biomedical and Biosystem Engineering. Academic Press,
Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
0750682272. 400 pages. In 777 libraries according to WorldCat * [13]
Vallero, D.A. and Vesilind, P.A.(2006). Socially Responsible Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, NJ, ISBN 0471787078. 384 pages.
Reviewed by Ray Bert. Civil Engineering Nov
2006 v76 i11 p71
Reviewed by Alex A. Karner, Science and Engineering Ethics 2010 16(2): 415-417
Vallero, D.A. (2005). Paradigms Lost: Learning from Environmental Mistakes, Mishaps and
Misdeeds. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
0750678887. 688 pages. According to WorldCat,
the book is held in 333 libraries.* [14]
Reviewed by Ray Bert.
March 2006 v76 i3 p68
Civil Engineering
92.3 References
[1] Author page at Elsevier
[2] Author page at John Wiley & Sons
[3] Faculty page at Duke
[4] Curriculum vitae at Duke
[5] U.S. News & World Report
[6] Researcher page at EPA
[7] D. Vallero and C. Brasier (2008). Teaching green engineering: The case of ethanol life cycle analysis. Bulletin
of Science, Technology & Society. 28 (3): 236-243.
[8] P.J. Lioy (2010). DUST: The Inside Story of Its Role in
the September 11th Aftermath (Forward By Tom Kean).
Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littleeld. ISBN 1-44220148-7.
[9] D. Vallero and P. Lioy (2012). The 5-Rs: Reliable PostDisaster Exposure Assessment. Leadership and Management and Engineering. 12 (4): 247-253. (October 2012).
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000200.
[10] D. Vallero and C. Brasier (2008), Sustainable Design: The
Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, ISBN 0470130628.
[11] L. Berkson (2010), Hormone Deception. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform; 1 edition, ISBN
1453741275
[12] WorldCat
[13] worldCat book record
[14] WorldCat
[15] WorldCat
307
Chapter 93
Vapor intrusion
Vapor intrusion (VI) is a process by which chemicals
in soil or groundwater - especially Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) - migrate to indoor air above a
contaminated site.
93.2 Concerns
At worst, vapor intrusion can be a safety hazard, e.g.,
when ammables are involved in form of an explosion.
Noxious vapors can cause health eects, either acutely
such as CNS disturbances like headaches or mental status changes, and they can have chronic health eects, e.g.
in the case of radon, which can cause lung cancer. Lastly,
vapors can be severe aesthetic problems, e.g., odors
from hydrogen sulde.* [1]
93.5 References
[1] What is Vapor Intrusion?". US EPA. 30 September
2015. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
[2] Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State
of New York Final Soil Vapor Intrusion Guidance, 92pp,
October 2006.
[3] ASTM E2600-10 Standard Guide for Vapor Encroachment Screening on Property Involved in Real Estate
Transactions. ASTM International. 1 June 2010.
93.3 Guidance
In the United States, vapor intrusion is handled in individual states in dierent ways.
One of the most scrupulous guidance documents on vapor intrusion in the nation has been from the New York
Department of Health in 2006.* [2]
In June 2010, the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM International) released a commercial
Standard Guide for Vapor Encroachment Screening on
Property Involved in Real Estate Transactions(ASTM
E 2600-10).* [3]
308
[4] OSWER Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air Pathway from Groundwater and Soils
(Subsurface Vapor Intrusion Guidance)". Environmental
Protection Agency. 2002-11-29.
[5] OSWER Technical Guide for Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor
Sources to Indoor Air.. US EPA. 11 June 2015. p. 267.
Retrieved 29 August 2015.
Chapter 94
94.1 Principle
Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizers are used to
destroy methane in the exhaust air of underground coal
mine shafts. Methane is a greenhouse gas that burns to
form carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor. (CO2 ) is
25 times less potent than methane when emitted into the
atmosphere with regards to global warming. Concentrations of methane in ventilation exhaust air of coal and
trona mines are very dilute; typically below 1% and often below 0.5%.* [1] Flow rates are so high that ventilation air methane constitutes the largest source of methane
emissions at most mines. This methane emission wastes
energy and contributes signicantly to global greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.
309
Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizer SystemAmerican Environmental Fabrication & Supply, Sept. 2010
Assessment of the Worldwide Market Potential for
310
USEPA, 2003 Assessment of the Worldwide Market Potential for Oxidizing Coal Mine Ventilation
Air MethaneJuly 2003
Mattus, R, 2007. In Full Operation The Worlds
First VAM Power Plant, presented at the Methane to
Markets Partnership Expo, Beijing, China, October
30 November 1, 2007
Hamilton et al., 2007. State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2007: Picking Up Steam, Hamilton,
K, Bayon, R, Turner, G, and Higgins, D, New Carbon Finance and The Ecosystem Marketplace, July
2007
12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium 2008 Wallace (ed) ISBN 978-0-61520009-5"
Watson R.T. et al., IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland,
2001
Chapter 95
95.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material
from the CIA World Factbook document2003 edition.
311
Chapter 96
Wildland re emission
Wildland re and wildland re atmospheric emissions
have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia.* [1]
The major wildland re emissions include greenhouse
gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human
health and welfare.:* [2]
Compared to the preindustrial era, wildland land re
in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland re emissions. Land use changes (agriculture and urbanization)
are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease,
and land management decisions (land fragmentation,
suppression actions, etc.) are responsible for the remainder. Anthropogenic activities (e.g., industrial production,
transportation, agriculture, etc.) today have more than
replaced the lost preindustrial wildland re atmospheric
emissions.* [3]
The following charts compare preindustrial wildland re
emissions * [4] with contemporary emissions.* [5]* [6]
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Nitric Oxide
Volatile Organic Compounds
Particulate Matter <10
Particulate Matter <2.5
96.1 References
[1] Pyne, S.J. 1995. World re: The culture of re on earth.
University of Washington Press. 384 pp. [ISBN 0-29597593-8]
[2] National Research Council: Committee on Air Quality
Management in the United States, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Division on Earth and Life Studies
(2004). Air Quality Management in the United States.
National Academies Press. [ISBN 0-309-08932-8]
[3] Leenhouts, B. 1998.Assessment of biomass burning in the
conterminous United States. Conservation Ecology [online] 2(1): 1.
312
Chapter 97
97.1 Ratications
As of 2013, the convention had been ratied by 45 states.
313
314CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
Text
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Heavenlytouchcarpets, Kushagra0628, JJMC89, LobsterCan, Toxxicpixel, Gunpie, CAPTAIN RAJU, CyberWarfare, Preethaa Shiny,
Ashketchum2001, Gokulvibush, Kai stackhouse, Wikipedia helper101, Little e5776, Fracnov, Yash Racha75, ANIRUDH ASAWA, Entranced98, Ethanlu121, Atharvaaitwade, BWEFASS BROCCOLI, KgosarMyth, MrFirate and Anonymous: 1996
Accidental release source terms Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidental_release_source_terms?oldid=691042550 Contributors: Michael Hardy, SGBailey, Alan Liefting, Pearle, Alansohn, Gene Nygaard, RHaworth, Pol098, Rjwilmsi, Encephalon, Closedmouth,
Euchiasmus, Mbeychok, Patau, Cydebot, MadScientist80, Daniele Pugliesi, CrimsonZ, Snotbot and Anonymous: 6
Aerotoxic Association Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerotoxic_Association?oldid=721135822 Contributors: Tim!, SmackBot,
Gjs238, EditorASC, MilborneOne, Robosh, NativeForeigner, Silver seren, Magioladitis, JBIdF, Shreditor, Cirt, Socrates2008, Mhockey,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Alvin Seville, Tra, Tom.Reding, TCP146, DexDor, Dcirovic, This lousy T-shirt, 220 of Borg, Volker Siegel, FrerwerwertwTrwt, TrevorAANorwich and Anonymous: 9
Aerotoxic syndrome Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerotoxic_syndrome?oldid=721353967 Contributors: Finlay McWalter, Anthony Appleyard, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Mikalra, Bhny, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Archibald Tuttle, Acdx,
JzG, EditorASC, Robosh, Ex nihil, Anthonyhcole, DumbBOT, Pragmaticist, Dawnseeker2000, Nicholas0, Silver seren, WhatamIdoing,
JaGa, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker, Shawn in Montreal, Skrelk, Nigel Ish, Sciencewatcher, Kmhkmh, Lamro, Doc James, JL-Bot, RobinHood70, Jersey emt, Socrates2008, Jytdog, Addbot, TutterMouse, Debresser, Favonian, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, AnomieBOT,
Xqbot, .45Colt, MuedThud, Shadowjams, Grammarspellchecker, Jonesey95, Screwjack1981, TCP146, TRBP, Trappist the monk, Diannaa, VernoWhitney, EmausBot, DiiCinta, Winner 42, Dcirovic, Josve05a, Bollyje, H3llBot, Hazard-Bot, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie
Bot, BG19bot, Jontyla, 14October1947, Lhotse2011, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, Ankababel, AviationExpertUK, Guywholikesca2+, Mogism,
Jamesx12345, Wuerzele, Uli Elch, Monkbot, BubbaJoe123456, Sirjosephwilliamson, Kethrus, SharpEndBluntTool, Health+Stealth, Bytesock, Ferroeld and Anonymous: 47
Air pollutant concentrations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutant_concentrations?oldid=695394603 Contributors:
BD2412, Drbogdan, Salix alba, Old Moonraker, Slashme, Bejnar, Mbeychok, JForget, Christian75, Postcard Cathy, Xenus, Shoemaker's
Holiday, MrOllie, Yobot, Daniele Pugliesi, Trappist the monk, BattyBot and Anonymous: 3
Outline of air pollution dispersion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_air_pollution_dispersion?oldid=711433045 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Spiy sperry, Blaxthos, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, NHSavage, Addshore, Cybercobra, Zahid Abdassabur,
Kuru, Mbeychok, Beetstra, Iridescent, Jaksmata, CmdrObot, Cydebot, The Transhumanist, Sudhanshu Kumar, HiLo48, KudzuVine, Inwind, Anna Lincoln, Lamro, Anchor Link Bot, JL-Bot, ClueBot, Excirial, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Citation bot,
Tix, GoingBatty, Drcambridge, EdoBot, Snotbot, Forgiatura, BG19bot, BMacZero, BattyBot and Anonymous: 18
Air pollution sensor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_sensor?oldid=706964271 Contributors: Rpyle731, Simsh,
Wavelength, R'n'B, Niceguyedc, BG19bot, Lakun.patra, Wanderingwater, CryOCed and Jimmykumar10
Air quality guideline Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_guideline?oldid=695160246 Contributors: Rpyle731 and
Ganeshk
Air Quality Health Index (Canada) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Quality_Health_Index_(Canada)?oldid=721605005 Contributors: Denelson83, Bearcat, Bender235, Giraedata, Vegaswikian, Wavelength, NHSavage, Bejnar, Magioladitis, R'n'B, Commons-
316CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
Delinker, Katharineamy, DASonnenfeld, Razamatraz, Addbot, Yobot, EmausBot, Frietjes, Wbm1058, Aqhiguy, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri,
Joshua Kraan, Radix838, HeisenbergO2, Bfurrow and Anonymous: 9
Air quality index Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_index?oldid=720224345 Contributors: SimonP, Heron, Willsmith,
Julesd, Mulad, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Radiojon, Tpbradbury, Dragons ight, David.Monniaux, Alan Liefting, Dinomite, Jpp, Fys, Beland, Spiy sperry, CALR, Discospinster, Wrp103, Bender235, RoyBoy, Smalljim, Velella, RJFJR, Shoey, Lebite, BDD, Gene Nygaard,
Gordeonbleu, Rtdrury, Rjwilmsi, Samlowry, RobertG, Reetep, Samuel Wiki, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, CrazyC83, NHSavage, Flowersofnight, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hu Gadarn, Alex mayorga, ACupOfCoee, E946, JonHarder, TedE, PointyOintment, Jellysho,
Derek R Bullamore, Drphilharmonic, The Toad, Shadowlynk, Mbeychok, BLUE, Thegreatdr, Shaoquan, Ckatz, Hvn0413, Markjdb, John
Riemann Soong, JohnCD, Neelix, No1lakersfan, Acs4b, Tawkerbot4, Simeon H, Catsmoke, Dugwiki, Phy1729, Openlander, AntiVandalBot, MER-C, Magioladitis, Dekimasu, Gabriel Kielland, IwantCleanAir, Jikbusai, Dlary, Rettetast, RockMFR, Ciotog, Stambouliote, SJP,
Vanished user 39948282, DASonnenfeld, Lop.dong, Templationist, KyleRGiggs, Freeghter~enwiki, Andywata, Pjoef, Coee, Flyer22
Reborn, ClueBot, Fyyer, JTSchreiber, Conchobhair II, DragonBot, Stzsi, Razorame, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, RyanCross, Addbot, Element16, Montgomery '39, Shirtwaist, Download, Be224886, Principiacoh, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Ptbotgourou, Alchimista,
AnomieBOT, Mahmudmasri, Citation bot, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Mononomic, Danielstoner, Caichris, Khalidshou, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding,
Elekhh, Trappist the monk, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Jojndon, Dcirovic, Jenks24, Niki1984, Michaela den, ClueBot NG, Larch922,
Catlemur, Wbm1058, DBigXray, BG19bot, Aqhiguy, Cskim761, PhnomPencil, Nicolaas19, Hamish59, Amelie.fritz.airparif, Drdowiki,
Mogism, , Buchexperte, Silly Santa Claus, Eyesnore, S9971706h, TheOrangeUnicorn, VulpesVulpes42, Dirac, CAPTAIN
RAJU, Barabace and Anonymous: 135
Air quality law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_law?oldid=687352062 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Icairns, Ricky81682,
Old Moonraker, Bgwhite, CambridgeBayWeather, Thane, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Hu Gadarn, Mbeychok, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, QuiteUnusual, Wrokic, Gabriel Kielland, Rettetast, DadaNeem, DASonnenfeld, Ggenellina, JL-Bot, Yobot, Ipatrol, Materialscientist, Ado2102,
FrescoBot, Sopher99, SeoMac, Venustas 12, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Helpful Pixie Bot, SeabluWind, Wuerzele, ElHef, LP358,
Interactive science, JRodrigues13 and Anonymous: 23
Air stagnation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_stagnation?oldid=644821984 Contributors: Bearcat, Rich Farmbrough, Alai,
PoccilScript, SmackBot, Sadads, Thegreatdr, Pierre cb, Saxbryn, Runningonbrains, MarshBot, Digijen, Inks.LWC, Bissinger, ClueBot NG
and Anonymous: 2
Airlog Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlog?oldid=656657452 Contributors: Andrewman327, Myrtlegroggins, DVdm, Malcolma,
Ohconfucius, KConWiki, Addbot, Jncraton, Yobot, FreeRangeFrog, EmausBot, Fraulein451, HumberView, Isiaq, Jetson123, RuthLivingstone, Laevateinn0402, Nikki268, Robert4565, Thebrownemdash, Perdugradboom, Oliverwelsby and Anonymous: 1
Ambient air quality criteria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_air_quality_criteria?oldid=712323089 Contributors:
Bearcat, Anthony Appleyard, Whoisjohngalt, I dream of horses, EoRdE6, MicroPaLeo, CarlHawkings and Anonymous: 4
Arctic haze Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_haze?oldid=719989824 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Paul A, Wetman, Mboverload, MacGyverMagic, KillerChihuahua, Dave souza, Bender235, Sherurcij, Avenue, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Carcharoth, Eirikr, Ahpook, Wavelength, Meersan, Arthur Rubin, JoanneB, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, Dl2000, Wikid77, Zzthex, MarshBot, Inks.LWC, Mapcat,
Gabriel Kielland, Mike Payne, Empanda, AstroHurricane001, Inomyabcs, Funandtrvl, A.Ou, Bpz1234, Anonymous Dissident, Warhead66,
SieBot, 1013-josh, 1013-shae, 1013-Lisa, 1013-rey, 1013-Brendan, LittleClogs, Oiws, Lightmouse, Rosiestep, Wristshot, Nymf, Addbot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Philip72, LucienBOT, DrilBot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Thargor Orlando, Northamerica1000, Stewi101015
and Anonymous: 22
Atmospheric dispersion modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling?oldid=716126516 Contributors: Edward, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, Mboverload, Trevor MacInnis, Anthony Appleyard, Gene Nygaard,
Woohookitty, RHaworth, Cbdorsett, Al E., Ketiltrout, GangofOne, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot, Welsh, Daniel Mietchen, Sscomp2004,
Jade Knight, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Benjaminevans82, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Cybercobra, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Will
Beback, Anlace, Alexdevisscher, Mbeychok, Fig wright, Patau, Covalent, CmdrObot, Myasuda, Cydebot, Marokwitz, OhanaUnited,
Gabriel Kielland, Sudhanshu Kumar, Dlary, Inwind, Gouveia2, AlleborgoBot, Mcroson, Stzsi, Mlas, Qwfp, XLinkBot, Nathan Johnson,
Dthomsen8, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Vincnet, Alchimista, Daniele Pugliesi, Sumivec, Citation bot, Rivmlvmil, Some standardized rigour, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, Opherct, Tix, Drcambridge, Harvey2, Askedonty, Cobaltcigs, Snotbot, BMacZero, HROlesen,
CitationCleanerBot, Riinuots, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Chinacap, Prokaryotes, Dendionne, Monkbot, Gup00 and Anonymous: 29
Best available technology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_available_technology?oldid=710638671 Contributors: Katana0182,
Je3000, Rjwilmsi, Mahlum~enwiki, CarolGray, Celestianpower, Dj Capricorn, Wavelength, robot, Mauls, Grumpyyoungman01, Mr3641, Thijs!bot, Gabriel Kielland, Blood Oath Bot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Busy Stubber, DragonBot, Moreau1, Addbot, SpBot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Oldfox2003, H3llBot, SporkBot, Ctebert, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri,
ChemTom and Anonymous: 8
Beta attenuation monitoring Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_attenuation_monitoring?oldid=638123475 Contributors: DragonySixtyseven, Esmu Igors, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 1
Boulder Climate Action Plan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan?oldid=711761371 Contributors:
Rich Farmbrough, Lockley, GnniX, Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, SMasters, Neelix, E. Ripley, Magioladitis, Auntof6, GB
fan, AlexRexR, AvicAWB, Truexper, Mr. Magoo and McBarker and Anonymous: 5
Burn pit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_pit?oldid=711022716 Contributors: Fred Bauder, BDD, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Gilliam,
Bejnar, Nono64, Davy p, DASonnenfeld, Dthomsen8, Jncraton, AnomieBOT, Aaron dub, RightCowLeftCoast, Jakec, Bldg5158,
Deavkat15, Denise Meehan, Hagopian and Anonymous: 7
CALPUFF Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CALPUFF?oldid=705926652 Contributors: Chris-gore, Alan Liefting, Al E., Rjwilmsi,
Ground Zero, SmackBot, Benjaminevans82, Mbeychok, H lina k, Cydebot, Travelbird, MarshBot, Leiranbiton, MrBell, Inwind, Mirtillo2,
Yobot, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Look2See1, Donner60, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 5
CMAQ Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMAQ?oldid=694653588 Contributors: Derek R Bullamore, Stzsi, Yobot, Lakun.patra,
Moonboy54, Compassionate727 and Anonymous: 1
Condensation particle counter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation_particle_counter?oldid=715979590 Contributors:
Andrewa, Kkmurray, NHSavage, Dawynn, Esmu Igors, Jonathanarpith and Anonymous: 2
317
318CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
Environmental impact of aviation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation?oldid=718032160 Contributors: IceKarma, Raul654, Phil Boswell, UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, Matthew Stannard, Pgan002, Andycjp, Dan aka jack, Nickptar, Rich
Farmbrough, Bender235, Max Naylor, Uncle G, Rtdrury, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, DVdm, Wavelength, Arado, Splette, Gaius
Cornelius, Alarichall, Epipelagic, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc Lacoste, Verne Equinox,
KVDP, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Shalom Yechiel, Ecozeppelin, BrownHairedGirl, John, Vgy7ujm, J 1982, MilborneOne, Peterlewis,
Dl2000, Quartz1, Mctorres, Neelix, DShantz, Cydebot, Wakeyjamie, Rieman 82, Mercury624, Hebrides, Cimbalom, Headbomb, Mmcknight4, D.Wardle, Hydro, OhanaUnited, MaxPont, Indon, A3nm, Gomm, Hans Dunkelberg, Shawn in Montreal, KylieTastic, DASonnenfeld, Funandtrvl, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Imme5150, Insanity Incarnate, Saneeta, Jrun, Flyer22 Reborn, Factotem,
Kpaynter, Msrasnw, Dolphin51, Mrfebruary, BSABill, ClueBot, Watti Renew, Djk3, Nathan Johnson, Addbot, DOI bot, Ronhjones, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Quebec99, MauritsBot, Xqbot, MerlLinkBot, FrescoBot, Menwith,
Brodmont, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Plane Person, Reelx09, Irt78, Robvanvee, GregKaye, Wiking, John of
Reading, Lorast, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, H3llBot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Coastwise, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Gob Lofa, Denovoid, BG19bot, NewsAndEventsGuy, CeraBot, ChrisGualtieri, MKR125188, Peterbircak, SambarnardODI, Sosthenes12,
Mr Imicplatetarium, Aqualily6, Monkbot, Ziraios, TerryAlex, Izkala, Jamesimo24, Mike4ebooks and Anonymous: 89
Exhaust gas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas?oldid=721692349 Contributors: Mac, Cimon Avaro, Lumos3, Moriori,
Cyrius, Wolfkeeper, MacGyverMagic, Sonett72, Discospinster, Vsmith, Bender235, Janderk, El C, Jag123, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Guaca, Bfriesen, Woohookitty, Deanshan, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Stian, Rmky87, NHSavage, CWenger, SmackBot,
Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, DeFacto, EvelinaB, Acdx, Daniel.Cardenas, Mbeychok, Tim Q. Wells, IronGargoyle, Vindheim, Iridescent, Alexthe5th, NaBUru38, Chrissy385, Thijs!bot, Hazmat2, John254, Kathovo, EdJogg, David Shankbone, Arsenikk,
AniRaptor2001, Cpl Syx, Rderijcke, Toyota prius 2~enwiki, Leyo, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Cobi, Steel1943, VolkovBot, Lamro, Biscuittin,
BotMultichill, Keilana, MaynardClark, M2Ys4U, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Ariadacapo, Jusdafax, Chaosdruid, Acabashi, Callinus, DumZiBoT, Banhandam, Leonini, Addbot, Ocdnctx, Fieldday-sunday, Eivindbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Tryptosh, Daniele Pugliesi,
Sumivec, Kasaalan, Xqbot, Thegodofbigthings, Gilo1969, Hayden747, Mattis, LucienBOT, RicHard-59, Mutinus, TobeBot, Connelly90,
, Sinophile21992, Ocdncntx, TyA, Lucysadler, ClueBot NG, Widr, BG19bot, Solistide, Writ Keeper, Rowan Adams,
Testem, Epicgenius, Everymorning, Musclewelsh, Prokaryotes, Noyster, Lakun.patra, Monkbot, Lord Laitinen, Sen Mendoza, KasparBot,
Hamidoborna, Yang 1973, The Quixotic Potato, Yash Racha75, ScarszRawr, Rhdzxjtsr and Anonymous: 117
Flue gas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas?oldid=699636976 Contributors: Edward, Mac, Icairns, Rich Farmbrough,
Vsmith, Velella, Crosbiesmith, OwenX, RHaworth, V8rik, Nells~enwiki, AnthonyA7, Lmatt, Tysto, Wavelength, Sceptre, Ospalh, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Mbeychok, CmdrObot, SkonesMickLoud, Robini 99, KylieTastic, Miwanya, Lamro, Puchiko, Fastily, Addbot,
Farmercarlos, Daniele Pugliesi, Chongkian, FrescoBot, Tinton5, ClueBot NG, Platonicmaria, MerlIwBot, Anbu121, Sue Wainwright,
FoCuSandLeArN, Unknownbot1, Yaqui.val and Anonymous: 25
Flue-gas desulfurization Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization?oldid=721946766 Contributors: Radiojon,
Blainster, Tom harrison, Cap601, H Padleckas, Spiy sperry, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Remuel, Vortexrealm, Maurreen, Hooperbloob,
Alansohn, Benjah-bmm27, Gene Nygaard, LePierrotAnguille, Krash, Antiuser, Chris Capoccia, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, Brushes,
Tony1, NHSavage, Petri Krohn, Garion96, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cadmium, Primacag, BCAttwood, Mion, Jaganath, Mbeychok,
SQGibbon, Mets501, Harold f, Mbell, Uruiamme, The Vindictive, Leuko, Biondos, LorenzoB, Beagel, Leyo, Uncle Dick, MaugansC,
Pterre, Knulclunk, KudzuVine, Pdcook, Tetris L, TheOtherJesse, Melvynitman, Philip Trueman, Someguy1221, Pl-chmielewski, Andy
Dingley, Lamro, SieBot, TX55, ClueBot, LizardJr8, HokiePE, Gnowor, FellGleaming, DaL33T, Addbot, Anrocach, Some jerk on the
Internet, Mazandarany, Tide rolls, Halaster, Luckas-bot, Yngvadottir, Tim J Wright, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, AdjustShift,
LilHelpa, Geopersona, Marianne Holmen, MarcosJose, FrescoBot, Chargerz09, Amse12, Reaper Eternal, Envchemprof, Heikkilahammer,
Sponk, ZroBot, Midas02, ClueBot NG, Widr, JohnSRoberts99, Imgaril, Mr. Cheeshead 2345492, Mddkpp, ASME C&S Engineer, Fgkh,
Fluorogrol, Wellmanneredninja, Victorfeltrin and Anonymous: 89
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_
combustion?oldid=721947687 Contributors: Blainster, Alan Liefting, GeoGreg, Vortexrealm, Maurreen, Free Bear, Gene Nygaard, Crosbiesmith, RHaworth, Lmatt, Wavelength, Tony1, Ott2, NHSavage, Hu Gadarn, Mbeychok, Dicklyon, Joseph Solis in Australia, Luna Santin,
Robini 99, Altermike, Wizard7~enwiki, TX55, ClueBot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Citation bot, Nasnema, Gamewizard71, ClueBot
NG, Widr, BattyBot, Johnnch1966, Jtildenook11, Starkdune, Lawzy987, Luy anuran, Xperiaguy and Anonymous: 11
Flue-gas stack Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_stack?oldid=698201617 Contributors: GTBacchus, Jmabel, Blainster, McDutchie, Wolfkeeper, Markus Kuhn, Circeus, Ypacara, Vortexrealm, Kaganer, RPH, Gene Nygaard, Lmatt, Wavelength, Hairy Dude,
DanMS, Adamrush, Tony1, NHSavage, SmackBot, Melchoir, Srnec, Lcarscad, Anlace, Kuru, Mbeychok, Neelix, Cydebot, Christian75,
Widefox, Mrs Mei, Nposs, Beagel, Black Stripe, RIPSAW1986, Nomad nomad~enwiki, Xenonice, 28bytes, AlleborgoBot, Joost.vp,
Da Joe, Andrewjlockley, Anchor Link Bot, Raoulduke25, Addbot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Ettrig, High Contrast, Citation bot, Oundhakar,
Gamewizard71, BattyBot, Meyer.cm, Xoegki and Anonymous: 23
Fugitive emissions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugitive_emissions?oldid=624069195 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Rrburke,
Martijn Hoekstra, Billtubbs, TypoBoy, UnCatBot, Addbot, Glane23, Yobot, Alchimista, SD5, Citation bot 1, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot,
Photovac, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
Gas are Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_flare?oldid=716100371 Contributors: Ryguasu, Andrewa, Gepwiki, BenFrantzDale,
DJSupreme23, Rich Farmbrough, Vortexrealm, Hooperbloob, Sponge, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Tmassey, SeventyThree, Hideyuki, FreplySpang, Carwil, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Petiatil, Ikar.us, Gaius Cornelius, Lekoman, Hrvoje Simic, Emijrp, Arthur Rubin, Abune, SmackBot, Matmota, Bluebot, Tomtefarbror, Ligulembot, Mion, Mbeychok, Makyen, Judgesurreal777, Eastlaw, Walling, Chrisw404, Ishdarian,
AntiVandalBot, The Vindictive, Beagel, Janx Spirit, Autocratique, Naniwako, Father Christmastime, Olinga, Piperh, Charist, McM.bot,
AdRock, Alexgalt, YSSYguy, Traveler100, Scott1588, Unbuttered Parsnip, Jorge Ianis, Alexbot, Muhandes, Vboo-belarus, Environnement2100, Themassoftoe, Apparition11, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Beamathan, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Tpmark, Citation
bot, FrescoBot, Mintbass, Menwith, Reconsider the static, Mohdhamza1989, Lotje, Pushkar.gaikwad, TGCP, John of Reading, Jdkag,
Dewritech, Mmeijeri, Rickray777, Joshua Doubek, MrCleanOut, ClueBot NG, Cntras, CaroleHenson, Morgan Riley, KLBot2, OverFly5,
Puramyun31, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Mari1234~enwiki, 32RB17, Weliyo wiki, Samaberle, Yogeshkarnik, Eclipsoid, Mela
widiawati, Patleviv and Anonymous: 88
Geospatial Measurements of Air Pollution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geospatial_Measurements_of_Air_Pollution?oldid=
595287367 Contributors: Malcolma, Sarahj2107, Philritz1, Azcolvin429, Xqbot and ChrisGualtieri
319
320CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
Liquid-to-gas ratio Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-to-gas_ratio?oldid=606631045 Contributors: Lmatt, Reyk, Mion, Mbeychok, The Vindictive, KudzuVine, Mild Bill Hiccup, Daniele Pugliesi, DrilBot and Anonymous: 2
List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
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Low-carbon emission Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-carbon_emission?oldid=711637271 Contributors: Alan Liefting,
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Mist Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mist?oldid=714209313 Contributors: AstroNomer, Patrick, Ixfd64, Susan Mason, Glenn,
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Curro, Thatsux, Transvalaa, Gwfe and Anonymous: 79
Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitigation_of_aviation'{}s_environmental_
impact?oldid=715816933 Contributors: Ewen, Alan Liefting, Vadmium, Je3000, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, Kakurady, Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Redlegsfan21, Iridescent, Cydebot, Shawn in Montreal, DASonnenfeld, Lamro, Ariadacapo, Yobot,
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Mobile source air pollution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution?oldid=720794885 Contributors: Edward,
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Multi-eect Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-effect_Protocol?oldid=712929070 Contributors: Tpbradbury, Alan
Liefting, BD2412, George Burgess, CambridgeBayWeather, Anomalocaris, NHSavage, Hu Gadarn, Cydebot, IndieRect, WereSpielChequers, Good Olfactory, Yobot, E258, BG19bot, Cyberbot II, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 5
National Air Pollution Symposium Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_Pollution_Symposium?oldid=644524223 Contributors: Wavelength, GoodDay, Disavian, Funandtrvl and American Money
National Ambient Air Quality Objectives Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Objectives?oldid=
650728078 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Hu Gadarn, Inks.LWC, Gabriel Kielland, Download, Yobot, Brightgalrs, TheCascadian and
Stamptrader
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Gz33, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, Professorclee, Scoob5555, Jaanwy, Cmvillalon, Lachyderm, Ryan layn and Anonymous: 66
NIOSH air ltration rating Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating?oldid=704377396 Contributors: Rathfelder, Doseiai2, PC-XT and Zpeopleheart
Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol?oldid=692134148 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Menchi, Dori, Paul A, Docu, Big Bob the Finder, Alan Liefting, Jonel, Eastlaw, Cydebot, Monobi, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Mattis,
Full-date unlinking bot, ClueBot NG, ArmbrustBot, Joshkino15 and Anonymous: 5
Norwegian Institute for Air Research Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_for_Air_Research?oldid=681824623
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Finn Bjrklid, Northamerica1000, Tumkir and Anonymous: 5
Nowcast (Air Quality Index) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowcast_(Air_Quality_Index)?oldid=719831713 Contributors: Spartaz, Stzsi, Sdrevik, GoingBatty, Cyberbot I, Mogism, Jim Carter, Oiyarbepsy and Cult of Green
321
Presidential Climate Action Plan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan?oldid=701492676 Contributors: DragonySixtyseven, Vsmith, D.Holt, Ground Zero, Bgwhite, Pseudomonas, Neelix, Lfstevens, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior,
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Ashok.Mehta.31122, Avelpa, Lokoturkey1, Philnation, Ctrlshiftq and Anonymous: 2
Organic molecular tracers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_molecular_tracers?oldid=678992599 Contributors: Topbanana, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, SmackBot, Yobot, Tea with toast, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Venustas 12,
Bouldair, Monkbot and Anonymous: 1
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_
Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions?oldid=643835113 Contributors: Cydebot, Good Olfactory and ArmbrustBot
Ozone Action Day Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_Action_Day?oldid=711850708 Contributors: KarlHallowell,
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Maralia, Wkharrisjr, Addbot, Yobot, Starryeyedhaze, FrescoBot, Coltsfan443, Ripchip Bot, Meltdown627, BG19bot, Izzy3232, Cyberbot
II, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 10
Particulates Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates?oldid=719653437 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, CORNELIUSSEON, Skysmith, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Andrewa, Julesd, Raven in Orbit, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Dino, Maximus Rex,
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Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership_for_a_New_Generation_of_Vehicles?
oldid=678690975 Contributors: Interiot, Rjwilmsi, Rawja, Skierpage, RussBot, Malcolma, Closedmouth, Volksdaven, Bluebot, SailorfromNH, Lambiam, Endeavor51, Phl3djo, Skyemoor, Faizhaider, Jmajeremy, Altermike, Superiorzurich, Rockndakota, Navwikiadroit,
Yobot, Traveler376, LilHelpa, Atarivideomusic and Anonymous: 7
Passive smoking Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smoking?oldid=710414083 Contributors: Taw, Ed Poor, R Lowry, Bdesham, Gabbe, Cherkash, Lukobe, Raul654, Wetman, Lumos3, RickBeton, Moriori, Gak, Bobunf, Nach0king, Matt Gies, DocWatson42,
Nmg20, Brian Kendig, Chameleon, Christopherlin, SoWhy, Andycjp, Beland, MacGyverMagic, Mozzerati, Bk0, Goh wz, Neutrality,
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Steel, Roberta F., DumbBOT, Paddles, Zalgo, Pustelnik, Gimmetrow, PamD, Thijs!bot, King Bee, Technogeek44, Headbomb, Marek69,
James086, Vwjr, Big Bird, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, SummerPhD, A.M.962, Kauczuk, Ingolfson, Darrenhusted,
John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmid, JAnDbot, MER-C, Ph.eyes, Vidal.dewit, Repku, Smokincheap, Glediz, VoABot II, MastCell, Nyttend,
202wbiblioteca, Cgingold, MetsBot, Adrian J. Hunter, Vaultdoor, DerHexer, Smokeresearcher, Tuviya, Yobol, MartinBot, Mermaid from
the Baltic Sea, Crickel, Djma12, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Alec - U.K., UBeR, Numbo3, TyrS, Uncle Dick, Gzkn, Awesomesaucesome, McSly,
Athene cunicularia, Mikael Hggstrm, Coppertwig, Pyrospirit, Dessources, Cometstyles, HiEv, Bonadea, Peruilken, Rosenkreuz, RayJohnstone, Jrugordon, Deor, Leopold B. Stotch, Thenthornthing, FriendlyDalek, TXiKiBoT, George14~enwiki, Sean D Martin, Someguy1221,
322CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
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porpoises, ChyranandChloe, Dtpeck, Anturiaethwr, Zodon, Kbdankbot, Addbot, C6541, DOI bot, Nestorius, Fluernutter, Devrit, NjardarBot, Jilliankmar, Download, Zak1995pak, Uncia, SamatBot, Pvisi111, Dayewalker, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Librsh,
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Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), KasparBot and Anonymous: 424
Photoinitiator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoinitiator?oldid=693471820 Contributors: Theshadow27, SmackBot, Edgar181,
Squidonius, ChemNerd, Philip Trueman, Addbot, KamikazeBot, Materialscientist, Pkornbl2, John of Reading, GermanJoe, Emma438,
Wenwenwudi, Cyberbot II, Drpareshshel, Ligonauer and Anonymous: 3
Pollen count Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_count?oldid=712573816 Contributors: Egil, Bobrayner, Pekinensis, Vegaswikian, Wjfox2005, EncycloPetey, Bluebot, Patau, Doug Weller, Alaibot, Phil.Free, Yewlongbow, VanBuren, SieBot, Pcirrus~enwiki,
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323
97.3.2
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324CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
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DOE, 1977): 437. [Gamma doses are Roentgens from arrival time to 96 hours (4 days) after detonation, outside on land. Glasstone and
Dolan mention that because data from the ocean was not obtained in this particular test, Bravo, the fallout contours to the north of the
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326CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
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328CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
329
330CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977
97.3.3
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