Space Exploration

Space Exploration
Contents
1
International Space Station
1.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Scientic research
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Education and cultural outreach
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Origins
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Station structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Pressurised modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1
Zarya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2
Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3
Zvezda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4
Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.5
Quest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.6
Pirs and Poisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.7
Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.8
Tranquility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.9
Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.10 Kib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.11 Cupola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.12 Rassvet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.13 Leonardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.5.14 Scheduled additional modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.5.15 Cancelled components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Unpressurised elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.6.1
Cranes and robotic arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.6.2
Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Station systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.7.1
Life support
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.7.2
Power and thermal control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.7.3
Communications and computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Station operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.6
1.7
1.8
ii
CONTENTS
1.8.1
Expeditions and private ights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.8.2
Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Mission controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.9.1
Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.10 Fleet operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.9
1.10.1 Currently docked/berthed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10.2 Scheduled launches and dockings/berthings

1.10.3 Docking
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.10.4 Launch and docking windows
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.11 Life aboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.11.1 Crew activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.11.2 Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.11.3 Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.12 Crew health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.12.1 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.12.2 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.12.3 Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.12.4 Microbiological environmental hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.13 Threat of orbital debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.14 End of mission
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.15 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.16 International co-operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.17 Sightings from Earth
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.17.2 Astrophotography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.18 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.19 View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.20 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.21 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.22 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
1.22.1 Agency ISS websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
1.22.2 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.22.3 Live viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.22.4 Multimedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.17.1 Naked eye
20
Space Shuttle
37
2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
2.2
Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.3
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.3.1
Orbiter vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.3.2
External tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.3.3
Solid rocket boosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
CONTENTS
2.3.4
Orbiter add-ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.3.5
Flight systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.3.6
Orbiter markings and insignia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.7
Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.3.8
Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Mission prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.4.1
Launch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.4.2
In orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.4.3
Re-entry and landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.4.4
Post-landing processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.4.5
Landing sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.4.6
Risk contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
Fleet history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.5.1
Shuttle disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.6.1
Distribution of orbiters and other hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.7
Space Shuttle successors and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.8
In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.8.1
US postage commemorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.9.1
Space Shuttle related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.9.2
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.9.3
Similar spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.10.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.10.2 NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.10.3 Non-NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Space Shuttle program
61
3.1
Conception and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.2
Program history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.3
Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.4
Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
3.5
Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
3.6
Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.7
Final status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.8
Successors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.9
Assets and transition plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.10 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.11 Other STS program vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.9
iii
iv
CONTENTS
3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
Low Earth orbit
70
4.1
Orbital characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.2
Use of LEO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.2.1
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.3
Space debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
NASA
73
5.1
Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
5.2
Space ight programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.2.1
Manned programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.2.2
Unmanned programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
5.2.3
Recent and planned activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Scientic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
5.3.1
Medicine in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
5.3.2
Ozone depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
5.3.3
Salt evaporation and energy management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
5.3.4
Earth science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
5.4
Sta and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
5.5
Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
5.6
Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
5.7
Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
5.8
Current missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Apollo program
92
6.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
6.2
NASA expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.2.1
Manned Spacecraft Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.2.2
Launch Operations Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
6.2.3
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
6.3
Choosing a mission mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
6.4
Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
6.4.1
96
5.3
Command/Service Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
6.4.2
v
Lunar Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
Launch vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
6.5.1
Little Joe II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
6.5.2
Saturn I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
6.5.3
Saturn IB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
6.5.4
Saturn V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
6.6
Astronauts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
6.7
Lunar mission prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
6.5
6.7.1
6.8
6.9
Prole variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

6.8.1
Unmanned ight tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.8.2
Preparation for manned ight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.8.3
Manned development missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.8.4
Production lunar landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Mission summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.10 Samples returned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6.11 Program cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.12 Apollo Applications Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.13 Recent observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.14 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.14.1 Science and engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.14.2 Cultural impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.15 Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.16 Depictions on lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.16.1 Documentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.16.2 Docudramas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.17 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.18 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.19 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.20 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.21 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.22 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.22.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.22.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.22.3
Content license
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Chapter 1

ISSredirects here. For other uses, see ISS (disam- sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the
biguation).
United States Orbital Segment (USOS), which is shared
by many nations. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 km (205 mi) and 435 km (270
The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station, or a habitable articial satellite, in low Earth or- mi) by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines
of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft. It combit. It is a modular structure whose rst component
*
*
was launched in 1998. [7] Now the largest articial body pletes 15.51 orbits per day. [19] As of January 2014, the
US-portion of the ISS was funded until 2024, and may
in orbit, it can often be seen with the naked eye from
*
*
*
*
Earth. [8] The ISS consists of pressurised modules, ex- operate until 2028. [20] [21] [22] The Russian Federal
ternal trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS Space Agency, Roskosmos (RKA) has proposed using
components have been launched by American Space the ISS to commission modules for a new space station,
Shuttles as well as Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets.* [9] called OPSEK, before the remainder of the ISS is deorIn 1984, the ESA was invited to participate in Space Sta- bited. The Russian ISS program head, Alexey B. Krastion Freedom.* [10] After the USSR dissolved, the United nov, said in July 2014 that the Ukraine crisis is why
to conStates and Russia merged Mir-2 and Freedom together in Roscosmos has received no government approval
*
tinue
the
station
partnership
beyond
2020.
[23]
*
1993. [9]
The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews,
research laboratory in which crew members conduct ex- following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz, and
periments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, Mir stations, and Skylab from the US.
meteorology and other elds.* [11]* [12]* [13] The station
is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars.* [14] 1.1 Purpose
Since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000,
the station has been continuously occupied for 13 years
and 358 days, the longest continuous human presence
in space. (In 2010, the station surpassed the previous
record of almost 10 years (or 3,634 days) held by Mir.)
The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft:
Soyuz, Progress, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, the HII Transfer Vehicle,* [15] Dragon, and Cygnus. It has
been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.* [16]
After the U.S. Space Shuttle program ended in 2011,
Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport
for astronauts at the International Space Station, while
Dragon became the only provider of bulk cargo-returnto-Earth services (downmass capability of Soyuz capsules Sunrise at Zvezda
is very limited).
According to the original Memorandum of UnderstandThe ISS programme is a joint project among ve par- ing between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International
ticipating space agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observaESA, and CSA.* [15]* [17] The ownership and use of the tory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to
space station is established by intergovernmental treaties provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging
and agreements.* [18] The station is divided into two base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and
1
CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

Spectrometer.* [34]* [35]* [36]* [37]* [38]* [39] According
to the scientists, "The rst results from the space-borne
Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer conrm an unexplained
excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic
rays.
Fisheye view of several labs
The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected

presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation eld (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures,
and microgravity.* [40] Some simple forms of life called
extremophiles,* [41] including small invertebrates called
tardigrades* [42] can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state called desiccation.
Medical research improves knowledge about the eects

asteroids.* [24] In the 2010 United States National Space of long-term space exposure on the human body, inPolicy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving com- cluding muscle atrophy, bone loss, and uid shift. This
mercial, diplomatic* [25] and educational purposes.* [26] data will be used to determine whether lengthy human
spaceight and space colonisation are feasible. As of
2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that
1.1.1 Scientic research
there would be a signicant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a
lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interMain article: Scientic research on the ISS
val required to travel to Mars.* [43]* [44] Medical studies
are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National
The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientic reSpace Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Promisearch. While small unmanned spacecraft can provide
nent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound
platforms for zero gravity and exposure to space, space
in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrastations oer a long term environment where studies
sound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The
can be performed potentially for decades, combined with
study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical
ready access by human researchers over periods that exconditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on
ceed the capabilities of manned spacecraft.* [16]* [27]
board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a
The Station simplies individual experiments by elim- challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrainating the need for separate rocket launches and re- sound scans will have application on Earth in emergency
search sta. The wide variety of research elds in- and rural care situations where access to a trained physiclude astrobiology, astronomy, human research includ- cian is dicult.* [45]* [46]* [47]
ing space medicine and life sciences, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, and weather
on Earth (meteorology).* [11]* [12]* [13]* [28]* [29] Sci- Microgravity
entists on Earth have access to the crew's data and can
modify experiments or launch new ones, which are ben- The Earth's gravity is only slightly weaker at the altitude
ets generally unavailable on unmanned spacecraft.* [27] of the ISS than at the surface. However, objects in orbit
Crews y expeditions of several months duration, provid- are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparing approximately 160-man-hours a week of labour with ent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness
is disturbed by ve separate eects:* [48]
a crew of 6.* [11]* [30]
Kib is intended to accelerate Japan's progress in science
and technology, gain new knowledge and apply it to such
elds as industry and medicine.* [31]
To detect dark matter and answer other fundamental
questions about our universe, engineers and scientists
from all over the world built the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which NASA compares to the Hubble telescope, and says could not be accommodated on
a free ying satellite platform due in part to its power
requirements and data bandwidth needs.* [32]* [33] On 3
April 2013, NASA scientists reported that hints of dark
matter may have been detected by the Alpha Magnetic
Drag from the residual atmosphere; when the ISS

enters the Earth's shadow, the main solar panels are
rotated to minimise this aerodynamic drag, helping
reduce orbital decay.
Vibration from movements of mechanical systems
and the crew.
Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment
gyroscopes.
Thruster rings for attitude or orbital changes.
1.1. PURPOSE
3
benets through the improvement of techniques used on
the ground.* [49] Other areas of interest include the eect
of the low gravity environment on combustion, through
the study of the eciency of burning and control of
emissions and pollutants. These ndings may improve
current knowledge about energy production, and lead to
economic and environmental benets. Future plans are
for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols,
ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere,
as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark
matter in the universe.* [12]
1.1.2 Exploration
A comparison between the combustion of a candle on Earth (left)
and in a microgravity environment, such as that found on the ISS
(right)
Gravity-gradient eects, also known as tidal eects.

Items at dierent locations within the ISS would,
if not attached to the station, follow slightly dierent orbits. Being mechanically interconnected, however, these items experience small forces that keep
the station moving as a rigid body.
A 3D plan of the Russia-based MARS-500 complex, used for

ground-based experiments which complement ISS-based preparations for a manned mission to Mars
ISS crew member storing samples
Researchers are investigating the eect of the station's

near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to
investigate microgravity's eects on the growth of threedimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein
crystals that can be formed in space.* [12]
The investigation of the physics of uids in microgravity
will allow researchers to model the behaviour of uids
better. Because uids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate uids that
do not mix well on Earth. In addition, an examination of reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperatures will give scientists a deeper understanding of
superconductivity.* [12]
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of Low

Earth Orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.
This provides experience in operations, maintenance as
well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit, which
will be essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from
Earth, mission risks can be reduced and the capabilities
of interplanetary spacecraft advanced.* [14] Referring to
the MARS-500 experiment, ESA states that Whereas
the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning
the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other
space-specic factors, aspects such as the eect of longterm isolation and connement can be more appropriately
addressed via ground-based simulations.* [50] Sergey
Krasnov, the head of human space ight programmes for
Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a
shorter versionof MARS-500 may be carried out on
the ISS. * [51]
In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote,When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration.
The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exThe study of materials science is an important ISS re- ploration and realisation of prospective programmes of
search activity, with the objective of reaping economic research and exploration of the Solar system, including
the Moon and Mars.* [52] A manned mission to Mars,

however, may be a multinational eort involving space
agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other
4 partners that China, India and South Korea be invited
to join the ISS partnership.* [53] NASA chief Charlie
Bolden stated in Feb 2011Any mission to Mars is likely
to be a global eort.* [54] Currently, American legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space
projects.* [55]
1.1.3
Education and cultural outreach
pursue craftsmanship, and to Heighten the child's

awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society.* [59] Through a series of education
guides, a deeper understanding of the past and near-term
future of manned space ight, as well as that of Earth
and life, will be learned.* [60]* [61] In the JAXA Seeds
in Space experiments, the mutation eects of spaceight
on plant seeds aboard the ISS is explored. Students grow
sunower seeds which ew on the ISS for about nine
months as a start to 'touch the Universe'. In the rst phase
of Kib utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers
from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted
experiments in diverse elds.* [62]
Original Jules Verne manuscripts displayed by crew inside Jules

Verne ATV
Japan's Kounotori 4 docking
Expedition 31's Soyuz being blessed
The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth

by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and
directly engaging students using radio, videolink and
email.* [15]* [56] ESA oers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.* [57] In one lesson, students can navigate a 3-D
model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face
spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.* [58]
Cultural activities are another major objective. Tetsuo

Tanaka, director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, says There is something about space
that touches even people who are not interested in science.* [31]
Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme which encourages students worldwide to pursue
careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from 9 countries including several countries in Europe as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio
equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to
the station. * [63]
First Orbit is a feature-length documentary lm about

Vostok 1, the rst manned space ight around the Earth.
By matching the orbit of the International Space Station
to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of
ground path and time of day, documentary lmmaker
Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were
able to lm the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space ight. This new footage was cut
together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli,
JAXA aims both toStimulate the curiosity of children, during Expedition 26/27, lmed the majority of the
cultivating their spirits, and encouraging their passion to footage for this documentary lm, and as a result is cred-
1.3. HISTORY
ited as its director of photography.* [64] The lm was

streamed through the website rstorbit.org in a global
YouTube premiere in 2011, under a free license.* [65]
In May 2013, commander Chris Hadeld shot a music
video of David Bowie's Space Oddity on board the station;
the lm was released freely on YouTube.* [66] It was the
rst music video ever to be lmed in space.* [67]
1.2 Origins
Main article: Origins of the International Space Station
Soyuz TMA-19 departs in 2010
1.3 History
Main articles: Assembly of the International Space Station and List of ISS spacewalks
The assembly of the International Space Station, a ma-
ISS in 2007, with fewer solar arrays
Partially constructed ISS in December 2002
S3-S4 Truss Installed in 2007
jor endeavour in space architecture, began in November

1998.* [3] Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of Rassvet. All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required
installation by ISS and shuttle crewmembers using the
SSRMS and EVAs; as of 5 June 2011, they had added 159
components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127
of these spacewalks originated from the station, while the
remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked
Space Shuttles.* [2] The beta angle of the station had to

be considered at all times during construction, as the station's beta angle is directly related to the percentage of
its orbit that the station (as well as any docked or docking
spacecraft) is exposed to the sun; the Space Shuttle would
not perform optimally above a limit called thebeta cuto.* [68]
The rst module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on
20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton
rocket. It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. Two weeks later a passive NASA module
Unity was launched aboard Space Shuttle ight STS-88
and attached to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs. This
module has two Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs),
one connects permanently to Zarya, the other allows the
Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At this time,
the Russian station Mir was still inhabited. The ISS remained unmanned for two years, during which time Mir
was de-orbited. On 12 July 2000 Zvezda was launched
into orbit. Preprogrammed commands on board deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. It
then became the passive vehicle for a rendezvous with
the Zarya and Unity. As a passive targetvehicle, the
Zvezda maintained a stationkeeping orbit as the ZaryaUnity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via
ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous
and docking system. Zarya's computer transferred con-
6
trol of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. Zvezda added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen,
CO2 scrubbers, dehumidier, oxygen generators, exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control. This enabled permanent
habitation of the station.* [69]* [70]

The expansion schedule was interrupted by the Space
Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, with the resulting two
year hiatus in the Space Shuttle programme halting station assembly. The space shuttle was grounded until 2005
with STS-114 own by Discovery. * [78]
Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115

with Atlantis, which delivered the station's second set of
solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third
set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and
STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the
station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised
modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node
and Columbus European laboratory were added. These
were followed shortly after by the rst two components of
Kib. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated
Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and nal
set of solar arrays. The nal section of Kib was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian
Poisk module. The third node, Tranquility, was delivered
in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, closely followed in
May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet.
Rassvet was delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the
Zarya Module in 1998 which had been funded by the
United States.* [79] The last pressurised module of the
USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station by Discovery
*
Expedition 1 arrived midway between the ights of STS- on her nal ight, STS-133, [80] followed by the Alpha
92 and STS-97. These two Space Shuttle ights each Magnetic* Spectrometer on STS-134, delivered by Endeavour. [81]
added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support
needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays supplementing the station's existing 4
solar arrays.* [77]
The rst resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the rst
day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested
the use of the radio call sign "Alpha", which he and
cosmonaut Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome
"International Space Station".* [71] The name "Alpha"
had previously been used for the station in the early
1990s,* [72] and following the request, its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.* [73] Shepherd
had been advocating the use of a new name to project
managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in
a pre-launch news conference he had said: For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships.
People have designed and built these vessels, launched
them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage.* [74] Yuri
Semenov, the President of Russian Space Corporation
Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "Alpha";
he felt that Mir was the rst space station, and so he
would have preferred the names "Beta" or "Mir 2" for the
ISS.* [73]* [75]* [76]
Over the next two years the station continued to expand.

A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the
Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated
Truss Structure.
The Cupola arrived in 2010
As of June 2011, the station consisted of fteen pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Still
to be launched are the Russian Multipurpose Laboratory
Module Nauka and a number of external components,
including the European Robotic Arm. Assembly is expected to be completed by April 2014, by which point
the station will have a mass in excess of 400 tonnes (440
short tons).* [3]* [82]
Aft view showing a Progress spacecraft docked to Zvezda
The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about 417,289
kg (919,965 lb) (as of 03/09/2011).* [83] The mass of ex-
1.5. PRESSURISED MODULES
periments, spare parts, personal eects, crew, foodstu,

clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked
spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the
station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by
the oxygen generators.
launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more

specialized functionality, Zarya is now primarily used for
storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The Zarya is a descendant
of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Soviet Salyut program. The name Zarya was given to the FGB because
it signied the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian
1.4 Station structure
company, it is owned by the United States. Zarya weighs
19,300
kg (42,500 lb), is 12.55 m (41.2 ft) long and 4.1
The ISS is a third generation* [84] modular space stam
(13
ft)
wide, discounting solar arrays.
tion.* [85] Modular stations can allow the mission to be
changed over time and new modules can be added or re- Built from December 1994 to January 1998 in Russia
moved from the existing structure, allowing greater ex- at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space
Center (KhSC) in Moscow, Zarya's control system was
ibility.
developed by the Khartron Corp. (Kharkiv, Ukraine).
Below is a diagram of major station components. The
blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew Zarya was launched on November 20, 1998, on a Ruswithout using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised su- sian Proton rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81
perstructure is indicated in red. Other unpressurised in Kazakhstan to a 400 km (250 mi) high orbit with a decomponents are yellow. Note that the Unity node joins signed lifetime of at least 15 years. After Zarya reached
directly to the Destiny laboratory. For clarity, they are orbit, STS-88 launched on December 4, 1998, to attach
the Unity Module.
shown apart.
1.5 Pressurised modules

1.5.1
Zarya
Although only designed to y autonomously for six to

eight months, Zarya did so for almost two years due to
delays with the Russian Service Module, Zvezda, which
nally launched on July 12, 2000, and docked with Zarya
on July 26 using the Russian Kurs docking system.
1.5.2 Unity
Unity as pictured by Space Shuttle Endeavour

Zarya as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-88
Zarya (Russian: ; lit. dawn), also known as

the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian "- ", Funktsionalnogruzovoy blok or ), was the rst module of the International Space Station to be launched. The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance
to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the
Unity, or Node 1, is one of three nodes, or passive connecting modules, in the US Orbital Segment of the station. It was the rst US-built component of the Station to
be launched. Cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations facilitating connections to other modules, Unity was
carried into orbit by Space Shuttle Endeavour as the primary cargo of STS-88 in 1998. Essential space station
resources such as uids, environmental control and life
support systems, electrical and data systems are routed
through Unity to supply work and living areas of the

station. More than 50,000 mechanical items, 216 lines
to carry uids and gases, and 121 internal and external
electrical cables using six miles of wire were installed in
the Unity node. Unity is made of aluminum. Prior to
its launch aboard Endeavour, conical Pressurized Mating
Adapters (PMAs) were attached to the aft and forward
berthing mechanisms of Unity. Unity and the two mating adapters together weighed about 11,600 kg (25,600
lb). The adapters allow the docking systems used by the
Space Shuttle and by Russian modules to attach to the
node's hatches and berthing mechanisms.
Unity was carried into orbit as the primary cargo of the Destiny interior in 2001
Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-88, the rst Space Shuttle mission dedicated to assembly of the station. On December 6, 1998, the STS-88 crew mated the aft berthing
port of Unity with the forward hatch of the already orbiting Zarya module.
1.5.5 Quest
1.5.3
Zvezda
Zvezda (Russian: , meaningstar), also known as

DOS-8 or Service Module or SM (Russian: ). It provides all of the station's critical systems, its addition rendered the station permanently habitable for the rst time,
adding life support for up to six crew and living quarters
for two. Zvezda's DMS-R computer handles guidance,
navigation and control for the entire space station.* [86]
A second computer which performs the same functions
will be installed in the Nauka module, FGB-2.
The hull of Zvezda was completed in February 1985,
with major internal equipment installed by October 1986.
The module was launched by a Proton-K rocket from Site
81/23 at Baikonur, on 12 July 2000. Zvezda is at the rear
of the station according to its normal direction of travel
and orientation, its engines are used to boost the station's
orbit. Alternatively Russian and European spacecraft can
dock to Zvezda's aft port and use their engines to boost
the station.
1.5.4
Destiny
Destiny is the primary research facility for United States

payloads aboard the ISS. In 2011, NASA solicited proposals for a not-for-prot group to manage all American
science on the station which does not relate to manned exploration. The module houses 24 International Standard
Payload Racks, some of which are used for environmental systems and crew daily living equipment. Destiny also
serves as the mounting point for the station's Truss Structure.* [87]
Quest is the only USOS airlock, and hosts spacewalks with both United States EMU and Russian Orlan
spacesuits. It consists of two segments: the equipment
lock, which stores spacesuits and equipment, and the crew
lock, from which astronauts can exit into space. This
module has a separately controlled atmosphere. Crew
sleep in this module, breathing a low nitrogen mixture
the night before scheduled EVAs, to avoid decompression
sickness (known as the bends) in the low-pressure
suits.* [88]
1.5.6 Pirs and Poisk

Pirs (Russian: , meaning "pier"), (Russian: ), docking module, SO-1 or DC1 (docking compartment), and Poisk (Russian: ;
lit. Search), also known as the Mini-Research Module
2 (MRM 2), 2, or
2. Pirs and Poisk are Russian airlock modules.
Each of these modules have 2 identical hatches. An outward opening hatch on the MIR space station failed after
it swung open too fast after unlatching, due to a small
amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.* [89] A
dierent entry was used, and the hatch repaired. All EVA
hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure sealing. Pirs was used to store, service, and refurbish Russian
Orlan suits and provided contingency entry for crew using
the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking ports on both airlocks allow docking of Soyuz and
Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS.* [90]
Harmony node in 2011

Columbus module in 2008
Tranquility node in 2011
1.5.7
Harmony
Harmony is the second of the station's node modules and

the utility hub of the USOS. The module contains four
racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data,
and acts as a central connecting point for several other
components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms
(CBMs). The European Columbus and Japanese Kib
laboratories are permanently berthed to two of the radial ports, the other two can used for the HTV. American Shuttle Orbiters docked with the ISS via PMA-2,
attached to the forward port.
1.5.8
1.5.10 Kib
Tranquility
Tranquility is the third and last of the station's US nodes,

it contains an additional life support system to recycle
waste water for crew use and supplements oxygen generation. Three of the four berthing locations are not used.
One location has the cupola installed, and one has the
docking port adapter installed.
1.5.9
ments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials
International Space Station Experiment, and Atomic
Clock Ensemble in Space. A number of expansions are
planned for the module to study quantum physics and
cosmology.* [91]* [92] ESA's development of technologies on all the main areas of life support has been ongoing for more than 20 years and are/have been used in
modules such as Columbus and the ATV. The German
Aerospace Center DLR manages ground control operations for Columbus and the ATV is controlled from the
French CNES Toulouse Space Center.
Columbus
Columbus, the primary research facility for European

payloads aboard the ISS, provides a generic laboratory
as well as facilities specically designed for biology,
biomedical research and uid physics. Several mounting locations are axed to the exterior of the module, which provide power and data to external experi-
Not large enough for crew using spacesuits, the airlock on Kib
has a sliding drawer for external experiments.
Kib (Japanese: , "hope") is the largest single ISS

module. This laboratory is used to carry out research
in space medicine, biology, Earth observations, materials production, biotechnology, communications research,
and has facilities for growing plants and sh. During
August 2011, an observatory mounted on Kib, which
utilises the ISS's orbital motion to image the whole sky
in the X-ray spectrum, detected for the rst time the moment a star was swallowed by a black hole.* [93]* [94] The
laboratory contains a total of 23 racks, including 10 experiment racks and has a dedicated airlock for experiments. In a 'shirt sleeves' environment, crew attach an
10
experiment to the sliding drawer within the airlock, close

the inner, and then open the outer hatch. By extending the
drawer and removing the experiment using the dedicated
robotic arm, payloads are placed on the external platform.
The process can be reversed and repeated quickly, allowing access to maintain external experiments without the
delays caused by EVA's.
Pressurized Module
Experiment Logistics Module
Exposed Facility
Experiment Logistics Module
Remote Manipulator System
A smaller pressurised module is attached to the top of
Kib, serving as a cargo bay. The dedicated Interorbital
communications system allows large amounts of data to
be beamed from Kib's ICS, rst to the Japanese KODAMA satellite in geostationary orbit, then to Japanese
ground stations. When a direct communication link is
used, contact time between the ISS and a ground station
is limited to approximately 10 minutes per visible pass.
When KODAMA relays data between a LEO spacecraft
and a ground station, real-time communications are possible in 60% of the ight path of the spacecraft. Ground
sta use telepresence robotics to conduct on-orbit research without crew intervention.
1.5.11
Cupola
the Italian word cupola, which means dome. The

Cupola project was started by NASA and Boeing, but
cancelled due to budget cuts. A barter agreement between NASA and the ESA resulted in the Cupola's development being resumed in 1998 by the ESA. The module comes equipped with robotic workstations for operating the station's main robotic arm and shutters to protect
its windows from damage caused by micrometeorites. It
features 7 windows, with a 80-centimetre (31 in) round
window, the largest window on the station. The distinctive design has been compared to the 'turret' of the ctitious Millennium Falcon from the motion picture Star
Wars;* [95]* [96] the original prop lightsaber used by actor Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker in the 1977 lm was
own to the station in 2007.* [97]
1.5.12 Rassvet
Rassvet (Russian: ; lit. dawn), also known
as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (Russian: , 1) and formerly
known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is similar
in design to the Mir Docking Module launched on STS74 in 1995. Rassvet is primarily used for cargo storage
and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was own
to the ISS aboard NASA's Space Shuttle Atlantis on the
STS-132 mission and connected in May 2010,* [98]* [99]
Rassvet is the only Russian owned module launched by
NASA, to repay for the launch of Zarya, which is Russian
designed and built, but partially paid for by NASA.* [100]
Rassvet was launched with the Russian Nauka Laboratory's Experiments airlock temporarily attached to it, and
spare parts for the European Robotic Arm.
1.5.13 Leonardo
The Cupola's design has been compared to the

Millennium Falcon from Star Wars.
Leonardo installed
Dmitri Kondratyev and Paolo Nespoli in the Cupola. Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM)
Background left to right, Progress M-09M, Soyuz is a storage module attached to the Unity node.* [101]
TMA-20, the Leonardo module and HTV-2.
The three NASA Space Shuttle MPLM cargo containersLeonardo, Raaello and Donatellowere built for
Cupola is a seven window observatory, used to view NASA in Turin, Italy by Alcatel Alenia Space, now
Earth and docking spacecraft. Its name derives from Thales Alenia Space.* [102] The MPLMs were provided

to NASA's ISS programme by Italy (independent of their
role as a member state of ESA) and are considered to be
US elements. In a bartered exchange for providing these
containers, the US gave Italy research time aboard the ISS
out of the US allotment in addition to that which Italy receives as a member of ESA.* [103] The Permanent Multipurpose Module was created by converting Leonardo
into a module that could be permanently attached to the
station.* [104]* [105]* [106]
1.5.14
Scheduled additional modules
Nauka
Nauka (Russian: ; lit. science), also known as
the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) or FGB-2
(Russian: , ), is the major Russian laboratory module.
It was scheduled to arrive at the station in 2014, docking to the port that was occupied by the Pirs module.* [107] However, the date has been postponed to
February 2017.* [108] Prior to the arrival of the Nauka
module, a Progress spacecraft was used to remove Pirs
from the station, deorbiting it to reenter over the Pacic
Ocean. Nauka contains an additional set of life support
systems and attitude control. Originally it would have
routed power from the single Science-and-Power Platform, but that single module design changed over the rst
ten years of the ISS mission, and the two science modules, which attach to Nauka via the Uzlovoy Module, or
Russian node, each incorporate their own large solar arrays to power Russian science experiments in the ROS.
Nauka's mission has changed over time. During the mid1990s, it was intended as a backup for the FGB, and
later as a universal docking module (UDM); its docking
ports will be able to support automatic docking of both
spacecraft, additional modules and fuel transfer. Nauka
is a module in the 20 ton class and has its own engines.
Smaller Russian modules such as Pirs and Poisk were
delivered by modied Progress spacecraft, however the
larger modules; Zvezda, Zarya, and Nauka, are launched
by Proton rockets. They are the only modules on the
ISS that contain engines or navigation computers with
star, sun and horizon sensors, to enable ight and stationkeeping. Russia plans to separate Nauka, along with the
rest of the Russian Orbital Segment, before the ISS is deorbited, to form the OPSEK space station.
11
2014. It will be integrated with a special version of the
Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz
rocket. The Progress would use its own propulsion and
ight control system to deliver and dock the Node Module to the nadir (Earth-facing) docking port of the Nauka
MLM/FGB-2 module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the
MLM module. The remaining ve ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles,
as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with
modied docking systems. However more importantly,
the node module was conceived to serve as the only permanent element of the future Russian successor to the
ISS, OPSEK. Equipped with six docking ports, the Node
Module would serve as a single permanent core of the
future station with all other modules coming and going
as their life span and mission required.* [109]* [110] This
would be a progression beyond the ISS and Russia's modular MIR space station, which are in turn more advanced
than early monolithic rst generation stations such as Skylab, and early Salyut and Almaz stations.
Science Power Modules 1 & 2 (NEM-1, NEM-2)
(Russian: - 1 2)
Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
On 16 January 2013, Bigelow Aerospace was contracted
by NASA to provide a Bigelow Expandable Activity
Module (BEAM), scheduled to arrive at the space station
in 2015 for a two-year technology demonstration.* [111]
BEAM is an inatable module that will be attached to
the aft hatch of the port-side Tranquility module of the
International Space Station. During its two-year test run,
instruments will measure its structural integrity and leak
rate, along with temperature and radiation levels. The
hatch leading into the module will remain mostly closed
except for periodic visits by space station crew members
for inspections and data collection. Following the test run,
the module will be detached and jettisoned from the station.* [112]
Uzlovoy Module
The Uzlovoy Module (UM), or Node Module is a 4-ton
ball shaped module will support the docking of two scientic and power modules during the nal stage of the
station assembly and provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz TMA and Progress The cancelled Habitation module under construction in 1997
M spacecraft. NM is to be incorporated into the ISS in
12
1.5.15
Cancelled components
Several modules planned for the station have been cancelled over the course of the ISS programme, whether
for budgetary reasons, because the modules became unnecessary, or following a redesign of the station after
the 2003 Columbia disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module was intended to host science experiments in varying levels of articial gravity.* [113]
The US Habitation Module would have served as the
station's living quarters. Instead, the sleep stations are
now spread throughout the station.* [114] The US Interim
Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module were intended to replace functions of Zvezda in case of a
launch failure.* [115] The Russian Universal Docking
Module, to which the cancelled Russian Research modules and spacecraft would have docked.* [116] The Russian Science Power Platform would have provided the
Russian Orbital Segment with a power supply independent of the ITS solar arrays,* [116] and two Russian Research Modules that were planned to be used for scientic
research.* [117]
Units (ORUs). ORUs are spare parts that can be replaced when the item either passes its design life or fails.
Examples of ORUs include pumps, storage tanks, antennas and battery units. Such units are replaced either
by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms. While
spare parts were routinely transported to and from the
station via Space Shuttle resupply missions, there was a
heavy emphasis on ORU transport once the NASA Shuttle approached retirement.* [120] Several shuttle missions
were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS129,* [121] STS-133* [80] and STS-134.* [81] As of January 2011, only one other mode of transportation of
ORUs had been utilised the Japanese cargo vessel HTV2 which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed
Pallet (EP).* [122]
1.6 Unpressurised elements
Construction of the Integrated Truss Structure over New Zealand.
There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the JEM Exposed Facility serves as an external 'porch' for the Japanese Experiment Module complex,* [123] and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility* [124]* [125] and the Atomic Clock
Ensemble in Space.* [126] A remote sensing instrument,
SAGE III-ISS, is due to be delivered to the station in 2014
aboard a Dragon capsule, and the NICER experiment in
ISS Truss Components breakdown showing Trusses and all ORUs 2016.* [127]* [128] The largest such scientic payload exin situ
ternally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched
The ISS features a large number of external components
on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the
that do not require pressurisation. The largest such comITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence
ponent is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which
of dark matter and antimatter.* [129]
the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are
mounted.* [118] The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 m (356 ft) long.* [3]
1.6.1 Cranes and robotic arms
The station in its complete form has several smaller external components, such as the six robotic arms, the three
External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS
Logistics Carriers (ELCs).* [82]* [119] Whilst these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3
and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and
conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, the platforms' primary function is to store Orbital Replacement
Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a

mass of 1,800 kilograms and is used to dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS, and hold
crew members and equipment during EVAs.* [130] The
ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically, and may be discarded the same way. Crew use
the 2 Strela (Russian: ; lit. Arrow) cargo cranes
1.7. STATION SYSTEMS
13
during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the

ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45 kg. The Russian The critical systems are the atmosphere control system,
and Japanese laboratories both have airlocks and robotic the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the
arms.
sanitation and hygiene equipment, and re detection and
The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the suppression equipment. The Russian orbital segment's
main remote manipulator system called the Mobile Ser- life support systems are contained in the Service Modvicing System (MSS). This consists of the Mobile Base ule Zvezda. Some of these systems are supplemented by
System (MBS), the Canadarm2, and Dextre. Dextre is a equipment in the USOS. The MLM Nauka laboratory has
1,500 kg agile robotic manipulator with two 'arms' which a complete set of life support systems.
have 7 degrees of movement each, a 'torso' which bends
at the waist and rotates at the base, a tool holster, lights
and video. Sta on earth can operate Dextre via remote Atmospheric control systems
control, performing work without crew intervention. The
MBS rolls along rails built into some of the ITS segments
to allow the arm to reach all parts of the United States
segment of the station.* [131] The MSS had its reach increased an Orbiter Boom Sensor System in May 2011,
used to inspect tiles on the NASA shuttle, and converted
for permanent station use. To gain access to the extreme
extents of the Russian Segment the crew also placed a
Power Data Grapple Fixtureto the forward docking
section of Zarya, so that the Canadarm2 may inchworm
itself onto that point.* [132]
Air
Temp &
Humidity
Control
Cabin
Air
te
sa
n
de
n
Co
Air R
eturn
CO2
Removal
Cabin
Return
Waste
Mgt.
Fire Detection
& Suppression
Air
Waste
Products
Urine
CO2
Overboard
Venting
Trace
Contaminant
Control
Subassembly
Oxygen
Urine
Recovery
H2
O2/N2
Control
Processed
Urine
Oxygen
Generation
Overboard
Venting
Nitrogen
Crew Systems
Hand
Potable
Wash/
Water
Dispenser Shaving
The European Robotic Arm, which will service the

Russian Orbital Segment, will be launched alongside
the Multipurpose Laboratory Module in 2017.* [133]
The Japanese Experiment Module's Remote Manipulator System (JFM RMS), which services the JEM Exposed
Facility,* [134] was launched on STS-124 and is attached
to the JEM Pressurised Module.* [135]
Potable
Water
Processing
Product
Water
ter
Product Wa
Waste
Water
The interactions between the components of the ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the

Earth's.* [138] Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3
kPa (14.7 psi);* [139] the same as at sea level on Earth.
An Earth-like atmosphere oers benets for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a re
1.6.2 Comparison
such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1
The ISS follows Salyut and Almaz series, Cosmos 557, crew.* [140] Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been
Skylab, and Mir as the 11th space station launched, as the maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.* [141]
Genesis prototypes were never intended to be manned. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system
Other examples of modular station projects include the in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station.* [142] The
Soviet/Russian Mir, Russian OPSEK, and the as-yet un- crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen
nished Chinese space station. The rst space station, and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a
Salyut 1, and other one-piece or 'monolithic' rst gener- chemical oxygen generator system.* [143] Carbon dioxation space stations, such as Salyut 2,3,4,5, DOS 2, Kos- ide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in
mos 557, Almaz and NASA's Skylab stations were not Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such
designed for re-supply.* [136] Generally, each crew had as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat,
to depart the station to free the only docking port for the are removed by activated charcoal lters.* [143]
next crew to arrive, Skylab had more than one docking
port but was not designed for resupply. Salyut 6 and 7 Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxyhad more than one docking port and were designed to be gen supply, triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron
unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The Elekresupplied routinely during crewed operation.* [137]
tron unit is the primary oxygen supply, O
2 and H
2 are produced by electrolysis, with the H
1.7 Station systems
2 being vented overboard. The 1 kW system uses approximately 1 litre of water per crew member per day from
1.7.1 Life support
stored water from Earth, or water recycled from other systems. MIR was the rst spacecraft to use recycled water
Main articles: ISS ECLSS and Chemical oxygen genera- for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is
tor
provided by burning O
14
2-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each

'candle' takes 520 minutes to decompose at 450500 C,
producing 600 litres of O
2. This unit is manually operated.* [144]
sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated

by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma
contactor units (PCU)s create current paths between the
station and the ambient plasma eld.* [149]
The US orbital segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the Quest airlock
module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later
by ESA built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in
the Tranquility module (Node 3), which produces O
2 by electrolysis.* [145] Hydrogen produced is combined
with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.
1.7.2
Power and thermal control
Main articles: Electrical system of the International

ISS External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) diagram
Space Station and External Active Thermal Control
System
The large amount of electrical power consumed by the
station's systems and experiments is turned almost enDouble-sided solar, or Photovoltaic arrays, provide tirely into heat. The heat which can be dissipated through
electrical power for the ISS. These bifacial cells are more the walls of the stations modules is insucient to keep the
ecient and operate at a lower temperature than single- internal ambient temperature within comfortable, worksided cells commonly used on Earth, by collecting sun- able limits. Ammonia is continuously pumped through
light on one side and light reected o the Earth on the pipework throughout the station to collect heat, then into
other.* [146]
external radiators exposed to the cold of space, and back
The Russian segment of the station, like the Space Shuttle into the station.
and most spacecraft, uses 28 volt DC from four rotating The International Space Station (ISS) External Active
solar arrays mounted on Zarya and Zvezda. The USOS Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains an equiuses 130180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is librium when the ISS environment or heat loads exceed
stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the capabilities of the Passive Thermal Control System
the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution volt- (PTCS). Note Elements of the PTCS are external surage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of face materials, insulation such as MLI, or Heat Pipes.
crew safety. The ROS uses low voltage. The two station The EATCS provides heat rejection capabilities for all
segments share power with converters.* [118]
the US pressurised modules, including the JEM and COF
The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the
with each wing producing nearly 32.8 kW.* [118] These S0, S1 and P1 Trusses. The EATCS consists of two inarrays normally track the sun to maximise power gen- dependent loops (Loop A & Loop B), both using meeration. Each array is about 375 m2 (450 yd2 ) in area chanically pumped liquid ammonia in closed-loop cirand 58 metres (63 yd) long. In the complete congu- cuits. The EATCS is capable of rejecting up to 70 kW,
ration, the solar arrays track the sun by rotating the al- and provides a substantial upgrade in heat rejection capha gimbal once per orbit while the beta gimbal follows pacity from the 14 kW capability of the Early External
slower changes in the angle of the sun to the orbital plane. Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early
The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS*
the ground at night to reduce the signicant aerodynamic 105 and installed onto the P6 Truss. [150]
drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.* [147]
The station uses rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries
(NiH2 ) for continuous power during the 35 minutes of
every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The
batteries are recharged on the day side of the Earth. They
have a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge
cycles) and will be regularly replaced over the anticipated
20-year life of the station.* [148]
1.7.3 Communications and computers
Main articles: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite and

Luch (satellite)
See also: ThinkPad use in space
Radio communications provide telemetry and scientic
data links between the station and Mission Control CenThe station's large solar panels generate a high potential tres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and
voltage dierence between the station and the ionosphere. docking procedures and for audio and video communicaThis could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and tion between crewmembers, ight controllers and family
1.8. STATION OPERATIONS
15
network.* [158]
Laptop computers surround the Canadarm2 console.
UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs. UHF is employed by other spacecraft
that dock to or undock from the station, such as Soyuz,
Progress, HTV, ATV and the Space Shuttle (except the
shuttle also makes use of the S band and K band systems
via TDRSS), to receive commands from Mission ConThe communications systems used by the ISS
trol and ISS crewmembers.* [15] Automated spacecraft
* Luch satellite not currently in use
are tted with their own communications equipment; the
ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and equipmembers. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal ment attached to Zvezda, known as the Proximity Comand external communication systems used for dierent munications Equipment, to accurately dock to the station.* [159]* [160]
purposes.* [151]
The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly
with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to
Zvezda.* [15]* [152] The Lira antenna also has the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system.* [15] This
system, used for communications with Mir, fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and as a result is no longer in
use,* [15]* [153]* [154] although two new Luch satellites
Luch5A and Luch5Bwere launched in 2011 and
2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of
the system.* [155] Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone
communications between Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk and
the USOS, and also provides a VHF radio link to ground
control centres via antennas on Zvezda 's exterior.* [156]
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two
separate radio links mounted in the Z1 truss structure: the S band (used for audio) and K band (used
for audio, video and data) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and
Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary
orbit, which allows for almost continuous real-time
communications with NASA's Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.* [9]* [15]* [151] Data channels
for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and
Japanese Kib modules are routed via the S band and K
band systems, although the European Data Relay System
and a similar Japanese system will eventually complement
the TDRSS in this role.* [9]* [157] Communications between modules are carried on an internal digital wireless
The ISS is equipped with approximately 100 IBM and

Lenovo ThinkPad model A31 and T61P laptop computers. Each computer is a commercial o-the-shelf purchase which is then modied for safety and operation
including updates to connectors, cooling and power to
accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and
weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops
does not rise, but stagnates surrounding the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Laptops aboard
the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via
Wi-Fi and to the ground via K band. This provides
speeds of 10 Mbit/s to and 3 Mbit/s from the station, comparable to home DSL connection speeds.* [161]* [162]
The operating system used for key station functions is
the Debian version of Linux.* [163] The migration from
Microsoft Windows was made in May 2013 for reasons
of reliability, stability and exibility.* [164]
1.8 Station operations

1.8.1 Expeditions and private ights
See also the list of International Space Station expeditions
(professional crew), space tourism (private travellers), and
the list of human spaceights to the ISS (both).
Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undock-
16
Expeditions have included male and female crew-members from

many nations
Zarya and Unity were entered for the rst time on December 10,
1998.
Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the rst resident crew to

the station in October 2000
ISS was slowly assembled over a decade of spaceights and crews
Sergei Krikalev, member of Expedition 1 and Commander of Expedition 11 has spent more time in space than
anyone else, a total of 803 days and 9 hours and 39 minutes. His awards include the Order of Lenin, Hero of
the Soviet Union, Hero of the Russian Federation, and
4 NASA medals. On 16 August 2005 at 1:44 am EDT
he passed the record of 748 days held by Sergei Avdeyev,
who had 'time travelled' 1/50th of a second into the future
on board MIR.* [169] He participated in psychosocial experiment SFINCSS-99 (Simulation of Flight of International Crew on Space Station), which examined intercultural and other stress factors aecting integration of
crew in preparation for the ISS spaceights. Commander
Michael Fincke has spent a total of 382 days in space
more than any other American astronaut.
Travellers who pay for their own passage into space
are termed spaceight participants by Roskosmos and
NASA, and are sometimes informally referred to as space
tourists, a term they generally dislike.* [note 1] All seven
were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
When professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay
crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. When the space shuttle
retired in 2011, and the station's crew size was reduced
to 6, space tourism was halted, as the partners relied on
Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz
ight schedules increase after 2013, allowing 5 Soyuz
ights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required.* [175] The remaining seats are sold for around
US$40 million to members of the public who can pass
a medical. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceight
at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted
training Dennis Tito, the rst man to pay for his own passage to the ISS.* [note 2] Toyohiro Akiyama was own to
Mir for a week, he was classed as a business traveller, as
his employer, Tokyo Broadcasting System, paid for his
ticket, and he gave a daily TV broadcast from orbit.
ing, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo ships and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6
consisted of 3 person crews, Expeditions 7 to 12 were
reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle Columbia. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to 6 around
2010.* [165]* [166] With the arrival of the American
Commercial Crew vehicles in the middle of the 2010s, Anousheh Ansari (Persian: ) became the rst
expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, Iranian in space and the rst self-funded woman to y
the number ISS is designed for.* [167]* [168]
to the station. Ocials reported that her education and
1.8. STATION OPERATIONS

experience make her much more than a tourist, and her
performance in training had been excellent.* [176]
Ansari herself dismisses the idea that she is a tourist. She
did Russian and European studies involving medicine and
microbiology during her 10-day stay. The documentary
Space Tourists follows her journey to the station, where
she fullledan age-old dream of man: to leave our planet
as a normal person and travel into outer space.* [177]
In the lm, some Kazakhs are shown waiting in the middle of the steppes for four rocket stages to literally fall
from the sky. Film-maker Christian Frei statesFilming
the work of the Kazakh scrap metal collectors was anything but easy. The Russian authorities nally gave us a
lm permit in principle, but they imposed crippling preconditions on our activities. The real daily routine of the
scrap metal collectors could denitely not be shown. Secret service agents and military personnel dressed in overalls and helmets were willing to re-enact their work for
the cameras in an idealised way that ocials in Moscow
deemed to be presentable, but not at all how it takes place
in reality.
17
Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013.
or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port. The

ATV has been designed with the possibility of adding a
second docking port to its other end, allowing it to remain
at the ISS and still allow other craft to dock and boost the
station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for
the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.* [184] In
Spaceight participant Richard Garriott placed a December 2008 NASA signed an agreement with the Ad
on
geocache aboard the ISS during his ight.* [178] Astra Rocket Company which may result in the testing
*
the
ISS
of
a
VASIMR
plasma
propulsion
engine.
[185]
This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in
This technology could allow station-keeping to be done
existence.* [179]
more economically than at present.* [186]* [187]
1.8.2
Orbit
The ISS is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with

a minimum mean altitude of 330 km (205 mi) and a
maximum of 410 km (255 mi), in the centre of the
Thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's
equator, necessary to ensure that Russian Soyuz and
Progress spacecraft launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome may be safely launched to reach the station.
Spent rocket stages must be dropped into uninhabited areas and this limits the directions rockets can be launched
from the spaceport.* [180]* [181] The orbital inclination
chosen was also low enough to allow American space
shuttles launched from Florida to reach the ISS.
It travels at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres
(17,227 mi) per hour, and completes 15.51 orbits per day
(93 minutes per orbit).* [1]* [19] The station's altitude was
allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle mission. Orbital boost burns would generally be delayed until after the shuttle's departure. This allowed shuttle payloads to be lifted with the station's engines during the routine rings, rather than have the shuttle lift itself and the
payload together to a higher orbit. This trade-o allowed
heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the
retirement of the NASA shuttle, the nominal orbit of the
space station was raised in altitude.* [182]* [183] Other,
more frequent supply ships do not require this adjustment
as they are substantially lighter vehicles.* [27]* [184]
Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two
main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian
The Russian Orbital Segment contains the station's engines and control bridge, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.* [86] Initially, Zarya, the rst module of the station,
controlled the station until a short time after the Russian
service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.* [188] Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), Zvezda computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors,
Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing
units working in parallel and provide advanced faultmasking by majority voting. Zvezda uses gyroscopes
and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not
require propellant, rather they use electricity to 'store'
momentum in ywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its
own computer controlled gyroscopes to handle the extra
mass of that section. When gyroscopes 'saturate', reaching their maximum speed, thrusters are used to cancel
out the stored momentum. During Expedition 10, an
incorrect command was sent to the station's computer,
using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault
was noticed and xed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly,
it can result in a rare 'force ght' where the ROS GNC
computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which has
no thrusters.* [189]* [190]* [191] When an ATV, NASA
Shuttle, or Soyuz is docked to the station, it can also
be used to maintain station attitude such as for troubleshooting. Shuttle control was used exclusively dur-
18
ing installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.* [192]
ESA European Space

and Technology Centre
Noordwijk, Netherlands
CSA Headquarters,
Mobile Servicing System Control
and Training
Saint-Hubert, Canada
Ames Telescience
Support Center
1.9 Mission controls
Moffett Field, USA
Paris, France
Cleveland, USA
Payload Operations
Center
Huntsville, USA
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored

by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including:
ESA Headquarte
Glenn Telescience
Support Center
ISS Training
ISS Program Management
ISS Mission Control
NASA Headquarters
Washington, DC, USA
ATV Con
Toulouse, F
Shuttle Launch Control

Kenedy Space Center, USA
Houston, USA
Ariane Launch Control

Kourou, French Guiana
Roskosmos's Mission Control Center at Korolyov,

Moscow Oblast, controls the Russian Orbital Segment which handles Guidance, Navigation & Control for the entire Station.,* [86]* [188] in addition to Space centres involved with the ISS programme
individual Soyuz and Progress missions.* [15]
1.9.1 Repairs
ESA's ATV Control Centre, at the Toulouse Space

Centre (CST) in Toulouse, France, controls ights
Orbital Replacement Units and
Main articles:
of the unmanned European Automated Transfer VeInternational
Space
Station
maintenance
hicle.* [15]
JAXA's JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center (TKSC)
in Tsukuba, Japan, are responsible for operating
the Japanese Experiment Module complex and all
ights of the 'White Stork' HTV Cargo spacecraft,
respectively.* [15]
NASA's Mission Control Center at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, USA, serves as
the primary control facility for the United States segment of the ISS and also controlled the Space Shuttle
missions that visited the station.* [15]
NASA's Payload Operations and Integration Center at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville,
Alabama, coordinates payload operations in the
USOS.* [15]
Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that

can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design
life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks,
controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units
can be replaced using robotic arms. Many are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS
Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called
External Stowage Platforms which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets have electricity as many
parts which could be damaged by the cold of space require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have computer local area network connections (LAN) and telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before
the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to
one quarter the payload.
ESA's Columbus Control Centre at the German

Aerospace Centre (DLR) in Oberpfaenhofen, Germany, manages the European Columbus research
laboratory.* [15]
Spare parts are called ORU's, some are externally stored on pallets called ELC's and ESP's.
CSA's MSS Control at Saint-Hubert, Quebec,

Canada, controls and monitors the Mobile Servic- Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the staing System, or Canadarm2.* [15]
tion's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to
1.9. MISSION CONTROLS

periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could
have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons, had these problems not been resolved. During STS120 in 2007, following the relocation of the P6 truss and
solar arrays, it was noted during the redeployment of the
array that it had become torn and was not deploying properly.* [193] An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. The men took extra
precautions to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the
repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to
sunlight.* [194] The issues with the array were followed
in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar
Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on
the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and
high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted,
resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of
the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed
extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and conrmed damage to the
large metallic race ring at the heart of the joint, and so the
joint was locked to prevent further damage.* [195] Repairs to the joint were carried out during STS-126 with
lubrication of both joints and the replacement of 11 out
of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.* [196]* [197]
19
panel.* [198]
Early on 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the
station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and
zero redundancy in some systems.* [199]* [200]* [201]
The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling uid. Several
subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut
down.
Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through
a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A
rst EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump
module, was not fully completed due to an ammonia leak
in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on
11 August successfully removed the failed pump module.* [202]* [203] A third EVA was required to restore
Loop A to normal functionality.* [204]* [205]
The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the American company Boeing,* [206] which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.* [207]
An air leak from the USOS in 2004,* [208] the venting of
fumes from an Elektron oxygen generator in 2006,* [209]
and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 left the station without thruster, Elektron,
Vozdukh and other environmental control system operations, the root cause of which was found to be condensation inside the electrical connectors leading to a shortcircuit.
While anchored on the end of the OBSS, astronaut Scott Parazynski performs makeshift repairs to a US Solar array which damaged itself when unfolding, during STS-120.
2009 saw damage to the S1 radiator, one of the components of the station's cooling system. The problem was
rst noticed in Soyuz imagery in September 2008, but
was not thought to be serious.* [198] The imagery showed
that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from
the underlying central structure, possibly due to micrometeoroid or debris impact. It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover, jettisoned during an EVA
in 2008, had struck the S1 radiator, but its eect, if
any, has not been determined. On 15 May 2009 the
damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut o from the rest of the cooling system by the
computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve
was used immediately afterwards to vent the ammonia
from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an
ammonia leak from the cooling system via the damaged
In the foreground, a set of heat radiators
The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located

in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the
four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. In late 2011
MBSU-1, while still routing power correctly, ceased responding to commands or sending data conrming its
health, and was scheduled to be swapped out at the next
available EVA. In each MBSU, two power channels feed
160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the
station. A spare MBSU was already on board, but 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being
tightened to nish installation of the spare unit jammed
before electrical connection was secured.* [210] The loss
20
of MBSU-1 limits the station to 75% of its normal power 1.10.1 Currently docked/berthed
capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operaSee also the list of professional crew, private travellers,
tions until the problem can be addressed.
both or just unmanned spaceights.
As of 2 September 2012, a second EVA to tighten the
balky bolt, completing the installation of the replacement
MBSU-1 in an attempt to restore full power, has been 1.10.2 Scheduled launches and dockscheduled for Wednesday,* [211] Yet in the meanwhile, a
ings/berthings
third solar array wing has gone o line due to some fault
in that array's Direct Current Switching Unit (DCSU) or
All dates are UTC. Dates are the earliest possible dates
its associated system, further reducing ISS power to just
and may change. Forward ports are at the front of the
ve of the eight solar array wings for the rst time in sevstation according to its normal direction of travel and orieral years.
entation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used
On 5 September 2012, in a second, 6 hr, EVA to re- by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. Nadir is closest
place MBSU-1, astronauts Sunita Williams and Aki- the Earth, Zenith is on top.
hiko Hoshide successfully restored the ISS to 100%
Uncrewed cargoships are in light blue. Crewed spacecraft
power.* [212]
are in light green. Modules are white. Spacecraft operated by government agencies are indicated with 'Gov',
while 'Com' denotes those operated under commercial arrangements.
1.10.3 Docking
See also: Spacecraft Docking and Berthing Mechanisms
All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are
Mike Hopkins on his Christmas Eve spacewalk
On 24 December 2013, astronauts made a rare Christmas

Eve space walk, installing a new ammonia pump for the
station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had
failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's
science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a mini
blizzardof noxious ammonia while installing the new
pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk
in NASA history.* [213]
The Progress M-14M resupply vehicle as it approaches the ISS in
2012. Over 50 unpiloted Progress spacecraft have been sent with
supplies during the lifetime of the station.
1.10 Fleet operations

See also: List of human spaceights to the
International Space Station and List of unmanned spaceights to the International Space
Station
Progress M-24M (ISS-56P) was the 58th progress spacecraft to arrive at the ISS, including M-MIM2 and M-SO1
which installed modules. 35 ights of the retired NASA
Space Shuttle were made to the station.* [2] TMA-14M
is the 40th Soyuz ight, and there have been 5 European
ATV, 4 Japanese Kounotori 'White Stork', 5 SpaceX
Dragon and 3 OSC Cygnus arrivals.
able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs docking system.
Radar allows these vehicles to detect and intercept ISS
from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV
uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept
course. When it catches up it then uses laser equipment
to optically recognise Zvezda, along with the Kurs system for redundancy. Crew supervise these craft, but do
not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parks itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and
then awaits 'approach' commands from the crew, until it is close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and
berth the vehicle to the USOS. The American Space
Shuttle was manually docked, and on missions with a
1.11. LIFE ABOARD

cargo container, the container would be berthed to the
Station with the use of manual robotic arms. Berthed
craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks.
Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months. Russian and European Supply craft can remain at the ISS
for six months,* [214]* [215] allowing great exibility in
crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and
trash. NASA Shuttles could remain docked for 1112
days.* [216]
The American manual approach to docking allows
greater initial exibility and less complexity. The downside to this mode of operation is that each mission becomes unique and requires specialised training and planning, making the process more labour-intensive and expensive. The Russians pursued an automated methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles.
Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that
provide signicant cost benets in repetitive routine operations.* [217] An automated approach could allow assembly of modules orbiting other worlds prior to crew
arrival.
21
quire, on average, 2 722 kg of supplies, and as of 9 March
2011, crews had consumed a total of around 22 000
meals.* [2] Soyuz crew rotation ights and Progress resupply ights visit the station on average two and three times
respectively each year,* [219] with the ATV and HTV
planned to visit annually from 2010 onwards. Following retirement of the NASA Shuttle Cygnus and Dragon
were contracted to y cargo to the station.* [220]* [221]
From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the
governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and
Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV,
Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this
has happened to date.* [222] On 25 May 2012, SpaceX
became the world's rst privately held company to send
cargo, via the Dragon spacecraft, to the International
Space Station.* [223]
1.10.4 Launch and docking windows

Prior to a ship's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control
of the ships' country of origin. GNC is set to allow the
station to drift in space, rather than re its thrusters or
turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are
turned edge-on to the incoming ships, so residue from its
thrusters does not damage the cells. When a NASA shuttle docked to the station, other ships were grounded, as
the carbon wingtips, cameras, windows, and instruments
aboard the shuttle were at too much risk from damage
from thruster residue from other ships movements.
Approximately 30% of NASA shuttle launch delays were
caused by poor weather. Occasional priority was given
to the Soyuz arrivals at the station where the Soyuz carried crew with time-critical cargoes such as biological
experiment materials, also causing shuttle delays. Departure of the NASA shuttle was often delayed or prioritised according to weather over its two landing sites.
Whilst the Soyuz is capable of landing anywhere, anytime, its planned landing time and place is chosen to give
consideration to helicopter pilots and ground recovery
crew, to give acceptable ying weather and lighting conditions. Soyuz launches occur in adverse weather conditions, however the cosmodrome had been shut down on
occasions when buried by snow drifts up to 6 metres in
depth, hampering ground operations.
1.11 Life aboard

Space Shuttle Endeavour, ATV-2, Soyuz TMA-21 and Progress
M-10M docked to the ISS during STS-134, as seen from the departing Soyuz TMA-20
Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as

lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and have been used once to remove excess
crew after the Columbia disaster.* [218] Expeditions re-
1.11.1 Crew activities

A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00,
followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection
of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes
part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control
before starting work at around 08:10. The rst sched-
22

sensitive equipment.* [230] It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts
can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because
a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed
around their heads.* [227]
See also: Christmas on the International Space Station
1.11.2 Food
Crewmember peers out of a window
See also: Space food

Most of the food on board is vacuum sealed in plastic
Tomatoes oating in microgravity

Crew of Expedition 20
uled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew

continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch
break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work
before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference.
The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general,
the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and ve
hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for
relaxation or work catch-up.* [224]
bags. Cans are too heavy and expensive to transport, so

there are not as many. The preserved food is generally
not held in high regard by the crew, and when combined
with the reduced sense of taste in a microgravity environment,* [227] a great deal of eort is made to make the
food more palatable. More spices are used than in regular
cooking, and the crew looks forward to the arrival of any
ships from Earth, as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables
with them. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs.
Sauces are often used to ensure station equipment is not
contaminated. Each crew member has individual food
packages and cooks them using the on-board galley. The
galley features two food warmers, a refrigerator added in
November 2008, and a water dispenser that provides both
heated and unheated water.* [228] Drinks are provided in
dehydrated powder form and are mixed with water before
consumption.* [228]* [229] Drinks and soups are sipped
from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten
with a knife and fork, which are attached to a tray with
magnets to prevent them from oating away. Any food
that does oat away, including crumbs, must be collected
to prevent it from clogging up the station's air lters and
other equipment.* [229]
The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two 'sleep stations' in the Zvezda and four more installed in Harmony.* [225]* [226] The American quarters are private,
approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The
Russian crew quarters include a small window, but do
not provide the same amount of ventilation or block the
same amount of noise as their American counterparts.
A crewmember can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store
personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to
the module's walls. The module also provides a reading
lamp, a shelf and a desktop.* [227]* [228]* [229] Visiting
crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleep- 1.11.3 Hygiene
ing bag to an available space on a wallit is possible to
sleep oating freely through the station, but this is gen- Showers on space stations were introduced in the early
erally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into 1970s on Skylab and Salyut 3.* [231]* :139 By Salyut 6,
1.12. CREW HEALTH AND SAFETY
23
1.12 Crew health and safety

Main article: Eect of spaceight on the human body
1.12.1 Radiation
The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by the Earth's magnetic eld. From an average distance of about 70,000 km, depending on Solar activity,
the magnetosphere begins to deect solar wind around
the Earth and ISS. However, solar ares are still a hazard
to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning.
The crew of Expedition 10 took shelter as a precaution in
2005 in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed
for this purpose during the initial 'proton storm' of an X3 class solar are,* [234]* [235] but without the limited
protection of the Earth's magnetosphere, interplanetary
manned missions are especially vulnerable.
Space toilet in the Zvezda Service Module
in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity.
The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are
also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.* [230]* [232]
Video of the Aurora Australis taken by the crew of Expedition 28

on an ascending pass from south of Madagascar to just north of
Australia over the Indian Ocean.
Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from

cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by
the Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sucient
quantity, their eect becomes visible to the naked eye
in a phenomenon called an aurora. Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs this radiation, crews are exposed to about 1 millisievert each day,
which is about the same as someone would get in a year
on Earth from natural sources. This results in a higher
risk of astronauts developing cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue, damage DNA, and cause damage to
the chromosomes of lymphocytes. These cells are central to the immune system, and so any damage to them
could contribute to the lowered immunity experienced by
astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding
and protective drugs may lower the risks to an acceptable
level.* [43]
There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian

design, located in Zvezda and Tranquility.* [228] These
Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts rst fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining
bars to ensure a good seal.* [227] A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream
carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full
containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.* [228]* [233] Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose
connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically
correct urine funnel adaptersattached to the tube so
both men and women can use the same toilet. Waste is The radiation levels experienced on the ISS are about ve
collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew. The Earth's electromagnetic eld provides
where it is recycled back into drinking water.* [229]
24
almost the same level of protection against solar and other

radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. Airline
passengers, however, experience this level of radiation
for no more than 15 hours for the longest intercontinental
ights. For example, on a 12-hour ight an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or
a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; only 1/5 the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO.* [236]
See also: Coronal mass ejection and Aurora (astronomy)
1.12.2
conditions with people from very dierent cultures who

speak a dierent language. First generation space stations
had crews who spoke a single language, while second
and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. The ISS is unique because visitors are not classed automatically into 'host' or
'guest' categories as with previous stations and spacecraft,
and may not suer from feelings of isolation in the same
way. Crew members with a military pilot background
and those with an academic science background or teachers and politicians may have problems understanding each
other's jargon and worldview.
Stress
1.12.3 Medical
A cosmonaut at work inside Zvezda service module crew quarters
There has been considerable evidence that psychosocial

stressors are among the most important impediments to
optimal crew morale and performance.* [237] Cosmonaut
Valery Ryumin, wrote in his journal during a particularly
dicult period on board the Salyut 6 space station: All
the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut
two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 and leave
them together for two months.
NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space
travel, initially studied when their manned missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts
on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of
stress in early American missions included maintaining
high performance while under public scrutiny, as well as
isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often
a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of
NASA Astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and
when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his
second child.
A study of the longest spaceight concluded that the rst
three weeks represent a critical period where attention is
adversely aected because of the demand to adjust to the
extreme change of environment.* [238] While Skylab's 3
crews remained one, two, and three months respectively,
long term crews on Salyut 6, Salyut 7, and the ISS last
about ve to six months while MIR's expeditions often
lasted longer. The ISS working environment includes
further stress caused by living and working in cramped
Astronaut Frank De Winne is attached to the TVIS treadmill with

bungee cords aboard the International Space Station
Medical eects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton
(osteopenia), uid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood
cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune
system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and
puness of the face.* [43]
Sleep is disturbed on the ISS regularly due to mission demands, such as incoming or departing ships. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high; because the atmosphere is unable to thermosyphon, fans are required at all
times to allow processing of the atmosphere which would
stagnate in the freefall (zero-g) environment.
To prevent some of these adverse physiological eects,
the station is equipped with two treadmills (including the
COLBERT), and the aRED (advanced Resistive Exercise
Device) which enables various weightlifting exercises
which add muscle but do nothing for bone density,* [239]
and a stationary bicycle; each astronaut spends at least two
hours per day exercising on the equipment.* [227]* [228]
Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the
treadmill.* [240]* [241]
1.14. END OF MISSION
1.12.4
25
Microbiological environmental hazards
Hazardous moulds can develop aboard space stations

that produce acids which degrade metal, glass and rubber.* [242]
1.13 Threat of orbital debris

Main article: Space debris
At the low altitudes at which the ISS orbits there are a
variety of space debris,* [243] consisting of many dierent objects including entire spent rocket stages, defunct
satellites, explosion fragmentsincluding materials from
anti-satellite weapon tests, paint akes, slag from solid
rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclearpowered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural
micrometeoroids,* [244] are a signicant threat. Large
objects could destroy the station, but are less of a threat
as their orbits can be predicted.* [245]* [246] Objects too
small to be detected by optical and radar instruments,
from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these
objects are still a threat because of their kinetic energy
and direction in relation to the station. Spacesuits of
spacewalking crew could puncture, causing exposure to
vacuum.* [247]
The station's shields and structure are divided between
the ROS and the USOS, with completely dierent designs. On the USOS, a thin aluminium sheet is held apart
from the hull, the sheet causes objects to shatter into a
cloud before hitting the hull thereby spreading the energy
of the impact. On the ROS, a carbon plastic honeycomb
screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb
screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top. It is
about 50% less likely to be punctured, and crew move to
the ROS when the station is under threat. Punctures on
the ROS would be contained within the panels which are
70 cm square.
Space debris objects are tracked remotely from the
ground, and the station crew can be notied.* [248] This
allows for a Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre (DAM) to be
conducted, which uses thrusters on the Russian Orbital
Segment to alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the
debris. DAMs are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a
certain threat distance. Eight DAMs had been performed
prior to March 2009,* [249] the rst seven between October 1999 and May 2003.* [250] Usually the orbit is raised
by one or two kilometres by means of an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s. Unusually there was
a lowering of 1.7 km on 27 August 2008, the rst such
lowering for 8 years.* [250]* [251] There were two DAMs
Example of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at

high risk from impact for the International Space Station.
in 2009, on 22 March and 17 July.* [252] If a threat from

orbital debris is identied too late for a DAM to be safely
conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard
the station and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft, so that
they would be able to evacuate in the event the station
was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station
evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011
and 24 March 2012.* [253] Ballistic panels, also called
micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems.
The type and thickness of these panels varies depending
upon their predicted exposure to damage.
1.14 End of mission
Many ISS resupply spacecraft have already undergone

atmospheric re-entry, such as Jules Verne ATV
According to a 2009 report, Space Corporation Energia is considering methods to remove from the station
some modules of the Russian Orbital Segment when the
end of mission is reached and use them as a basis for
a new station, known as the Orbital Piloted Assembly
and Experiment Complex (OPSEK). The modules under
consideration for removal from the current ISS include
the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), currently
26
scheduled to be launched in 2017, with other Russian
modules which are currently planned to be attached to the
MLM afterwards. Neither the MLM nor any additional
modules attached to it would have reached the end of their
useful lives in 2016 or 2020. The report presents a statement from an unnamed Russian engineer who believes
that, based on the experience from Mir, a thirty-year life
should be possible, except for micrometeorite damage,
because the Russian modules have been built with onorbit refurbishment in mind.* [254]

beyond 2020, and would only supply rocket engines to the
U.S. for non-military satellite launches.* [262]
A proposed modication that would allow some of the

ISS American and European segments to be reused would
be to attach a VASIMR drive module to the vacated Node
with its own onboard power source. This would permit the station to be moved to Lunar orbit, and serve
as a staging post for future colonization. It would however allow long term reliability testing of the concept for
less cost than building a dedicated space station from
According to the Outer Space Treaty the United States scratch.* [263]
and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they
have launched.* [255] In ISS planning, NASA examined
options including returning the station to Earth via shuttle 1.15 Cost
missions (deemed too expensive, as the station (USOS)
is not designed for disassembly and this would require
The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever
at least 27 shuttle missions* [256]), natural orbital decay
constructed.* [264] As of 2010 the cost is estimated to
with random reentry similar to Skylab, boosting the stabe $150 billion. It includes NASA's budget of $58.7
tion to a higher altitude (which would simply delay reenbillion for the station from 1985 to 2015 ($72.4 billion
try) and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean
in 2010), Russia's $12 billion ISS budget, Europe's $5
area.* [257]
billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the
The technical feasibility of a controlled targeted deorbit cost of 36 shuttle ights to build the station; estimated at
into a remote ocean was found to be possible only with $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion total. Assuming 20,000
Russia's assistance.* [257] The Russian Space Agency has person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two to sixexperience from de-orbiting the Salyut 4, 5, 6, 7 and person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million,
Mir space stations, while NASA's rst intentional con- less than half the ination adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5
trolled de-orbit of a satellite (the Compton Gamma Ray million before ination) per person-day of Skylab.* [265]
Observatory) occurred in 2000.* [258] As of late 2010,
the preferred plan is to use a slightly modied Progress
spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS.* [259] This plan was seen 1.16 International co-operation
as the simplest, most cost ecient one with the highest
margin.* [259] Skylab, the only space station built and
launched entirely by the US, decayed from orbit slowly
over 5 years, and no attempt was made to de-orbit the
station using a deorbital burn. Remains of Skylab hit
populated areas of Esperance, Western Australia* [260]
without injuries or loss of life.
The Exploration Gateway Platform, a discussion by
NASA and Boeing at the end of 2011, suggested using
leftover USOS hardware and 'Zvezda 2' [sic] as a refuelling depot and servicing station located at one of the
Earth Moon Lagrange points, L1 or L2. While the entire
USOS cannot be reused and will be discarded, some other
Russian modules are planned to be reused. Nauka, the
Node module, two science power platforms and Rassvet,
launched between 2010 and 2015 and joined to the ROS
may be separated to form OPSEK.* [261] The Nauka
module of the ISS will be used in the station, whose
main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration.
OPSEK will orbit at a higher inclination of 71 degrees,
allowing observation to and from all of the Russian Federation.
On May 13, 2014, in response to US sanctions against
Russia over the conict in Crimea, Russia's Deputy Prime
Minister, Dmitry Rogozin, announced that Russia would Dated January 29, 1998
reject a U.S. request to prolong the orbiting station's use
Main articles: Politics of the International Space Station
1.18. SEE ALSO

and International Space Station program
Participating countries
Brazil
Canada
Japan
Russia
United States
European Space Agency
Austria
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
1.17 Sightings from Earth

1.17.1
27
is the brightest man-made object in the sky excluding
ares, with an approximate maximum magnitude of 4
when overhead, similar to Venus. The ISS, like many
satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce ares of up to 8 or 16 times the brightness of Venus
as sunlight glints o reective surfaces.* [267]* [268] The
ISS is also visible during broad daylight conditions, albeit
with a great deal more eort.
Tools are provided by a number of websites such as
Heavens-Above (see Live viewing below) as well as
smartphone applications that use the known orbital data
and the observer's longitude and latitude to predict when
the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the
station will appear to rise to the observer, the altitude
above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the
pass before the station disappears to the observer either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's
shadow.* [269]* [270]* [271]* [272]
In November 2012 NASA launched its 'Spot the Station'
service, which sends people text and email alerts when
the station is due to y above their town.* [273]
The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on
Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.* [180]
1.17.2 Astrophotography
Using a telescope mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, * [274] whilst using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars
is a popular hobby for crew.* [275] The use of a telescope
or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight
hours.* [276]
Parisian engineer and astrophotographer Thierry Legault,
known for his photos of spaceships crossing the sun
(called occultation), travelled to Oman in 2011, to photograph the sun, moon and space station all lined up.* [277]
Legault, who received the Marius Jacquemetton award
from the Socit astronomique de France in 1999, and
other hobbyists, use websites that predict when the ISS
will pass in front of the Sun or Moon and from what location those passes will be visible.
Naked eye
The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving,

bright white dot due to reected sunlight, and can be seen
in the hours after sunset and before sunrise when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark.* [266]
The ISS takes about ten minutes to move from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time
due to moving into or out of the Earth's shadow. Because of the size of its reective surface area, the ISS
1.18 See also

Center for the Advancement of Science in Space
operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS.
28
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[7] Central Research Institute for Machine Building (FGUP
TSNIIMASH) Control of manned and unmanned space
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Federal Space Agency. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
[8] NASA Sightings Help Page. Spaceight.nasa.gov. 30
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[9] John E. Catchpole (17 June 2008). The International
Space Station: Building for the Future. Springer-Praxis.
ISBN 978-0-387-78144-0.
International Space Station docked with Endeavour and
Johannes Kepler
1.19 View
1.20 Notes
[1] Privately funded travellers who have objected to the term
include Dennis Tito, the rst such traveller (Associated
Press, 8 May 2001), Mark Shuttleworth, founder of
Ubuntu (Associated Press, The Spokesman Review, 6 January 2002, p. A4), Gregory Olsen and Richard Garriott.* [170]* [171] Canadian astronaut Bob Thirsk said the
term does not seem appropriate, referring to his crewmate, Guy Lalibert, founder of Cirque du Soleil.* [172]
Anousheh Ansari denied being a tourist* [173] and took
oence at the term.* [174]
[2] ESA director Jrg Feustel-Bechl said in 2001 that Russia
had no right to send 'amateurs' to the ISS. A 'stand-o' occurred at the Johnson Space Centre between Commander
Talgat Musabayev and NASA manager Robert Cabana.
Cabana refused to train Dennis Tito, a member of Musabayev's crew along with Yuri Baturin. The commander
argued that Tito had trained 700 hours in the last year and
was as qualied as any NASA astronaut, and refused to
allow his crew to be trained on the American portions of
the station without Tito. Cabana stated training could not
begin, and the commander returned with his crew to their
hotel.
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1.22.1 Agency ISS websites
Canadian Space Agency
European Space Agency
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12 July 2011.
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German Aerospace Centre
Italian Space Agency
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Centre national d'tudes spatiales (National

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S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation

Energia
Russian Federal Space Agency
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
36
1.22.2
Research
NASA: Daily ISS Reports

NASA: Station Science
ESA: Columbus
RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian
Segment
1.22.3
Live viewing
See also: List of satellite pass predictors
Live ISS webcam by NASA at uStream.tv

Real-time position at Heavens-above.com
Real-time position at N2YO.com
Real-time position at WheretheISS.at
1.22.4
Multimedia
Interactive reference guide at NASA.gov

Image gallery search page at NASA.gov
Assembly sequence animation by USA Today and
NASA
ISS tour with Sunita Williams by NASA at
YouTube.com
ISS tour with Andr Kuipers by ESA at
YouTube.com
The Future of Hope, Kibo module documentary by
JAXA at YouTube.com
Chapter 2
Space Shuttle
This article is about the NASA Space Transportation
System vehicle. For the associated NASA STS program,
see Space Shuttle program. For other shuttles and
aerospace vehicles, see Spaceplane.
The Space Shuttle is a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft that was operated by the U.S. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Its ofcial program name was Space Transportation System,
taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development.* [3] The rst of four orbital test ights occurred in
1981, leading to operational ights beginning in 1982.
They were used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to
2011, launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC)
in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous
satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space
Telescope (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the
International Space Station. The Shuttle eet totaled
1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds during
missions.* [4]
1986 and 2003 respectively, in which a total of fourteen astronauts were killed. A fth operational orbiter,
Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger. The
Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantis 's nal ight on July 21, 2011.
2.1 Overview
The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable* [5] human

spaceight vehicle capable of reaching low Earth orbit,
commissioned and operated by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from 1981
to 2011. It resulted from shuttle design studies conducted by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1960s
and was rst proposed for development as part of an ambitious second-generation Space Transportation System
(STS) of space vehicles to follow the Apollo program in a
September 1969 report of a Space Task Group headed by
Vice President Spiro Agnew to President Richard Nixon.
Post-Apollo NASA budgeting realities impelled Nixon
the
Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle (OV), a to withhold support of all system components except
*
Shuttle,
to
which
NASA
applied
the
STS
name.
[3]
pair of recoverable solid rocket boosters (SRBs), and the
expendable external tank (ET) containing liquid hydrogen The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and reand liquid oxygen. The Shuttle was launched vertically, entry, fueled by expendable liquid hydrogen and liquid
like a conventional rocket, with the two SRBs operating oxygen tanks, with reusable strap-on solid booster rockin parallel with the OV's three main engines, which were ets. The rst of four orbital test ights occurred in
fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the 1981, leading to operational ights beginning in 1982,
vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just be- all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida.
fore orbit insertion, which used the orbiter's two Orbital The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135
Maneuvering System (OMS) engines. At the conclusion missions,* [6] with Atlantis making the nal launch of
of the mission, the orbiter red its OMS to de-orbit and the three-decade Shuttle program on July 8, 2011.* [7]
re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter glided to a runway The program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy
landing on Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards Air Force Base in Space Center on July 21, 2011. Major missions inCalifornia or at the Shuttle Landing Facility at the KSC. cluded launching numerous satellites and interplanetary
After the landings at Edwards, the orbiter was own back probes,* [8] conducting space science experiments, and
to KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a specially mod- servicing and construction of space stations. The rst
ied Boeing 747.
orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial
The rst orbiter, Enterprise, was built purely for Approach Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines,
and Landing Tests and had no orbital capability. Four heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital
fully operational orbiters were initially built: Columbia, ight. A total of ve operational orbiters were built, and
Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, Challenger of these, two were destroyed in accidents.
and Columbia were destroyed in mission accidents in It was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US
37
38
Department of Defense, the European Space Agency,
Japan, and Germany.* [9]* [10] The United States funded
Shuttle development and operations except for the
Spacelab modules used on D1 and D2 sponsored
by Germany.* [9]* [11]* [12]* [13]* [14] SL-J was partially
funded by Japan.* [10]
CHAPTER 2. SPACE SHUTTLE

the choice of launch conguration. The orbiter carried
its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened
along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space
Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the Hubble
Space Telescope and also the capture and return of large
payloads back to Earth.
When the orbiter's space mission was complete, it red its

OMS thrusters to drop out of orbit and re-enter the lower
atmosphere.* [21] During descent, the orbiter passed
through dierent layers of the atmosphere and decelerated from hypersonic speed primarily by aerobraking. In
the lower atmosphere and landing phase, it was more like
a glider but with reaction control system (RCS) thrusters
and y-by-wire-controlled hydraulically actuated ight
surfaces controlling its descent. It landed on a long runway as a spaceplane. The aerodynamic shape was a
compromise between the demands of radically dierent speeds and air pressures during re-entry, hypersonic
ight, and subsonic atmospheric ight. As a result, the
STS-129 ready for launch
orbiter had a relatively high sink rate at low altitudes, and
it transitioned during re-entry from using RCS thrusters
At launch, it consisted of the stack, including the at very high altitudes to ight surfaces in the lower atmodark orange external tank (ET);* [15]* [16] two white, sphere.
slender solid rocket boosters (SRBs); and the Orbiter
Vehicle, which contained the crew and payload. Some
payloads were launched into higher orbits with either of
two dierent upper stages developed for the STS (single- 2.2 Early history
stage Payload Assist Module or two-stage Inertial Upper
Stage). The Space Shuttle was stacked in the Vehicle Further information: Space Shuttle program and Space
Assembly Building, and the stack mounted on a mobile Shuttle design process
launch platform held down by four frangible nuts* [17] on The formal design of what became the Space Shuttle
each SRB, which were detonated at launch.* [18]
The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional
rocket. It lifted o under the power of its two SRBs and
three main engines, which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle
had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional
thrust during lifto and rst-stage ight. About two minutes after lifto, frangible nuts were red, releasing the
SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by ships for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter
and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal ight path under power from its main engines. Upon
reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth
orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts* [19] was then jettisoned to
burn up in the atmosphere.* [20] After jettisoning the external tank, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit. The orbiter carried astronauts and payloads such as satellites or space
station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or thermosphere.* [21] Usually, ve to seven
crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members,
the commander and pilot, were sucient for a minimal
ight, as in the rst four testights, STS-1 through
STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about 50,045
pounds (22,700 kg) but could be increased depending on
President Nixon (right) with NASA Administrator Fletcher in January 1972, three months before Congress approved funding for
the Shuttle program
began with the Phase Acontract design studies issued in the late 1960s. Conceptualization had begun two
decades earlier, before the Apollo program of the 1960s.
One of the places the concept of a spacecraft returning
from space to a horizontal landing originated was within
NACA, in 1954, in the form of an aeronautics research
experiment later named the X-15. The NACA proposal
2.3. DESCRIPTION
39
was submitted by Walter Dornberger.

In 1958, the X-15 concept further developed into proposal to launch an X-15 into space, and another X-series
spaceplane proposal, named X-20 Dyna-Soar, as well as
variety of aerospace plane concepts and studies. Neil
Armstrong was selected to pilot both the X-15 and the X20. Though the X-20 was not built, another spaceplane
similar to the X-20 was built several years later and delivered to NASA in January 1966 called the HL-10 (HL
indicated horizontal landing).
In the mid-1960s, the US Air Force conducted classied
studies on next-generation space transportation systems
and concluded that semi-reusable designs were the cheapest choice. It proposed a development program with an
immediate start on a Class Ivehicle with expendable
boosters, followed by slower development of a Class
IIsemi-reusable design and possible Class IIIfully
reusable design later. In 1967, George Mueller held a
one-day symposium at NASA headquarters to study the
options. Eighty people attended and presented a wide variety of designs, including earlier US Air Force designs
such as the X-20 Dyna-Soar.
In 1968, NASA ocially began work on what was then
known as the Integrated Launch and Re-entry Vehicle
(ILRV). At the same time, NASA held a separate Space
Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) competition. NASA ofces in Houston and Huntsville jointly issued a Request
for Proposal (RFP) for ILRV studies to design a spacecraft that could deliver a payload to orbit but also re-enter
the atmosphere and y back to Earth. For example, one
of the responses was for a two-stage design, featuring a
large booster and a small orbiter, called the DC-3, one
of several Phase A Shuttle designs. After the aforementioned Phase Astudies, B, C, and D phases progressively evaluated in-depth designs up to 1972. In the nal design, the bottom stage was recoverable solid rocket
boosters, and the top stage used an expendable external
tank.* [22]
STS-1 on the launch pad, 1981
to low Earth orbit, provided crew rotation and supplies

for the International Space Station (ISS), and performed
satellite servicing and repair. The orbiter could also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return
them to Earth. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected
lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life,
although this was later extended. The person in charge
of designing the STS was Maxime Faget, who had also
overseen the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft
designs. The crucial factor in the size and shape of the
Shuttle orbiter was the requirement that it be able to accommodate the largest planned commercial and military
satellites, and have over 1,000 mile cross-range recovery
range to meet the requirement for classied USAF missions for a once-around abort from a launch to a polar
orbit. The militarily specied 1,085 nm cross range requirement was one of the primary reasons for the Shuttle's large wings, compared to modern commercial designs with very minimal control surfaces and glide capability. Factors involved in opting for solid rockets and
an expendable fuel tank included the desire of the Pentagon to obtain a high-capacity payload vehicle for satellite deployment, and the desire of the Nixon administration to reduce the costs of space exploration by developing a spacecraft with reusable components.
In 1969, President Richard Nixon decided to support proceeding with Space Shuttle development. A series of development programs and analysis rened the basic design,
prior to full development and testing. In August 1973,
Each Space Shuttle was a reusable launch system comthe X-24B proved that an unpowered spaceplane could
posed of three main assemblies: the reusable OV, the
re-enter Earth's atmosphere for a horizontal landing.
expendable ET, and the two reusable SRBs.* [24] Only
Across the Atlantic, European ministers met in Belgium the OV entered orbit shortly after the tank and boosters
in 1973 to authorize Western Europe's manned orbital are jettisoned. The vehicle was launched vertically like a
project and its main contribution to Space Shuttlethe conventional rocket, and the orbiter glided to a horizontal
Spacelab program.* [23] Spacelab would provide a multi- landing like an airplane, after which it was refurbished for
disciplinary orbital space laboratory and additional space reuse. The SRBs parachuted to splashdown in the ocean
equipment for the Shuttle.* [23]
where they were towed back to shore and refurbished for
later Shuttle missions.
Five operational OVs were built: Columbia (OV102), Challenger (OV-099), Discovery (OV-103), Atlantis (OV-104), and Endeavour (OV-105). A mockThe Space Shuttle was the rst operational orbital space- up, Inspiration, currently stands at the entrance to the
craft designed for reuse. It carried dierent payloads Astronaut Hall of Fame. An additional craft, Enterprise
2.3 Description
40

ing, and the Goddard Space Flight Center managed the
global tracking network.* [30]
2.3.1 Orbiter vehicle

Main article: Space Shuttle orbiter
The orbiter resembles a conventional aircraft, with
Discovery rockets into orbit, seen here just after solid rocket
booster (SRB) separation
(OV-101), was built for atmospheric testing gliding and

landing; it was originally intended to be outtted for orbital operations after the test program, but it was found
more economical to upgrade the structural test article
STA-099 into orbiter Challenger (OV-099). Challenger
disintegrated 73 seconds after launch in 1986, and Endeavour was built as a replacement from structural spare
components. Columbia broke apart over Texas during reentry in 2003. Building Endeavour cost about US$1.7
billion. A Space Shuttle launch cost around $450 million.* [25]
Roger A. Pielke, Jr. has estimated that the Space Shuttle program cost about US$170 billion (2008 dollars)
through early 2008; the average cost per ight was about
US$1.5 billion.* [26] Two missions were paid for by Germany, Spacelab D1 and D2 (D for Deutschland) with
a payload control center in Oberpfaenhofen.* [27]* [28]
D1 was the rst time that control of a manned STS mission payload was not in U.S. hands.* [9]
Shuttle launch proles. From left to right: Columbia, Challenger,

Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.
double-delta wings swept 81 at the inner leading edge

and 45 at the outer leading edge. Its vertical stabilizer's
leading edge is swept back at a 50 angle. The four
elevons, mounted at the trailing edge of the wings, and
the rudder/speed brake, attached at the trailing edge of
the stabilizer, with the body ap, controlled the orbiter
during descent and landing.
The orbiter's payload bay measures 15 by 60 feet (4.6
by 18 m), comprising most of the fuselage. Information declassied in 2011 showed that the payload bay
was designed specically to accommodate the KH-9
HEXAGON spy satellite operated by the National Reconnaissance Oce.* [31] Two mostly symmetrical lengthwise payload bay doors hinged on either side of the bay
comprise its entire top. Payloads were generally loaded
horizontally into the bay while the orbiter is oriented
vertically on the launch pad and unloaded vertically in
the near-weightless orbital environment by the orbiter's
robotic remote manipulator arm (under astronaut control), EVA astronauts, or under the payloads' own power
(as for satellites attached to a rocket upper stagefor
deployment.)
At times, the orbiter itself was referred to as the Space

Shuttle. This was not technically correct as the Space
Shuttle was the combination of the orbiter, the external
tank, and the two solid rocket boosters. These components, once assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building
originally built to assemble the Apollo Saturn V rocket, Three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) are mounted
on the orbiter's aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The
were commonly referred to as the stack.* [29]
engine nozzles can gimbal 10.5 degrees up and down,
Responsibility for the Shuttle components was spread and 8.5 degrees from side to side during ascent to change
among multiple NASA eld centers. The Kennedy the direction of their thrust to steer the Shuttle. The orSpace Center was responsible for launch, landing and biter structure is made primarily from aluminum alloy,
turnaround operations for equatorial orbits (the only orbit although the engine structure is made primarily from
prole actually used in the program), the US Air Force titanium alloy.
at the Vandenberg Air Force Base was responsible for
launch, landing and turnaround operations for polar or- The operational orbiters built were OV-102 Columbia,
bits (though this was never used), the Johnson Space Cen- OV-099 Challenger, OV-103 *Discovery, OV-104 Atter served as the central point for all Shuttle operations, lantis, and OV-105 Endeavour. [32]
the Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for the
Space Shuttle Atlantis transported by a Boeing 747
main engines, external tank, and solid rocket boosters, the
John C. Stennis Space Center handled main engine testShuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), 1998 (NASA)
2.3. DESCRIPTION
Space Shuttle Endeavour being transported by a
Shuttle Carrier Aircraft
An overhead view of Atlantis as it sits atop the
Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) before STS-79.
Two Tail Service Masts (TSMs) to either side of the
orbiter's tail provide umbilical connections for propellant loading and electrical power.
Water is released onto the mobile launcher platform
on Launch Pad 39A at the start of a sound suppression system test in 2004. During launch, 350,000
US gallons (1,300,000 L) of water are poured onto
the pad in 41 seconds.* [1]
1. ^Sound Suppression Water System Test. NASA.
Retrieved 2011-06-30.
41
2.3.4 Orbiter add-ons

The orbiter could be used in conjunction with a variety of
add-ons depending on the mission. This included orbital
laboratories (Spacelab, Spacehab), boosters for launching
payloads farther into space (Inertial Upper Stage, Payload
Assist Module), and other functions, such as provided
by Extended Duration Orbiter, Multi-Purpose Logistics
Modules, or Canadarm (RMS). An upper stage called
Transfer Orbit Stage (Orbital Science Corp. TOS-21)
was also used once.* [42] Other types of systems and
racks were part of the modular Spacelab system pallets, igloo, IPS, etc., which also supported special missions such as SRTM.* [43]
MPLM Leonardo
IUS deploying with Galileo
PAM-D with satellite
2.3.2
External tank
EDO being installed

Spacelab in orbit
Main article: Space Shuttle external tank
RMS (Canadarm)
Spacehab
The main function of the Space Shuttle external tank was
to supply the liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel to the main
engines. It was also the backbone of the launch vehiSpacelab
cle, providing attachment points for the two solid rocket
boosters and the orbiter. The external tank was the only Main article: Spacelab
part of the Shuttle system that was not reused. Although A major component of the Space Shuttle Program was
the external tanks were always discarded, it would have
been possible to take them into orbit and re-use them
(such as for incorporation into a space station).* [20]* [33]
2.3.3
Solid rocket boosters
Main article: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

Two solid rocket boosters (SRBs) each provided 12.5
million newtons (2.8 million lbf) of thrust at lifto,* [34]
which was 83% of the total thrust at lifto. The SRBs
were jettisoned two minutes after launch at a height
of about 150,000 feet (46 km), and then deployed
parachutes and landed in the ocean to be recovered.* [35]
The SRB cases were made of steel about inch (13 mm)
thick.* [36] The solid rocket boosters were re-used many
times; the casing used in Ares I engine testing in 2009
consisted of motor cases that had been own, collectively,
on 48 Shuttle missions, including STS-1.* [37]
Astronauts who have own on multiple spacecraft report that Shuttle delivers a rougher ride than Apollo or
Soyuz.* [38]* [39] The additional vibration is caused by
the solid rocket boosters, as solid fuel does not burn as
evenly as liquid fuel. The vibration dampens down after
the solid rocket boosters have been jettisoned.* [40]* [41]
Spacelab LM2
Spacelab, primarily contributed by a consortium of European countries, and operated in conjunction with the
United States and international partners.* [43] Supported
by a modular system of pressurized modules, pallets,
and systems, Spacelab missions executed on multidisciplinary science, orbital logistics, and international cooperation.* [43] Over 29 missions ew on subjects ranging
from astronomy, microgravity, radar, and life sciences, to
name a few.* [43] Spacelab hardware also supported missions such as Hubble (HST) servicing and space station
42
resupply.* [43] STS-2 and STS-3 provided testing, and

the rst full mission was Spacelab-1 (STS-9) launched on
November 28, 1983.* [43]
Spacelab formally began in 1973, after a meeting in Brussels, Belgium, by European heads of state.* [23] Within
the decade, Spacelab went into orbit and provided Europe
and the United States with an orbital workshop and hardware system.* [23] International cooperation, science, and
exploration were realized on Spacelab.* [43]
2.3.5
Flight systems
The Shuttle was one of the earliest craft to use a computerized y-by-wire digital ight control system. This
means no mechanical or hydraulic linkages connected the
pilot's control stick to the control surfaces or reaction
control system thrusters. The control algorithm, which
used a classical Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
approach, was developed and maintained by Honeywell.
The Shuttle's y-by-wire digital ight control system was
composed of 4 control systems each addressing a different mission phase: Ascent, Descent, On-Orbit and
Aborts. Honeywell is also credited with the design and
implementation of the Shuttle's Nose Wheel Steering
Control Algorithm that allowed the Orbiter to safely land
at Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Runway.
Simulation of SSLV at Mach 2.46 and 66,000 ft (20,000 m). The

surface of the vehicle is colored by the pressure coecient, and
the gray contours represent the density of the surrounding air, as
calculated using the OVERFLOW software package.
A concern with using digital y-by-wire systems on the

Shuttle was reliability. Considerable research went into
the Shuttle computer system. The Shuttle used ve identical redundant IBM 32-bit general purpose computers
(GPCs), model AP-101, constituting a type of embedded
system. Four computers ran specialized software called
the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS). A fth
backup computer ran separate software called the Backup
Flight System (BFS). Collectively they were called the
Data Processing System (DPS).* [44]* [45]
ers were hardware redundant, they all ran the same software, so a generic software problem could crash all of
them. Embedded system avionic software was developed
under totally dierent conditions from public commercial software: the number of code lines was tiny compared to a public commercial software product, changes
were only made infrequently and with extensive testing,
and many programming and test personnel worked on the
The design goal of the Shuttle's DPS was fail- small amount of computer code. However, in theory it
operational/fail-safe reliability. After a single failure, the could have still failed, and the BFS existed for that conShuttle could still continue the mission. After two fail- tingency. While the BFS could run in parallel with PASS,
the BFS never engaged to take over control from PASS
ures, it could still land safely.
during any Shuttle mission.
The four general-purpose computers operated essentially
in lockstep, checking each other. If one computer pro- The software for the Shuttle computers was written in a
vided a dierent result than the other three (i.e. the high-level language called HAL/S, somewhat similar to
one computer failed), the three functioning computers PL/I. It is specically designed for a real time embedded
votedit out of the system. This isolated it from vehi- system environment.
cle control. If a second computer of the three remaining The IBM AP-101 computers originally had about 424
failed, the two functioning computers voted it out. A very kilobytes of magnetic core memory each. The CPU could
unlikely failure mode would have been where two of the process about 400,000 instructions per second. They had
computers produced result A, and two produced result B no hard disk drive, and loaded software from magnetic
(a two-two split). In this unlikely case, one group of two tape cartridges.
was to be picked at random.
In 1990, the original computers were replaced with an
The Backup Flight System (BFS) was separately developed software running on the fth computer, used only if
the entire four-computer primary system failed. The BFS
was created because although the four primary comput-
upgraded model AP-101S, which had about 2.5 times the

memory capacity (about 1 megabyte) and three times the
processor speed (about 1.2 million instructions per second). The memory was changed from magnetic core to
2.3. DESCRIPTION
semiconductor with battery backup.
Early Shuttle missions, starting in November 1983, took
along the GRiD Compass, arguably one of the rst laptop computers. The GRiD was given the name SPOC, for
Shuttle Portable Onboard Computer. Use on the Shuttle
required both hardware and software modications which
were incorporated into later versions of the commercial
product. It was used to monitor and display the Shuttle's
ground position, path of the next two orbits, show where
the Shuttle had line of sight communications with ground
stations, and determine points for location-specic observations of the Earth. The Compass sold poorly, as it cost
at least US$8000, but it oered unmatched performance
for its weight and size.* [46] NASA was one of its main
customers.* [47]
43
name Enterprisewas painted in black on the payload
bay doors just above the hinge and behind the crew module; on the aft end of the payload bay doors was the NASA
wormlogotype in gray. Underneath the rear of the payload bay doors on the side of the fuselage just above the
wing is the text United Statesin black with a ag of
the United States ahead of it.
The rst operational orbiter, Columbia, originally had the
same markings as Enterprise, although the lettersUSA
on the right wing were slightly larger and spaced farther
apart. Columbia also had black markings which Enterprise lacked on its forward RCS module, around the cockpit windows, and on its vertical stabilizer, and had distinctive blackchineson the forward part of its upper wing
surfaces, which none of the other orbiters had.
During its service life, the Shuttle's Control System never Challenger established a modied marking scheme for
experienced a failure. Many of the lessons learned have the shuttle eet that was matched by Discovery, Atlantis
been used to design today's high speed control algorithms. and Endeavour. The letters USAin black above an
American ag were displayed on the left wing, with the
NASAwormlogotype in gray centered above the name
2.3.6 Orbiter markings and insignia
of the orbiter in black on the right wing. The name of the
orbiter was inscribed not on the payload bay doors, but
on the forward fuselage just below and behind the cockpit windows. This would make the name visible when the
shuttle was photographed in orbit with the doors open.
In 1983, Enterprise had its wing markings changed to
match Challenger, and the NASA wormlogotype on
the aft end of the payload bay doors was changed from
gray to black. Some black markings were added to the
nose, cockpit windows and vertical tail to more closely
resemble the ight vehicles, but the name Enterprise
remained on the payload bay doors as there was never any
need to open them. Columbia had its name moved to the
forward fuselage to match the other ight vehicles after
STS-61-C, during the 198688 hiatus when the shuttle
eet was grounded following the loss of Challenger, but
retained its original wing markings until its last overhaul
(after STS-93), and its unique black wing chinesfor
the remainder of its operational life.
Beginning in 1998, the ight vehicles' markings were
modied to incorporate the NASA meatballinsignia.
Thewormlogotype, which the agency had phased out,
was removed from the payload bay doors and themeatballinsignia was added aft of theUnited Statestext on
the lower aft fuselage. Themeatballinsignia was also
displayed on the left wing, with the American ag above
the orbiter's name, left-justied rather than centered, on
the right wing. The three surviving ight vehicles, DiscovPayload specialist Millie Hughes-Fulford, who ew aboard ery, Atlantis and Endeavour, still bear these markings as
Columbia in 1991, displays the modernist Blackburn & Danne
museum displays. Enterprise became the property of the
NASA logotype, known as the worm.
Smithsonian Institution in 1985 and was no longer under
NASA's control when these changes were made, hence
The typeface used on the Space Shuttle Orbiter is
the prototype orbiter still has its 1983 markings and still
Helvetica.* [48]
has its name on the payload bay doors.
The prototype orbiter Enterprise originally had a ag of
the United States on the upper surface of the left wing
and the letters USAin black on the right wing. The
44
2.3.7
Upgrades
tank that proved unnecessary. The resultinglight-weight

external tankwas rst own on STS-6 * [52] and used
on the majority of Shuttle missions. STS-91 saw the rst
ight of thesuper light-weight external tank. This version of the tank was made of the 2195 aluminum-lithium
alloy. It weighed 3.4 metric tons (7,500 lb) less than the
last run of lightweight tanks, allowing the Shuttle to deliver heavy elements to ISS's high inclination orbit.* [52]
As the Shuttle was not operated without a crew, each of
these improvements was rst own on operational ights.
The solid rocket boosters underwent improvements as
well. Design engineers added a third O-ring seal to the
joints between the segments after the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Atlantis was the rst Shuttle to y with a glass cockpit, on STS101. (composite image)
The Space Shuttle was initially developed in the

1970s,* [49] but received many upgrades and modications afterward to improve performance, reliability and
safety. Internally, the Shuttle remained largely similar to the original design, with the exception of the improved avionics computers. In addition to the computer
upgrades, the original analog primary ight instruments
were replaced with modern full-color, at-panel display
screens, called a glass cockpit, which is similar to those of
contemporary airliners. To facilitate construction of ISS,
the internal airlocks of each orbiter except Columbia* [50]
were replaced with external docking systems to allow for
a greater amount of cargo to be stored on the Shuttle's
mid-deck during station resupply missions.
The Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) had several
improvements to enhance reliability and power. This explains phrases such asMain engines throttling up to 104
percent.This did not mean the engines were being run
over a safe limit. The 100 percent gure was the original
specied power level. During the lengthy development
program, Rocketdyne determined the engine was capable
of safe reliable operation at 104 percent of the originally
specied thrust. NASA could have rescaled the output
number, saying in essence 104 percent is now 100 percent. To clarify this would have required revising much
previous documentation and software, so the 104 percent
number was retained. SSME upgrades were denoted as
block numbers, such as block I, block II, and block IIA.
The upgrades improved engine reliability, maintainability and performance. The 109% thrust level was nally
reached in ight hardware with the Block II engines in
2001. The normal maximum throttle was 104 percent,
with 106 percent or 109 percent used for mission aborts.
For the rst two missions, STS-1 and STS-2, the external tank was painted white to protect the insulation that
covers much of the tank, but improvements and testing
showed that it was not required. The weight saved by not
painting the tank resulted in an increase in payload capability to orbit.* [51] Additional weight was saved by removing some of the internalstringersin the hydrogen
The three nozzles of the Space Shuttle Main Engine with the two
Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) pods, and the vertical stabilizer above.
Several other SRB improvements were planned to improve performance and safety, but never came to be.
These culminated in the considerably simpler, lower cost,
probably safer and better-performing Advanced Solid
Rocket Booster. These rockets entered production in the
early to mid-1990s to support the Space Station, but were
later canceled to save money after the expenditure of $2.2
billion.* [53] The loss of the ASRB program resulted in
the development of the Super LightWeight external Tank
(SLWT), which provided some of the increased payload
capability, while not providing any of the safety improvements. In addition, the US Air Force developed their own
2.3. DESCRIPTION
45
much lighter single-piece SRB design using a lamentwound system, but this too was canceled.
STS-70 was delayed in 1995, when woodpeckers bored
holes in the foam insulation of Discovery's external tank.
Since then, NASA has installed commercial plastic owl
decoys and inatable owl balloons which had to be removed prior to launch.* [54] The delicate nature of the
foam insulation had been the cause of damage to the
Thermal Protection System, the tile heat shield and heat
wrap of the orbiter. NASA remained condent that this
damage, while it was the primary cause of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, would not
jeopardize the completion of the International Space Sta- Space Shuttle drawing
tion (ISS) in the projected time allotted.
A cargo-only, unmanned variant of the Shuttle was variously proposed and rejected since the 1980s. It was
called the Shuttle-C, and would have traded re-usability
for cargo capability, with large potential savings from
reusing technology developed for the Space Shuttle. Another proposal was to convert the payload bay into a passenger area, with versions ranging from 30 to 74 seats,
three days in orbit, and cost US$1.5 million per seat.* [55]
On the rst four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modied US Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which
included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fth ight, STS-5, until the loss of
Challenger, one-piece light blue nomex ight suits and
partial-pressure helmets were worn. A less-bulky, partialpressure version of the high-altitude pressure suits with Space Shuttle wing cutaway
a helmet was reinstated when Shuttle ights resumed in
1988. The Launch-Entry Suit ended its service life in late
1995, and was replaced by the full-pressure Advanced
Crew Escape Suit (ACES), which resembled the Gemini
space suit in design, but retained the orange color of the
Launch-Entry Suit.
To extend the duration that orbiters could stay docked
at the ISS, the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System
(SSPTS) was installed. The SSPTS allowed these orbiters
to use power provided by the ISS to preserve their consumables. The SSPTS was rst used successfully on STS118.
2.3.8
Specications
Space Shuttle Orbiter and Soyuz-TM (drawn to scale).
Length: 122.17 ft (37.237 m)

Wingspan: 78.06 ft (23.79 m)
Height: 56.58 ft (17.25 m)
Space Shuttle orbiter illustration
Orbiter* [56] (for Endeavour, OV-105)
Empty weight: 172,000 lb (78,000 kg)* [57]

Gross lifto weight (Orbiter only): 240,000 lb
(110,000 kg)
46

Burn time: 150250 s typical burn; 1250 s deorbit burn
Fuel: MMH/N2O4
Crew: Varies.
Two Space Shuttles sit at launch pads. This particular occasion is

due to the nal Hubble servicing mission, where the International
Space Station is unreachable, which necessitates having a Shuttle
on standby for a possible rescue mission.
Maximum landing weight: 230,000 lb (100,000 kg)

Payload to Landing (Return Payload): 32,000 lb
(14,400 kg)* [1]
The earliest Shuttle ights had the

minimum crew of two; many later
missions a crew of ve. By program
end, typically seven people would
y: (commander, pilot, several
mission specialists, one of whom
(MS-2) acted as the ight engineer starting with STS-9 in 1983).
On two occasions, eight astronauts
have own (STS-61-A, STS-71).
Eleven people could be accommodated in an emergency mission (see
STS-3xx).
External tank (for SLWT)
Maximum payload: 55,250 lb (25,060 kg)

Payload to LEO: 53,600 lb (24,310 kg)
Length: 46.9 m (153.8 ft)
Payload to LEO @ 51.6 inclination (ISS):
Diameter: 8.4 m (27.6 ft)
Payload to GTO: 8,390 lb (3,806 kg)
Propellant volume: 2,025 m3 (534,900 U.S. gal)
Payload to Polar Orbit: 28,000 lb (12,700 kg)
Empty weight: 26,535 kg (58,500 lb)
Note launch payloads modied by External Tank

(ET) choice (ET, LWT, or SLWT)
Gross lifto weight (for tank):

(1,670,000 lb)
Payload bay dimensions: 15 by 59 ft (4.6 by 18 m)

Operational altitude: 100 to 520 nmi (190 to 960
km; 120 to 600 mi)
Speed: 7,743 m/s (27,870 km/h; 17,320 mph)
Crossrange: 1,085 nmi (2,009 km; 1,249 mi)
Main Stage (SSME with external tank)
Engines: Three Rocketdyne Block II SSMEs,
each with a sea level thrust of 393,800 lbf
(1.752 MN) at 104% power
Thrust (at lifto, sea level, 104% power, all 3
engines): 1,181,400 lbf (5.255 MN)
Specic impulse: 455 seconds (4.46 km/s)
Burn time: 480 s
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
Orbital Maneuvering System
756,000 kg
Solid Rocket Boosters

Length: 45.46 m (149 ft)* [58]
Diameter: 3.71 m (12.2 ft)* [58]
Empty weight (each): 68,000 kg (150,000 lb)* [58]
Gross lifto weight (each): 571,000 kg (1,260,000
lb)* [59]
Thrust (at lifto, sea level, each):
(2,800,000 lbf)* [34]
12.5 MN

Burn time: 124 s
System Stack
Engines: 2 OMS Engines
Height: 56 m (180 ft)
Thrust: 53.4 kN (12,000 lbf) combined total

vacuum thrust
Gross lifto weight: 2,000,000 kg (4,400,000 lb)
Total lifto thrust: 30.16 MN (6,780,000 lbf)
2.4. MISSION PROFILE
STS mission prole
47
are often struck by lightning with no adverse eects because the electricity of the strike is dissipated through
its conductive structure and the aircraft is not electrically
grounded. Like most jet airliners, the Shuttle was mainly
constructed of conductive aluminum, which would normally shield and protect the internal systems. However,
upon lifto the Shuttle sent out a long exhaust plume as it
ascended, and this plume could have triggered lightning
by providing a current path to ground. The NASA Anvil
Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an anvil cloud could
not appear within a distance of 10 nautical miles.* [61]
The Shuttle Launch Weather Ocer monitored conditions until the nal decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition, the weather conditions had to be
acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites
(one of several Space Shuttle abort modes) to launch as
well as the solid rocket booster recovery area.* [60]* [62]
While the Shuttle might have safely endured a lightning
strike, a similar strike caused problems on Apollo 12, so
for safety NASA chose not to launch the Shuttle if lightning was possible (NPR8715.5).
Historically, the Shuttle was not launched if its ight
would run from December to January (a year-end rollover
or YERO). Its ight software, designed in the 1970s, was
not designed for this, and would require the orbiter's computers be reset through a change of year, which could
cause a glitch while in orbit. In 2007, NASA engineers
devised a solution so Shuttle ights could cross the yearend boundary.* [63]
On the day of a launch, after the nal hold in the countdown at T-minus 9 minutes, the Shuttle went through its
nal preparations for launch, and the countdown was automatically controlled by the Ground Launch Sequencer
(GLS), software at the Launch Control Center, which
stopped the count if it sensed a critical problem with any
of the Shuttle's onboard systems. The GLS handed o
the count to the Shuttle's on-board computers at T minus
31 seconds, in a process called auto sequence start.
Shuttle launch of Atlantis at sunset in 2001. The Sun is behind

the camera, and the plume's shadow intersects the Moon across
the sky.
2.4 Mission prole

2.4.1
Launch
See also: Space shuttle launch countdown and Space

shuttle launch commit criteria
At T-minus 16 seconds, the massive sound suppression

system (SPS) began to drench the Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) and SRB trenches with 300,000 US gallons
(1,100 m3 ) of water to protect the Orbiter from damage
by acoustical energy and rocket exhaust reected from
the ame trench and MLP during lift o (NASA article).* [64]
At T-minus 10 seconds, hydrogen igniters were activated
under each engine bell to quell the stagnant gas inside the
cones before ignition. Failure to burn these gases could
trip the onboard sensors and create the possibility of an
overpressure and explosion of the vehicle during the ring
phase. The main engine turbopumps also began charging
the combustion chambers with liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen at this time. The computers reciprocated this action by allowing the redundant computer systems to begin
the ring phase.
All Space Shuttle missions were launched from Kennedy

Space Center (KSC). The weather criteria used for launch
included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity.* [60] The Shuttle was not launched under conditions
The three main engines (SSMEs) started at T-minus 6.6
where it could have been struck by lightning. Aircraft
48
Shortly after clearing the tower, the Shuttle began a combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuver that positioned the
orbiter head down, with wings level and aligned with the
launch pad. The Shuttle ew upside down during the ascent phase. This orientation allowed a trim angle of attack
that was favorable for aerodynamic loads during the region of high dynamic pressure, resulting in a net positive
load factor, as well as providing the ight crew with use
of the ground as a visual reference. The vehicle climbed
in a progressively attening arc, accelerating as the weight
of the SRBs and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose
vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal
acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the 380
Space Shuttle Main Engine ignition
kilometers (236 mi) altitude of the International Space
Station is 27,650 km/h (17,180 mph), roughly equivalent
to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Staseconds. The main engines ignited sequentially via the tion orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions goShuttle's general purpose computers (GPCs) at 120 mil- ing there must set orbital inclination to the same value in
lisecond intervals. The GPCs required that the engines order to rendezvous with the station.
reach 90 percent of their rated performance to complete Around a point called Max Q, where the aerodynamic
the nal gimbal of the main engine nozzles to lifto con- forces are at their maximum, the main engines were
guration.* [65] When the SSMEs started, water from the temporarily throttled back to 72 percent to avoid oversound suppression system ashed into a large volume of speeding and hence overstressing the Shuttle, particularly
steam that shot southward. All three SSMEs had to reach in vulnerable areas such as the wings. At this point, a phethe required 100 percent thrust within three seconds, oth- nomenon known as the Prandtl-Glauert singularity ocerwise the onboard computers would initiate an RSLS curred, where condensation clouds formed during the veabort. If the onboard computers veried normal thrust hicle's transition to supersonic speed.
buildup, at T minus 0 seconds, the 8 pyrotechnic nuts
holding the vehicle to the pad were detonated and the A few seconds later, after the shuttle had gained more
SRBs were ignited. At this point the vehicle was com- altitude and reached a region of lower atmospheric presmitted to lifto, as the SRBs could not be turned o sure, this dangerous point is passed. At T+70 seconds the
once ignited.* [66] The plume from the solid rockets exmain engines throttled up to their maximum cruise thrust
ited the ame trench in a northward direction at near the of 104% rated thrust.
speed of sound, often causing a rippling of shockwaves At T+126 seconds after launch, pyrotechnic fastenalong the actual ame and smoke contrails. At ignition, ers released the SRBs and small separation rockets
the GPCs mandated the ring sequences via the Master pushed them laterally away from the vehicle. The SRBs
Events Controller, a computer program integrated with parachuted back to the ocean to be reused. The Shuttle
the Shuttle's four redundant computer systems. There then began accelerating to orbit on the main engines. The
were extensive emergency procedures (abort modes) to vehicle at that point in the ight had a thrust-to-weight rahandle various failure scenarios during ascent. Many of tio of less than one the main engines actually had insufthese concerned SSME failures, since that was the most cient thrust to exceed the force of gravity, and the verticomplex and highly stressed component. After the Chal- cal speed given to it by the SRBs temporarily decreased.
lenger disaster, there were extensive upgrades to the abort However, as the burn continued, the weight of the promodes.
pellant decreased and the thrust-to-weight ratio exceeded
After the main engines started, but while the solid rocket 1 again and the ever-lighter vehicle then continued to acboosters were still bolted to the pad, the oset thrust from celerate towards orbit.
the Shuttle's three main engines caused the entire launch
stack (boosters, tank and Shuttle) to pitch down about 2
m at cockpit level. This motion was called the nod,
ortwangin NASA jargon. As the boosters exed back
into their original shape, the launch stack pitched slowly
back upright. This took approximately six seconds. At
the point when it was perfectly vertical, the boosters ignited and the launch commenced. The Johnson Space
Center's Mission Control Center assumed control of the
ight once the SRBs had cleared the launch tower.
The vehicle continued to climb and take on a somewhat

nose-up angle to the horizon it used the main engines to
gain and then maintain altitude while it accelerated horizontally towards orbit. At about ve and three-quarter
minutes into ascent, the orbiter's direct communication
links with the ground began to fade, at which point it
rolled heads up to reroute its communication links to the
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system.
Finally, in the last tens of seconds of the main engine
49
doors could not open for some reason, the Shuttle was already on a path to return to earth for an emergency abort
landing.
Ascent tracking
Contraves-Goerz Kineto Tracking Mount used to image the space

Shuttle during launch ascent
Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation during STS-1. The white
external tank pictured was used on STS-1 and STS-2.
burn, the mass of the vehicle was low enough that the engines had to be throttled back to limit vehicle acceleration
to 3 g (29.34 m/s), largely for astronaut comfort. At approximately eight minutes post launch, the main engines
were shut down.
The main engines were shut down before complete depletion of propellant, as running dry would have destroyed
the engines. The oxygen supply was terminated before
the hydrogen supply, as the SSMEs reacted unfavorably
to other shutdown modes. (Liquid oxygen has a tendency
to react violently, and supports combustion when it encounters hot engine metal.) The external tank was released by ring pyrotechnic fasteners, largely burning up
in the atmosphere, though some fragments fell into the
ocean, in either the Indian Ocean or the Pacic Ocean
depending on launch prole.* [56] The sealing action of
the tank plumbing and lack of pressure relief systems on
the external tank helped it break up in the lower atmosphere. After the foam burned away during re-entry, the
heat caused a pressure buildup in the remaining liquid
oxygen and hydrogen until the tank exploded. This ensured that any pieces that fell back to Earth were small.
To prevent the Shuttle from following the external tank
back into the lower atmosphere, the Orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were red to raise the perigee
higher into the upper atmosphere. On some missions
(e.g., missions to the ISS), the OMS engines were also
used while the main engines were still ring. The reason
for putting the orbiter on a path that brought it back to
Earth was not just for external tank disposal but also one
of safety: if the OMS malfunctioned, or the cargo bay
Multicolored afterglow of the STS-131 launch
The Shuttle was monitored throughout its ascent for short

range tracking (10 seconds before lifto through 57
seconds after), medium range (7 seconds before lifto
through 110 seconds after) and long range (7 seconds before lifto through 165 seconds after). Short range cameras included 22 16mm cameras on the Mobile Launch
Platform and 8 16mm on the Fixed Service Structure,
4 high speed xed cameras located on the perimeter of
the launch complex plus an additional 42 xed cameras
with 16mm motion picture lm. Medium range cameras included remotely operated tracking cameras at the
launch complex plus 6 sites along the immediate coast
north and south of the launch pad, each with 800mm lens
and high speed cameras running 100 frames per second.
These cameras ran for only 410 seconds due to limitations in the amount of lm available. Long range cameras included those mounted on the external tank, SRBs
and orbiter itself which streamed live video back to the
ground providing valuable information about any debris
falling during ascent. Long range tracking cameras with
400-inch lm and 200-inch video lenses were operated
50
by a photographer at Playalinda Beach as well as 9 other

sites from 38 miles north at the Ponce Inlet to 23 miles
south to Patrick Air Force Base (PAFB) and additional
mobile optical tracking camera was stationed on Merritt
Island during launches. A total of 10 HD cameras were
used both for ascent information for engineers and broadcast feeds to networks such as NASA TV and HDNet The
number of cameras signicantly increased and numerous
existing cameras were upgraded at the recommendation
of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board to provide
better information about the debris during launch. Debris was also tracked using a pair of Weibel Continuous
Pulse Doppler X-band radars, one on board the SRB recovery ship MV Liberty Star positioned north east of the
launch pad and on a ship positioned south of the launch
pad. Additionally, during the rst 2 ights following the
loss of Columbia and her crew, a pair of NASA WB-57
reconnaissance aircraft equipped with HD Video and Infrared ew at 60,000 feet (18,000 m) to provide additional views of the launch ascent.* [67] Kennedy Space
Center also invested nearly $3 million in improvements
to the digital video analysis systems in support of debris
tracking.* [68]
2.4.2
In orbit
Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually ew at an altitude of 320

kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650
kilometers.* [69] In the 1980s and 1990s, many ights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science
probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to
servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches.
Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to
two weeks, although longer missions were possible with
the Extended Duration Orbiter add-on or when attached
to a space station.
2.4.3
Re-entry and landing
Almost the entire Space Shuttle re-entry procedure, except for lowering the landing gear and deploying the air
data probes, was normally performed under computer
control. However, the re-entry could be own entirely
manually if an emergency arose. The approach and landing phase could be controlled by the autopilot, but was
usually hand own.
The vehicle began re-entry by ring the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while ying upside down, backside
rst, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's
velocity by about 200 mph (322 km/h). The resultant
slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital perigee down
into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then ipped over,
by pushing its nose down (which was actuallyuprelative to the Earth, because it was ying upside down). This
Glowing plasma trail from Shuttle re-entry as seen from the Space
Station
OMS ring was done roughly halfway around the globe

from the landing site.
The vehicle started encountering more signicant air
density in the lower thermosphere at about 400,000 ft
(120 km), at around Mach 25, 8,200 m/s (30,000 km/h;
18,000 mph). The vehicle was controlled by a combination of RCS thrusters and control surfaces, to y at a 40degree nose-up attitude, producing high drag, not only to
slow it down to landing speed, but also to reduce reentry
heating. As the vehicle encountered progressively denser
air, it began a gradual transition from spacecraft to aircraft. In a straight line, its 40-degree nose-up attitude
would cause the descent angle to atten-out, or even rise.
The vehicle therefore performed a series of four steep
S-shaped banking turns, each lasting several minutes, at
up to 70 degrees of bank, while still maintaining the 40degree angle of attack. In this way it dissipated speed
sideways rather than upwards. This occurred during the
'hottest' phase of re-entry, when the heat-shield glowed
red and the G-forces were at their highest. By the end
of the last turn, the transition to aircraft was almost complete. The vehicle leveled its wings, lowered its nose into
a shallow dive and began its approach to the landing site.
Simulation of the outside of the Shuttle as it heats
up to over 1,500 C during re-entry.
A Space Shuttle model undergoes a wind tunnel test
in 1975. This test is simulating the ionized gasses
that surround a Shuttle as it reenters the atmosphere.
A computer simulation of high velocity air ow
around the Space Shuttle during re-entry.
The orbiter's maximum glide ratio/lift-to-drag ratio
varies considerably with speed, ranging from 1:1 at
hypersonic speeds, 2:1 at supersonic speeds and reaching 4.5:1 at subsonic speeds during approach and landing.* [70]
In the lower atmosphere, the orbiter ies much like a conventional glider, except for a much higher descent rate,
51
over 50 m/s (180 km/h; 110 mph) or 9,800 fpm. At approximately Mach 3, two air data probes, located on the
left and right sides of the orbiter's forward lower fuselage,
are deployed to sense air pressure related to the vehicle's
movement in the atmosphere.
Final approach and landing phase
Discovery after landing on Earth for crew disembarkment
engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge

and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gases from
fuel lines and the cargo bay about 4560 minutes after
landing. A ight surgeon boarded the orbiter for initial
medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once
STS-127, Space Shuttle Endeavour landing video, 2009
the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle
was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the
When the approach and landing phase began, the orbiter
Kennedy Space Center* [71]
was at a 3,000 m (9,800 ft) altitude, 12 km (7.5 mi) from
the runway. The pilots applied aerodynamic braking to If the mission ended at Edwards Air Force Base in Calhelp slow down the vehicle. The orbiter's speed was re- ifornia, White Sands Space Harbor in New Mexico, or
duced from 682 to 346 km/h (424 to 215 mph), approx- any of the runways the orbiter might use in an emergency,
imately, at touch-down (compared to 260 km/h or 160 the orbiter was loaded atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft,
mph for a jet airliner). The landing gear was deployed a modied 747, for transport back to the Kennedy Space
while the Orbiter was ying at 430 km/h (270 mph). To Center, landing at the Shuttle Landing Facility. Once at
assist the speed brakes, a 12 m (39 ft) drag chute was the Shuttle Landing Facility, the orbiter was then towed 2
deployed either after main gear or nose gear touchdown miles (3.2 km) along a tow-way and access roads normally
(depending on selected chute deploy mode) at about 343 used by tour buses and KSC employees to the Orbiter
km/h (213 mph). The chute was jettisoned once the or- Processing Facility where it began a months-long preparation process for the next mission.* [71]
biter slowed to 110 km/h (68.4 mph).
Discovery touches down for the nal time at the end
of STS-133.
Endeavour brake chute deploys after touching down
Media related to Landings of space Shuttles at Wikimedia Commons
2.4.4
Post-landing processing
2.4.5 Landing sites

See also: List of space shuttle landing runways
NASA preferred Space Shuttle landings to be at Kennedy
Space Center.* [72] If weather conditions made landing
there unfavorable, the Shuttle could delay its landing until conditions are favorable, touch down at Edwards Air
Force Base, California, or use one of the multiple alternate landing sites around the world. A landing at any site
other than Kennedy Space Center meant that after touchdown the Shuttle must be mated to the Shuttle Carrier
Aircraft and returned to Cape Canaveral. Space Shuttle
Columbia (STS-3) once landed at the White Sands Space
Harbor, New Mexico; this was viewed as a last resort as
NASA scientists believe that the sand could potentially
damage the Shuttle's exterior.
Main article: Orbiter Processing Facility

After landing, the vehicle stayed on the runway for several hours for the orbiter to cool. Teams at the front
and rear of the orbiter tested for presence of hydrogen,
hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine, nitrogen tetroxide and
ammonia (fuels and by-products of the reaction control
system and the orbiter's three APUs). If hydrogen was
detected, an emergency would be declared, the orbiter
powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A There were many alternative landing sites that were never
convoy of 25 specially designed vehicles and 150 trained used.* [73]* [74]
52

2011 concluded that the agency had seriously underestimated the level of risk involved in operating the Shuttle. The report assessed that there was a 1 in 9 chance of
a catastrophic disaster during the rst nine ights of the
Shuttle but that safety improvements had later improved
the risk ratio to 1 in 90.* [77]
2.5 Fleet history
Atlantis deploys the landing gear before landing.
2.4.6
Risk contributors
OV-101 Enterprise takes ight for the rst time over Dryden
Flight Research Facility, Edwards, California in 1977 as part
of the Shuttle program's Approach and Landing Tests (ALT).
Discovery at ISS in 2011 (STS-133)
An example of technical risk analysis for a STS mission is SPRA iteration 3.1 top risk contributors for STS133:* [75]* [76]
1. Micro-Meteoroid Orbital Debris (MMOD) strikes
2. Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)-induced or
SSME catastrophic failure
3. Ascent debris strikes to TPS leading to LOCV on
orbit or entry
4. Crew error during entry
5. RSRM-induced RSRM catastrophic failure (RSRM
are the rocket motors of the SRBs)
6. COPV failure (COPV are tanks inside the orbiter
that hold gas at high pressure)
Atlantis lifts o from Launch Pad 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space

Center in Florida on the STS-132 mission to the International
Space Station at 2:20 pm EDT on May 14, 2010. This was one
of the last scheduled ights for Atlantis before it was retired.
Main article: List of space shuttle missions
Below is a list of major events in the Space Shuttle orbiter

An internal NASA risk assessment study (conducted by eet.
the Shuttle Program Safety and Mission Assurance Oce Sources: NASA launch manifest,* [81] NASA Space
at Johnson Space Center) released in late 2010 or early Shuttle archive* [82]
2.6. RETIREMENT
2.5.1
53
Shuttle disasters
US space station evolved into the International Space Station project, which suered from long delays and design
Main articles: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and changes before it could be completed, the service life of
the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011,
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
serving at least 15 years longer than it was originally designed to do. Discovery was the rst of NASA's three
On January 28, 1986, Challenger disintegrated 73 secremaining operational Space Shuttles to be retired.* [87]
onds after launch due to the failure of the right SRB,
killing all seven astronauts on board. The disaster was The nal Space Shuttle mission was originally scheduled
caused by low-temperature impairment of an O-ring, a for late 2010, but the program was later extended to
mission critical seal used between segments of the SRB July 2011 when Michael Suredini of the ISS program
casing. The failure of a lower O-ring seal allowed hot said that one additional trip was needed in 2011 to decombustion gases to escape from between the booster liver parts to the International Space Station.* [88] The
sections and burn through the adjacent external tank, Shuttle's nal mission consisted of just four astronauts
causing it to explode.* [83] Repeated warnings from de- Christopher Ferguson (Commander), Douglas Hurley
sign engineers voicing concerns about the lack of evi- (Pilot), Sandra Magnus (Mission Specialist 1), and Rex
dence of the O-rings' safety when the temperature was Walheim (Mission Specialist 2);* [89] they conducted the
below 53 F (12 C) had been ignored by NASA man- 135th and last space Shuttle mission on board Atlantis,
which launched on July 8, 2011, and landed safely at the
agers.* [84]
Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011, at 5:57 AM
On February 1, 2003, Columbia disintegrated during reEDT (09:57 UTC).* [90]
entry, killing its crew of seven, because of damage to the
carbon-carbon leading edge of the wing caused during
launch. Ground control engineers had made three sepa- 2.6.1 Distribution of orbiters and other
rate requests for high-resolution images taken by the Dehardware
partment of Defense that would have provided an understanding of the extent of the damage, while NASA's chief
thermal protection system (TPS) engineer requested that
astronauts on board Columbia be allowed to leave the vehicle to inspect the damage. NASA managers intervened
to stop the Department of Defense's assistance and refused the request for the spacewalk,* [85] and thus the
feasibility of scenarios for astronaut repair or rescue by
Atlantis were not considered by NASA management at
the time.* [86]
2.6 Retirement
Main article: Space Shuttle retirement
NASA retired the Space Shuttle in 2011, after 30 years
Space Shuttle Program commemorative patch
Atlantis orbiter's nal welcome home, 2011.
of service. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and

presented to the public as aSpace Truck, which would,
among other things, be used to build a United States space
station in low earth orbit in the early 1990s. When the
NASA announced it would transfer orbiters to education

institutions or museums at the conclusion of the Space
Shuttle program. Each museum or institution is responsible for covering the US$28.8 million cost of preparing
and transporting each vehicle for display. Twenty museums from across the country submitted proposals for receiving one of the retired orbiters.* [91] NASA also made
Space Shuttle thermal protection system tiles available to
54
schools and universities for less than US$25 each.* [92]
About 7,000 tiles were available on a rst-come, rstserved basis, limited to one per institution.* [92]
On April 12, 2011, NASA announced selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters:* [93]* [94]
Atlantis is on display at the Kennedy Space Center
Visitor Complex, near Cape Canaveral, Florida. It
was delivered to the Visitor Complex on November
2, 2012.
Discovery was delivered to the Udvar-Hazy Center
of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and
Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. on April 19, 2012. On April 17, 2012,
Discovery was own atop a 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft escorted by a NASA T-38 Talon chase aircraft
in a nal farewell ight. The 747 and Discovery ew
over Washington, D.C. and the metropolitan area
around 10 am and arrived at Dulles around 11 am.
The yover and landing were widely covered on national news media.

Space Center Visitor Complex, was delivered by
barge to the Johnson Space Center in Houston,
Texas for display at Space Center Houston. It will be
placed on top of Shuttle Carrier Aircraft 905 after
assembly of the aircraft.
Inspiration, a full-scale orbiter mockup with publicly
accessible interior space, remains on display outside
the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame near Titusville, Florida, as part of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex.
Flight and mid-deck training hardware will be taken from
the Johnson Space Center and will go to the National Air
and Space Museum and the National Museum of the U.S.
Air Force. The full fuselage mockup, which includes the
payload bay and aft section but no wings, is to go to the
Museum of Flight in Seattle. Mission Simulation and
Training Facility's xed simulator will go to the Adler
Planetarium in Chicago, and the motion simulator will go
to the Texas A&M Aerospace Engineering Department in
College Station, Texas. Other simulators used in Shuttle
astronaut training will go to the Wings of Dreams Aviation Museum in Starke, Florida and the Virginia Air and
Space Center in Hampton, Virginia.* [91]
In August 2011, the NASA Oce of Inspector General
(OIG) published aReview of NASA's Selection of Display Locations for the Space Shuttle Orbiters"; the review
had four main ndings:* [95]
NASA's decisions regarding Orbiter placement
were the result of an Agency-created process that
emphasized above all other considerations locating
the Orbiters in places where the most people would
have the opportunity to view them";
Endeavour at Los Angeles International Airport
Endeavour was delivered to the California Science

Center in Los Angeles, California on October 14,
2012. It arrived at Los Angeles International Airport on September 21, 2012, concluding a two-day,
cross country journey atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft after stops at Ellington Field in Houston, Biggs
Army Aireld in El Paso and the Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base, California.
Enterprise (atmospheric test orbiter) was on display
at the National Air and Space Museum's UdvarHazy Center but was moved to New York City's
Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum in mid-2012.* [49]
the Team made several errors during its evaluation

process, including one that would have resulted in a
numerical 'tie' among the Intrepid, the Kennedy Visitor Complex, and the National Museum of the U.S.
Air Force (Air Force Museum) in Dayton, Ohio";
there is no evidence that the Teams recommendation or the Administrator's decision were tainted
by political inuence or any other improper consideration";
some of the choices NASA made during the selection process specically, its decision to manage aspects of the selection as if it were a competitive procurement and to delay announcement of its placement decisions until April 2011 (more than 2 years
after it rst solicited information from interested entities)may intensify challenges to the Agency and
the selectees as they work to complete the process
of placing the Orbiters in their new homes.
Independence, a full-scale orbiter mockup with in- The NASA OIG had three recommendations, saying
terior access, formerly on display at the Kennedy NASA should:* [95]
2.8. IN CULTURE
55
expeditiously review recipients' nancial, logistical, and curatorial display plans to ensure they are
feasible and consistent with the Agency's educational goals and processing and delivery schedules";
ensure that recipient payments are closely coordinated with processing schedules, do not impede
NASA's ability to eciently prepare the Orbiters for
museum display, and provide sucient funds in advance of the work to be performed; and
work closely with the recipient organizations to
minimize the possibility of delays in the delivery
schedule that could increase the Agency's costs or Sprint cameras, tested by the Shuttle, may be used on ISS and
other missions
impact other NASA missions and priorities.
In September 2011, the CEO and two board members
of Seattle's Museum of Flight met with NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, pointing outsignicant errors in
deciding where to put its four retiring Space Shuttles"; the
errors alleged include inaccurate information on Museum
of Flight's attendance and international visitor statistics,
as well as the readiness of the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space
Museum's exhibit site.* [96]
2.7 Space Shuttle successors and

legacy
Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crews will
STS conducted numerous experiments in space, such as this ionization experiment
travel to and from the International Space Station (ISS)

exclusively aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
A planned successor to STS was the Shuttle II,
during the 1980s and 1990s, and later the Constellation program during the 20042010 period. CSTS
was a proposal to continue to operate STS commercially, after NASA.* [97] In September 2011, NASA announced the selection of the design for the new Space
Launch System that is planned to launch the Orion spacecraft and other hardware to missions beyond low earthorbit.* [98]* [99]* [100]
The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated unmanned cargo vehicles to service the ISS.* [101] The Commercial Crew Development
(CCDev) program was started in 2010 to create commercially operated manned spacecraft capable of delivering
at least four crew members to the ISS, to stay docked
for 180 days, and then return them back to Earth.* [102]
These spacecraft are expected to become operational in
the 2010s.* [103]
2.8 In culture
Space Shuttles have been features of ction and nonction, from movies for kids to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979 James Bond lm, Moonraker,
the 1982 Activision videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey
into Space (1982) and G. Harry Stine's 1981 novel Shuttle
Down. In the 1986 lm SpaceCamp, Atlantis accidentally
launched into space with a group of U.S. Space Camp
participants as its crew. The 1998 lm Armageddon portrayed a combined crew of oshore oil rig workers and
US military sta who pilot two modied Shuttles to avert
the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000 Clint
Eastwood adventure lm Space Cowboys. In the 2003
lm The Core, the Endeavour's landing is disrupted by
the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004
Bollywood movie Swades, where a Space Shuttle was
used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was
lmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following
the Columbia disaster that had taken the life of IndianAmerican astronaut KC Chawla. On television, the 1996
drama The Cape portrayed the lives of a group of NASA
astronauts as they prepared for and ew Shuttle missions.
Odyssey 5 was a short lived sci- series that featured the
56
crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth. The 2013 lm Gravity features
the ctional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed
or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high
speed orbital debris.
List of human spaceights

List of Space Shuttle crews
NASA TV, coverage of launches and missions
Orbiter Processing Facility
Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle
Shuttle Training Aircraft
Space accidents and incidents
HL-20 Personnel Launch System
2.9.2 Physics
Lifting body
Single-stage-to-orbit
A United States Space Shuttle stamp
2.9.3 Similar spacecraft
The Space Shuttle has also been the subject of toys

and models; for example, a large Lego Space Shuttle
model was constructed by visitors at Kennedy Space Center,* [104] and smaller models have been sold commercially as a standard LegoLandset. A 1980 pinball
machine Space Shuttle was produced by Zaccaria and a
1984 pinball machine Space Shuttle: Pinball Adventure
was produced by Williams and features a plastic Space
Shuttle model among other artwork of astronauts on the
play eld. The Space Shuttle also appears in a number
of ight simulator and space ight simulator games such
as Microsoft Space Simulator, Orbiter, FlightGear and XPlane.
Buran, Soviet Space shuttle program (19741992)
2.8.1
Kliper (cancelled)
US postage commemorations
Main article: U.S. space exploration history on U.S.

stamps Space Shuttle Issues
The U.S. Postal Service has released several postage issues that depict the Space Shuttle. The rst such stamps
were issued in 1981, and are on display at the National
Postal Museum.* [105]
Comparison of orbital launchers families

Comparison of orbital launch systems
DIRECT, a vehicle proposed as an alternative for
Constellation program
EADS Phoenix
Hermes (19751992)
HOPE-X (cancelled)
HOTOL (cancelled)
Orion spacecraft
Skylon
X-20 Dynasoar (19571963)
X-33 of Lockheed Martin (19952001)
2.10 External links

2.9 See also
2.10.1 Further reading
Chrysler SERV
J.R. Sklarof, Redundancy Management Technique

for Space Shuttle Computer IBM J. RES. DEVEL,
January 1976
Criticism of the Space Shuttle program
NSTS 1988 Reference manual
Getaway Special
How The Space Shuttle Works
2.9.1
Space Shuttle related
2.11. REFERENCES
57
Weather criteria for shuttle launch
Dierent details and perspectives from the orbiter
(Gallery drafts.de) (ger.)
GRiD Compass History at Hrothgar's Cool Old
Junk Page
Last Space Shuttle Endeavour Pictures
time lapse of orbiter ow from processing, to stacking, to launch
They Write the Right Stu : Software development
for the Space Shuttle
Final Launch Image Gallery Photos of STS-135 taking o and reaching orbit
Launch Video of Last Space Shuttle Endeavour
Space Shuttle program insignia
NASA Space Shuttle News Reference 1981 (PDF

document)
Orbiter Vehicles
Lecture Series on the space shuttle from MIT OpenCourseWare
2.10.2
NASA
Space Shuttle collected news and commentary at

The Guardian
Space Shuttle collected news and commentary at
The New York Times
Works about the Space Shuttle Program (U.S.) in
libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Swaby, Rachel. The Space Shuttles Impact on
Pop Culture, Wired, June 28, 2011
The short lmSpace Shuttle: A Remarkable Flying
Machine (1981)" is available for free download at the
Internet Archive [more]
The Space Shuttle Era: 19812011; interactive multimedia on the space shuttle orbiters
Space Shuttlea 1975 Flight article by Bill Gunston
NASA Human Spaceight Shuttle: Current status

of shuttle missions
High resolution spherical panoramas over, under,

around and through Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour
Ocial NASA Human Space Flight Orbital Tracking system

NASA Shuttle Gallery: Newer images, audio, and
video of the space shuttle program
Older images of the space shuttle program
NASA History Series Publications (many of which
are on-line)
2.10.3
Non-NASA
Atlantis photo essay From Boston.com. (May 14,

2010)
Video of current and historical missions (STS-1 thru
Current)
Space Shuttle Newsgroup sci.space.shuttle
List of all Shuttle Landing Sites and a Map of Landing Sites
2.11 References
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58
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[16] Media Invited To See Shuttle External Fuel Tank Ship
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[19] PSA #1977. Loren Data Corp. Retrieved July 15,
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[20] NASA-CR-195281,Utilization of the external tanks of
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[21] NASA (1995).Earth's Atmosphere. NASA. Archived
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[22] INTRODUCTION TO FUTURE LAUNCH VEHICLE PLANS [19632001] Updated 6/15/2001, by Marcus Lindroos. Pmview.com. June 15, 2001. Retrieved
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[23] ESA '''N 10-1998: 25 years of Spacelab Go for
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[37] NASA Ares I First Stage Motor to be Tested August 25.
NASA, July 20, 2009.
[38] Soyuz a Smoother Ride than Shuttle, Astronaut Tells
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[39] Jack R. Lousma Oral History. NASA Johnson Space
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[41] Davis, Lauren (July 8, 2012). The time an astronaut
called into Car Talk from the Space Shuttle.
[42] Gunter's Space Page TOS-21H. Space.skyrocket.de.
September 25, 1992. Retrieved 2012-04-17.
[43] Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28
Shuttle missions. NASA. March 15, 1999. Retrieved
February 11, 2011.
[44] Ferguson, Roscoe C.; Robert Tate and Hiram C. Thompson. Implementing Space Shuttle Data Processing System Concepts in Programmable Logic Devices. NASA
Oce of Logic Design. Retrieved August 27, 2006.
[45] IBM. IBM and the Space Shuttle. IBM. Retrieved
August 27, 2006.
[46] The Computer History Museum (2006).Pioneering the
Laptop:Engineering the GRiD Compass. The Computer
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59
[47] NASA (1985). Portable Compute. NASA. Retrieved

June 23, 2010.
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July 17, 2009.
[48] Helvetica (Documentary). September 12, 2007.
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[49] Dunn, Marcia (January 15, 2010). Recession Special:

NASA Cuts Space Shuttle Price. ABC News. Retrieved
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22, 2007. Retrieved 2012-04-17.
[50] Ray, Justin.

Flying into the future.
http:
//spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/features/000414overhaul/
future.html. Spaceight Now.
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Foam Insulation. Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved October
25, 2007.
[52] Sivolella, Davide (2012). To Orbit and Back Again. New
York: Springer. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-4614-0982-3.
[53] Encyclopedia Astronautica. Shuttle. Encyclopedia
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[54] Jim Dumoulin. Woodpeckers damage STS-70 External
Tank. NASA. Retrieved August 27, 2006.
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the Fourth Annual L5 Space Development Conference
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[71] From Landing to Launch Orbiter Processing. NASA
Public Aairs Oce. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
[72] NASA Roster of Runways Ready to Bring a Shuttle
Home. Nasa.gov. Retrieved 2012-04-17.
[73] Global Security. Space Shuttle Emergency Landing
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[74] US Northern Command.DOD Support to manned space
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[75] Chris Gebhardt. NASA Reviews COPV Reliability
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of the National Space Transportation System. Voyageur
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NASA Unveils First Space Shuttle, 'Enterprise'". Yahoo!
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26, 1990.
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Two Flights. NASA. Retrieved July 3, 2010.
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CRITERIA AND KSC END OF MISSION WEATHER
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28, 2009.
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[62] NASA Launch Blog. . Retrieved June 10, 2008.
[63] Bergin, Chris (February 19, 2007).NASA solves YERO
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60
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13, 2011.
Chapter 3
Space Shuttle program

This article is about the United States Space Shuttle
program. For the Shuttle itself, see Space Shuttle. For
information on the Soviet space shuttle program, see the
article Buran program.
the sole focus of NASA's manned operations after the

nal Apollo and Skylab ights in the mid-1970s. The
Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the
public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among
other things, be used to build a United States space station
in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced
by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for
a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space
Station and was formally initiated in 1983 by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, but the ISS suered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs * [2] and forced
the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was nally retired serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do.
In 2004, according to the President George W. Bush's
Vision for Space Exploration, use of the Space Shuttle
was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that
point.
NASA's Space Shuttle Program, ocially called the

Space Transportation System (STS), was the United
States government's manned launch vehicle program
from 1981 to 2011, with the program ocially beginning in 1972. The winged Space Shuttle orbiter
was launched vertically, usually carrying four to seven
astronauts (though crews as small as two and as large as
eight have been carried) and up to 50,000 lb (22,700 kg)
of payload into low Earth orbit (LEO). When its mission
was complete, the Shuttle could independently move itself out of orbit using its Orbital Maneuvering System
and re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. During descent and
landing the orbiter acted as a re-entry vehicle and a glider,
using its Reaction Control System and ight control surfaces to maintain altitude until it made an unpowered The rst experimental orbiter Enterprise was a highlanding at either Kennedy Space Center or Edwards Air altitude glider, launched from the back of a specially
Force Base.
modied Boeing 747, only for initial atmospheric landing
The Shuttle is the only winged manned spacecraft to have tests (ALT). Enterprise's rst test ight was on February
18, 1977, only 5 years after the Shuttle program was forachieved orbit and land, and the only reusable manned
space vehicle that has ever made multiple ights into or- mally initiated; leading to the launch of the rst spaceworthy shuttle Columbia on April 12, 1981 on STS-1.
bit (the Russian shuttle Buran was very similar and had
the same capabilities but made only one unmanned space- The Space Shuttle program nished with its last mission,
STS-135 own by Atlantis, in July 2011, retiring the nal
ight before it was cancelled). Its missions involved carShuttle program formally
rying large payloads to various orbits (including segments Shuttle in the eet. The Space
ended on August 31, 2011.* [3]
to be added to the International Space Station), providing crew rotation for the International Space Station, and Retirement of the Shuttle ended the era in which all of
performing service missions. The orbiter also recovered America's varied space activities were performed by one
satellites and other payloads (e.g. from the ISS) from or- craft -or even one organization. Functions performed by
bit and returned them to Earth, though its use in this ca- the Shuttle for 30 years will be done by not one but many
pacity was rare. Each vehicle was designed with a pro- dierent spacecraft currently ying or in advanced dejected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational velopment. Secret military missions are being own by
life, though original selling points on the shuttles were the US Air Force'shighly successfulunmanned miniover 150 launches and over a 15 year operational span space plane, the X-37B. By 2012, cargo supply to the Inwith a 'launch per month' expected at the peak of the pro- ternational Space Station began to be own by privately
gram, but extensive delays in the development of the In- owned commercial craft under NASA's Commercial Reternational Space Station * [1] never created such a peak supply Services by SpaceX's successfully tested and pardemand for frequent ights.
tially reusable Dragon spacecraft, followed by Orbital
The program formally commenced in 1972, although the Sciences' Cygnus spacecraft in late 2013. Crew serconcept had been explored since the late 1960s, and was vice to the ISS will be own exclusively by the Russian
61
62
Soyuz while NASA works on the Commercial Crew Development program. For missions beyond low Earth orbit, NASA is building the Space Launch System and the
Orion spacecraft.
CHAPTER 3. SPACE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

launching as many as 50 missions per year, with hopes of
driving down per-mission costs.* [7]
The prime contractor for the program was North American Rockwell (later Rockwell International, now Boeing),
the same company responsible for building the Apollo
Command/Service Module. The contractor for the Space
3.1 Conception and development
Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters was Morton Thiokol (now
part of Alliant Techsystems), for the external tank,
Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin), and for the
Main article: Space Shuttle design process
Before the Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969, NASA Space Shuttle main engines, Rocketdyne (now Pratt &
Whitney Rocketdyne, part of United Technologies).* [4]
The rst orbiter was originally planned to be named Constitution, but a massive write-in campaign from fans of
the Star Trek television series convinced the White House
to change the name to Enterprise.* [8] Amid great fanfare, Enterprise (designated OV-101) was rolled out on
September 17, 1976, and later conducted a successful series of glide-approach and landing tests in 1977 that were
the rst real validation of the design.
Early U.S. space shuttle concepts
began early studies of space shuttle designs. In 1969 STS-1 at lifto. The External Tank was painted white for the rst
President Richard Nixon formed the Space Task Group, two Space Shuttle launches. From STS-3 on, it was left unpainted.
chaired by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. This group
evaluated the shuttle studies to date, and recommended a
national space strategy including building a space shuttle.* [4] The goal, as presented by NASA to Congress, 3.2 Program history
was to provide a much less-expensive means of access to
space that would be used by NASA, the Department of See also: Space Shuttle and List of space shuttle missions
Defense, and other commercial and scientic users.* [5]
During early shuttle development there was great debate
about the optimal shuttle design that best balanced capability, development cost and operating cost. Ultimately
the current design was chosen, using a reusable winged
orbiter, reusable solid rocket boosters, and an expendable
external fuel tank for the orbiter's main engines.* [4]
All Space Shuttle missions were launched from the

Kennedy Space Center (KSC).* [9] The weather criteria
used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast,
wind, and humidity.* [10] The Shuttle was not launched
under conditions where it could have been struck by
The shuttle program was formally launched on January lightning.
5, 1972, when President Nixon announced that NASA The rst fully functional orbiter was Columbia (desigwould proceed with the development of a reusable space nated OV-102), built in Palmdale, California. It was deshuttle system.* [4] The stated goals of transforming livered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 25,
the space frontier...into familiar territory, easily acces- 1979, and was rst launched on April 12, 1981the 20th
sible for human endeavor* [6] was to be achieved by anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's space ightwith a crew
3.3. ACCOMPLISHMENTS
63
of two.
Challenger (OV-099) was delivered to KSC in July 1982,
Discovery (OV-103) in November 1983, Atlantis (OV104) in April 1985 and Endeavour in May 1991. Challenger was originally built and used as a Structural Test
Article (STA-099), but was converted to a complete orbiter when this was found to be less expensive than converting Enterprise from its Approach and Landing Test
conguration into a spaceworthy vehicle.
On April 24, 1990, Discovery carried the Hubble Space
Telescope into space during STS-31.
In the course of 135 missions own, two orbiters
(Columbia and Challenger) suered catastrophic accidents, with the loss of all crew members, totaling 14 astronauts.
The longest Shuttle mission was STS-80 lasting 17 days,
15 hours. The nal ight of the Space Shuttle program
Astronauts Thomas D. Akers and Kathryn C. Thornton install
was STS-135 on July 8, 2011.
corrective optics on the Hubble Space Telescope during STS-61.
3.3 Accomplishments
Space physics* [11]

Construction of the International Space Station
(ISS)
Crew rotation and servicing of Mir and the
International Space Station (ISS)
Servicing missions, such as to repair the Hubble
Space Telescope (HST) and orbiting satellites
Manned experiments in low Earth orbit (LEO)
Carried to low Earth orbit (LEO):
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
Components of the International Space Station
(ISS)
Supplies in Spacehab modules or MultiPurpose Logistics Modules
The Long Duration Exposure Facility
The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite
Space Shuttle Endeavour docked with the International Space

Station (ISS)
Space Shuttle missions have included:

Spacelab missions* [11] Including:
Science* [11]
Astronomy* [11]
Crystal growth* [11]
Carried satellites with a booster, such as the Payload

Assist Module (PAM-D) or the Inertial Upper Stage
(IUS), to the point where the booster sends the satellite to:
A higher Earth orbit; these have included:
Chandra X-ray Observatory
The rst six TDRS satellites
Two DSCS-III (Defense Satellite Communications System) communications
satellites in one mission
64

A Defense Support Program satellite
even though the eet was grounded in the aftermath of the

An interplanetary mission; these have in- Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches
during this period of time. In scal year 2009, NASA
cluded:
budget allocated $2.98 billion for 5 launches to the pro Magellan
gram, including $490 million for program integration
, $1.03 billion for ight and ground operations, and
Galileo
$1.46 billion foright hardware(which includes main Ulysses
tenance of orbiters, engines, and the external tank between ights.)
3.4 Budget
Per-launch costs can be measured by dividing the total cost over the life of the program (including buildings, facilities, training, salaries, etc.) by the number
of launches. With 134 missions, and the total cost of
US$192 billion (in 2010 dollars), this gives approximately $1.5 billion per launch over the life of the program.* [19]
3.5 Accidents
A drag chute is deployed by Endeavour as it completes a mission

of almost 17 days in space on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force
Base in southern California. Landing occurred at 1:46 pm (EST),
March 18, 1995.
Early during development of the space shuttle, NASA

had estimated that the program would cost $7.45 billion
($43 billion in 2011 dollars, adjusting for ination) in
development/non-recurring costs, and $9.3M ($54M in
2011 dollars) per ight.* [12] Early estimates for the cost
to deliver payload to low earth orbit were as low as $118
per pound ($260/kg) of payload ($635/pound in 2011
dollars), based on marginal or incremental launch costs,
and assuming a 65,000 pound (30 000 kg) payload capacity and 50 launches per year.* [13]* [14] A more realistic
projection of 12 ights per year for the 15-year service
life combined with the initial development costs would
have resulted in a total cost projection for the program of
roughly $54 billion (in 2011 dollars).
In 1986, Challenger disintegrated one minute and 13 seconds

after lifto.
In the course of 135 missions own, two orbiters were

destroyed, with loss of crew totalling 14 astronauts:
Challenger lost 73 seconds after lifto, STS-51-L,
January 28, 1986
The total cost of the actual 30-year service life of the

Columbia lost approximately 16 minutes before its
shuttle program through 2011, adjusted for ination, was
expected landing, STS-107, February 1, 2003
$196 billion.* [7] The exact breakdown into non-recurring
and recurring costs is not available, but, according to Close-up video footage of Challenger during its nal
NASA, the average cost to launch a Space Shuttle as of launch on January 28, 1986 clearly show it began due to
2011 was about $450 million per mission.* [15]
an O-ring failure on the right solid rocket booster (SRB).
NASA's budget for 2005 allocated 30%, or $5 billion, to The hot plume of gas leaking from the failed joint caused
space shuttle operations;* [16] this was decreased in 2006 the collapse of the external tank, which then resulted
to a request of $4.3 billion.* [17] Non-launch costs ac- in the orbiter's disintegration due to high aerodynamic
count for a signicant part of the program budget: for stress. The accident resulted in the loss of all seven asexample, during scal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent tronauts on board. Endeavour (OV-105) was built to rearound $13 billion on the space shuttle program,* [18] place Challenger (using structural spare parts originally
3.6. RETIREMENT
65
intended for the other orbiters) and delivered in May port, noted the reduced risk to the crew when a shuttle
1991; it was rst launched a year later.
ew to the International Space Station (ISS), as the staAfter the loss of Challenger, NASA grounded the shut- tion could be used as a safe haven for the crew awaittle program for over two years, making numerous safety ing rescue in the event that damage to the orbiter on
changes recommended by the Rogers Commission Re- ascent made it unsafe for re-entry. The board recomport, which included a redesign of the SRB joint that mended that for the remaining ights, the shuttle always
failed in the Challenger accident. Other safety changes orbit with the station. Prior to STS-114, NASA Adminincluded a new escape system for use when the orbiter istrator Sean O'Keefe declared that all future ights of
the shuttle would go to the ISS, precluding the possibility
was in controlled ight, improved landing gear tires and
brakes, and the reintroduction of pressure suits for shut- of executing the nal Hubble Space Telescope servicing
mission which had been scheduled before the Columbia
tle astronauts (these had been discontinued after STS-4;
astronauts wore only coveralls and oxygen helmets from accident, despite the fact that millions of dollars worth
of upgrade equipment for Hubble were ready and waiting
that point on until the Challenger accident). The shuttle
program continued in September 1988 with the launch of in NASA warehouses. Many dissenters, including astronauts , asked NASA management to reconsider allowing
Discovery on STS-26.
the mission, but initially the director stood rm. On OcThe shuttle program operated accident-free for seventeen tober 31, 2006, NASA announced approval of the launch
years after the Challenger disaster, until Columbia broke of Atlantis for the fth and nal shuttle servicing misup on re-entry, killing all seven crew members, on Febru- sion to the Hubble Space Telescope, scheduled for August
ary 1, 2003, and was not replaced. The accident began 28, 2008. However SM4/STS-125 eventually launched in
when a piece of foam shed from the external tank struck May 2009.
the leading edge of the orbiter's left wing, puncturing one
of the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels that cov- Further information: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
ered the wing edge and protected it during re-entry. As and Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
Columbia re-entered the atmosphere, hot gas penetrated
the wing and destroyed it from the inside out, causing the
orbiter to lose control and disintegrate.
NASA maintains warehoused extensive catalogs of recovered pieces from the two destroyed orbiters.
3.6 Retirement
After the Columbia disaster, the International Space Station operated on a skeleton crew of two for more than two
years and was serviced primarily by Russian spacecraft.
While the Return to Flightmission STS-114 in 2005
was successful, a similar piece of foam from a dierent
portion of the tank was shed. Although the debris did not
strike Discovery, the program was grounded once again
for this reason.
The second Return to Flightmission, STS-121
launched on July 4, 2006, at 14:37 (EDT). Two previous launches were scrubbed because of lingering thunderstorms and high winds around the launch pad, and the
launch took place despite objections from its chief engineer and safety head. A ve-inch (13 cm) crack in the
foam insulation of the external tank gave cause for concern; however, the Mission Management Team gave the
go for launch.* [20] This mission increased the ISS crew to
three. Discovery touched down successfully on July 17,
2006 at 09:14 (EDT) on Runway 15 at Kennedy Space
Center.
Atlantis begins the last mission of the Space Shuttle program
The Space Shuttle program was extended several times

beyond its originally envisioned 15-year life span because
of the delays in building the United States space station in
low Earth orbit a project which eventually evolved into
Following the success of STS-121, all subsequent mis- the International Space Station. It was formally schedsions were completed without major foam problems, and uled for mandatory retirement in 2010 in accord with the
the construction of ISS was completed (during the STS- directives President George W. Bush issued *on January
118 mission in August 2007, the orbiter was again struck 14, 2004 in his Vision for Space Exploration. [21]
by a foam fragment on lifto, but this damage was mini- A $2.5 billion spending provision allowing NASA to y
mal compared to the damage sustained by Columbia).
the Space Shuttle beyond its then-scheduled retirement
The Columbia Accident Investigation Board, in its re- in 2010 passed the Congress in April 2009, although neither NASA nor the White House requested the one-year
66
extension.* [22]
The nal Space Shuttle launch was that of Atlantis on July
8, 2011.
3.7 Final status

Out of the ve fully functional shuttle orbiters built, three
remain. Enterprise, which was used for atmospheric test
ights but not for orbital ight, had many parts taken out
for use on the other orbiters. It was later visually restored and was on display at the National Air and Space
Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center until April 19,
2012. Enterprise was moved to New York City in April
2012 to be displayed at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space
Museum, whose Space Shuttle Pavilion opened on July
19, 2012. Discovery replaced Enterprise at the National
Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
Atlantis formed part of the Space Shuttle Exhibit at the
Kennedy Space Center visitor complex and has been on
display there since June 29, 2013 following its refurbishment.* [23]
On October 14, 2012, Endeavour completed an unprecedented 12 mi (19 km) drive on city streets from Los Angeles International Airport to the California Science Center, where it has been on display in a temporary hangar
since late 2012. The transport from the airport took two
days and required major street closures, the removal of
over 400 city trees, and extensive work to raise power
lines, level the street, and temporarily remove street signs,
lamp posts, and other obstacles. Hundreds of volunteers,
and re and police personnel, helped with the transport.
Large crowds of spectators waited on the streets to see the
shuttle as it passed through the city. Endeavour will be
displayed permanently beginning in 2017 at the Samuel
Oschin Air and Space Center (an addition to the California Science Center currently under construction), where
it will be mounted in the vertical position complete with
solid rocket boosters and an external tank.* [24]
The Dragon spacecraft, one of the Space Shuttle's several successors, is seen here on its way to deliver cargo to the ISS
second, Orbital Sciences' Cygnus did so in 2014.* [26]

The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program
was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated manned spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked
for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.* [27]
These spacecraft, like the SpaceX Dragon V2 and Sierra
Nevada Corporation's Dream Chaser are expected to become operational around 2017.* [28]
Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has

been replaced with a very similar beyond low Earth orbit program. The Orion spacecraft has been left virtually
unchanged from its previous design. The planned Ares V
rocket has been replaced with the smaller Space Launch
System (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and
other necessary hardware.* [29] Exploration Flight Test1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test ight of the Orion spacecraft, is planned to be launched in 2014 on a Delta IV
Heavy rocket.* [30] Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the
unmanned initial launch of the SLS, which is planned
for 2017.* [30] Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) is the rst
manned ight of Orion and SLS and is scheduled for
2019.* [30] EM-2 is a 10-14-day mission planned to place
3.8 Successors
a crew of four into Lunar orbit. As of September 2013,
destination focus
According to the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration, the the destination for EM-3 and immediate
*
[31]
for
this
new
program
is
still
in-ux.
next manned NASA program was to be Project Constellation with its Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles and the
Orion Spacecraft; however, the Constellation program
was never fully funded, and in early 2010 the Obama 3.9 Assets and transition plan
administration asked Congress to instead endorse a plan
with heavy reliance on the private sector for delivering The Space Shuttle program occupied over 654 facilities,
cargo and crew to LEO.
used over 1.2 million line items of equipment, and emThe Commercial Orbital Transportation Services
(COTS) program began in 2006 with the purpose of
creating commercially operated unmanned cargo vehicles to service the ISS.* [25] The rst of these vehicles,
SpaceX's Dragon, became operational in 2012, and the
ployed over 5,000 people. The total value of equipment was over $12 billion. Shuttle-related facilities represented over a quarter of NASA's inventory. There were
over 1,200 active suppliers to the program throughout the
United States. NASA's transition plan had the program
3.11. OTHER STS PROGRAM VEHICLES
67
operating through 2010 with a transition and retirement

phase lasting through 2015. During this time, the Ares I
and Orion as well as the Altair Lunar Lander were to be
under development,* [32] although these programs have
since been canceled.
3.10 Criticism
Main article: Criticism of the Space Shuttle program
The Space Shuttle program has been criticized for failing
to achieve its promised cost and utility goals, as well as
design, cost, management, and safety issues.* [33] Others Atlantis being prepared to be mated to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft
have argued that the Shuttle program was a step back- using the Mate-Demate Device following STS-44.
wards from the Apollo Program, which, while extremely
dangerous, accomplished far more scientic and space
exploration endeavors than the Shuttle ever could.
The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) were two modAfter both the Challenger disaster and the Columbia disied Boeing 747s. Either could y an orbiter from
aster, high prole boards convened to investigate the accialternative landing sites back to the Kennedy Space
dents with both committees returning praise and serious
Center.
critiques to the program and NASA management. Some
of the most famous of the criticisms, most of management, came from Nobel Prize winner Richard Feynman,
A 36-wheeled transport trailer, the Orbiter Transin his report that followed his appointment to the comfer System, originally built for the U.S. Air Force's
mission responsible for investigating the Challenger dislaunch facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base in Calaster.* [34]
ifornia (since then converted for Delta IV rockets)
3.11 Other STS program vehicles
Crawler-transporter No.2 (Franz) in a December 2004 road

test after track shoe replacement
Many other vehicles were used in support of the Space

Shuttle program, mainly terrestrial transportation vehicles.
The Crawler-Transporter carried the Mobile
Launcher Platform and the space shuttle from
the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to Launch
Complex 39.
would transport the orbiter from the landing facility

to the launch pad, which allowed both stacking
and launch without utilizing a separate VAB-style
building and crawler-transporter roadway. Prior to
the closing of the Vandenberg facility, orbiters were
transported from the OPF to the VAB on their undercarriages, only to be raised when the orbiter was
being lifted for attachment to the SRB/ET stack.
The trailer allowed the transportation of the orbiter
from the OPF to either the SCA Mate-Demate
stand or the VAB without placing any additional
stress on the undercarriage.
The Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV), a modied airport jet bridge, was used to assist astronauts to egress
from the orbiter after landing. Upon entering the
CTV, astronauts could take o their launch and reentry suits then proceed to chairs and beds for medical checks before being transported back to the crew
quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building.
The Astrovan was used to transport astronauts from

the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout
Building to the launch pad on launch day. It was
also used to transport astronauts back again from the
Crew Transport Vehicle at the Shuttle Landing Facility.
68
3.12 See also

3.13 References
[17] Berger, Brian (February 7, 2006). NASA 2006

Budget Presented: Hubble, Nuclear Initiative Suer.
Space.com. Retrieved August 6, 2006.
[18] NASA Budget Information.
This article incorporates public domain material from

websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration.
[19] Pielke Jr., Roger; Radford Byerly (7 April 2011).

Shuttle programme lifetime cost 472 (7341). Nature.
Bibcode:2011Natur.472...38P. doi:10.1038/472038d.
[1] http://www.iss-casis.org/About/ISSTimeline.aspx
[2] http://www.iss-casis.org/About/ISSTimeline.aspx
[3] Breaking News | Shannon to review options for deep
space exploration. Spaceight Now. 2011-08-29. Retrieved 2012-05-17.
[4] Hepplewhite, T.A. The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's
Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle. Washington, DC:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1999.
[20] Chien, Philip (June 27, 2006) NASA wants shuttle to

y despite safety misgivings. The Washington Times
[21] President George W. Bush (Attributed) (2004). President Bush Oers New Vision For NASA. nasa.gov.
Retrieved January 14, 2004.
[22] Mark, Roy Mandatory Shuttle Retirement Temporarily
Postponed(April 30, 2009) Green IT, e-week.com
[5] General Accounting Oce. Cost Benet Analysis Used in

Support of the Space Shuttle Program. Washington, DC:
General Accounting Oce, 1972.
[23] Space Shuttle Atlantis Exhibit Opens with Support from

Souvenirs - Yahoo! News
[6] Rebecca Onion (November 15, 2012). I Say Space

Shuttle,You Say Space Clipper"". Slate (magazine).
The Slate Group. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
[24] Space Shuttle Endeavour homepage.
[7] Borenstein, Seth (July 5, 2011). AP Science Writer.

Boston Globe. Associated Press. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
[25] NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit

Partners(Press release). NASA. 2006-08-18. Retrieved
2006-11-21.
[8] Brooks, Dawn The Names of the Space Shuttle Orbiters.

Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved July 26, 2006.
[26] Bergin, Chris (2011-10-06). ISS partners prepare to

welcome SpaceX and Orbital in a busy 2012. NASASpaceFlight.com (Not aliated with NASA). Retrieved 13
December 2011.
[9] Civilian and military circumpolar space shuttle missions

were planned for Vandenberg AFB in California. The use
of Vandenberg AFB for space shuttle missions was cancelled after space shuttle Challenger exploded on January
28, 1986
[27] Berger, Brian (2011-02-01). Biggest CCDev Award

Goes to Sierra Nevada. Imaginova Corp. Retrieved 13
December 2011.
[10] SPACE SHUTTLE WEATHER LAUNCH COMMIT

CRITERIA AND KSC END OF MISSION WEATHER
LANDING CRITERIA. KSC Release No. 39-99.
NASA Kennedy Space Center. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
[11] Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28
Shuttle missions. NASA. March 15, 1999. Retrieved
February 11, 2011.
[12] Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. February 1973. p. 39.
[13] NASA (2003) Columbia Accident Investigation Board
Public Hearing Transcript
[14] Comptroller General (1972). Report to the Congress:
Cost-Benet Analylsis Used in Support of the Space Shuttle Program (PDF). United States General Accounting
Oce. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
[15] NASA (2011).How much does it cost to launch a Space
Shuttle?". NASA. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
[16] David, Leonard (February 11, 2005). Total Tally of
Shuttle Fleet Costs Exceed Initial Estimates. Space.com.
Retrieved August 6, 2006.
[28] Congress wary of fully funding commercial crew.

Spaceightnow. 2012-04-24. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
[29] NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System. NASA. 2011-09-14. Retrieved 28 April
2012.
[30] Bergin, Chris (2012-02-23). Acronyms to Ascent
SLS managers create development milestone roadmap.
NASA. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
[31] Bergin, Chris (2012-03-26). NASA Advisory Council:
Select a Human Exploration Destination ASAP. NasaSpaceight (not aliated with NASA). Retrieved 28 April
2012.
[32] Olson, John; Joel Kearns (August 2008).NASA Transition Management Plan. JICB-001. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.
[33] A Rocket to Nowhere, Maciej Cegowski, Idle Words,
March 8, 2005.
[34] , additional text.
3.14 Further reading

Shuttle Reference manual
Orbiter Vehicles
Shuttle Program Funding 1992 2002
NASA Space Shuttle News Reference 1981 (PDF
document)
R. A. Pielke, Space Shuttle Value open to Interpretation, Aviation Week, issue 26. July 1993, p.
57 (.pdf)
3.15 External links

Ocial NASA Mission Site
NASA Johnson Space Center Space Shuttle Site
Ocial Space Shuttle Mission Archives
NASA Space Shuttle Multimedia Gallery &
Archives
Shuttle audio, video, and images searchable
archives from STS-67 (1995) to present
Kennedy Space Center Media Gallery
searchable video/audio/photo gallery
Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the Space Shuttle
U.S. Space Flight History: Space Shuttle Program
Weather criteria for Shuttle launch
Consolidated Launch Manifest: Space Shuttle
Flights and ISS Assembly Sequence
USENET posting Unocial Space FAQ by Jon
Leech
69
Chapter 4
Low Earth orbit

Orbital period
Galileo
GPS
20 hours
15 hours
Geostationary
Earth Orbit
COMPASS
10 hours
pending on orbit height. Objects in LEO orbit Earth between the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt. The altitude is usually not less than 300 km
for satellites, as that would be impractical due to atmospheric drag.
MEO satellites
GLONASS
5 hours
Radius of orbit
Iridium
40 Mm 30 Mm 20 Mm 10 Mm
20000 miles 10000 miles
15000 mph
Hubble
The orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth

orbit is about 7.8 km/s, but reduces with increased orbital
altitude. The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit
starts around 9.4 km/s. Atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1.52.0 km/s to the
delta-v launch vehicle required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km/s (28,080 km/h).
Height above
sea level
10 Mm 20 Mm 30 Mm
ISS10000 miles
20000 miles
25000 km/h
20000 km/h
10000 mph
15000 km/h
Orbital speed
Comparison of GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Compass

(medium earth orbit) satellite navigation system orbits with the
International Space Station, Hubble Space Telescope and Iridium
constellation orbits, Geostationary Earth Orbit, and the nominal
size of the Earth.* [lower-alpha 1] The Moon's orbit is around
9 times larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.* [lower-alpha 2]
Equatorial low Earth orbits (ELEO) are a subset of LEO.

These orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow
rapid revisit times and have the lowest delta-v requirement of any orbit. Orbits with a high inclination angle to
A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit around Earth with equator, are usually called polar orbits.
an altitude between 160 kilometers (99 mi), (orbital period of about 88 minutes), and 2,000 kilometers (1,200 Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit (MEO), somemi) (about 127 minutes). Objects below approximately times called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), and fur160 kilometers (99 mi) will experience very rapid orbital ther above, geostationary orbit (GEO). Orbits higher than
decay and altitude loss.* [1]* [2] With the exception of the low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic compomanned lunar ights of the Apollo program, all human nents due to intense radiation and charge accumulation.
spaceights have taken place in LEO (or were suborbital).
The altitude record for a human spaceight in LEO was
Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 kilometers (853.8
mi). All manned space stations to date, as well as the 4.2 Use of LEO
majority of satellites, have been in LEO.
Although the Earth's pull due to gravity in LEO is not
much less than on the surface of the Earth, people and
objects in orbit experience weightlessness because they
4.1 Orbital characteristics
are in free fall.
Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag in the form A low Earth orbit is simplest and most cost eective for a
of gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80500 km satellite placement and provides high bandwidth and low
up) or exosphere (approximately 500 km and up), de- communication time lag (latency).
70
4.4. SEE ALSO
71
mand (formerly the United States Space Command), currently tracks more than 8,500 objects larger than 10 cm in
LEO.* [4] However, a limited Arecibo Observatory study
suggested there could be approximately one million objects larger than 2 millimeters,* [5] which are too small to
be visible from Earth-based observatories.* [6]
4.4 See also

Roughly half an orbit of the ISS.
Atmospheric reentry
Escape velocity
4.2.1
Examples
Geostationary (GEO)
Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use

LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth
more clearly as they are not so far away. They are
also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A
majority of articial satellites are placed in LEO,
making one complete revolution around the Earth
in about 90 minutes
High Earth orbit (HEO)
The International Space Station is in a LEO about

400 km (250 mi) above the Earth's surface.* [3]
Satellite phone
Since it requires less energy to place a satellite into a

LEO and the LEO satellite needs less powerful ampliers for successful transmission, LEO is still used
for many communication applications. Because
these LEO orbits are not geostationary, a network
(or "constellation") of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage. (Many communication
satellites require geostationary orbits, and move at
the same angular velocity as the Earth. Some communications satellites including the Iridium phone
system use LEO.)
Suborbital spaceight
Lower orbits also aid remote sensing satellites because of the added detail that can be gained. Remote
sensing satellites can also take advantage of sunsynchronous LEO orbits at an altitude of about 800
km (500 mi) and near polar inclination. ENVISAT
is one example of an Earth observation satellite that
makes use of this particular type of LEO.
4.3 Space debris

The LEO environment is becoming congested with space
debris due to the frequency of object launches. This
has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous, and
even deadly. Collisions can produce even more space
debris in the process, creating a domino eect, something known as Kessler Syndrome. The Joint Space Operations Center, part of United States Strategic Com-
Highly elliptical orbit (HEO)

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
List of orbits
Specic orbital energy examples
4.5 Notes
[1] Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4R = TGM and VR = GM, where R = radius of
orbit in metres, T = orbital period in seconds, V = orbital
speed in m/s, G = gravitational constant 6.67310* 11
Nm/kg, M = mass of Earth 5.981024 kg.
[2] Approximately 8.6 times when the moon is nearest (363
104 km 42 164 km) to 9.6 times when the moon is farthest (405 696 km 42 164 km).
4.6 References
[1] IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines (PDF).
Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee. 15
October 2002.
[2] NASA Safety Standard 1740.14, Guidelines and Assessment Procedures for Limiting Orbital Debris(PDF).
Oce of Safety and Mission Assurance. 1 August 1995.
[3] Higher Altitude Improves Station's Fuel Economy.
NASA. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
[4] Fact Sheet: Joint Space Operations Center
[5] archive of astronomy: space junk
[6] ISS laser broom, project Orion
72
CHAPTER 4. LOW EARTH ORBIT
Chapter 5
NASA
5.1 Creation
For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 385259N 77059W / 38.88306N Main article: Creation of NASA

From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aero77.01639W
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) is the United States government agency that is
responsible for the civilian space program as well as for
aeronautics and aerospace research.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in
1958* [5] with a distinctly civilian (rather than military)
orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space
science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was
passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958.* [6]* [7]
Since that time, most U.S. space exploration eorts have
been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing
missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space
Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International
Space Station and is overseeing the development of the
Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch
System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is
also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP)
which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth
through the Earth Observing System,* [8] advancing
heliophysics through the eorts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program,* [9]
exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic missions such as New Horizons,* [10] and
researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang,
through the Great Observatories and associated programs.* [11] NASA shares data with various national and
international organizations such as from the Greenhouse
Gases Observing Satellite.
1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator
James Webb in background. They are discussing the Mariner
program, with a model presented.
nautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket

planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.* [12] In the early
1950s, there was challenge to launch an articial satellite
for the International Geophysical Year (195758). An
eort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's rst articial satellite
(Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the
United States turned toward its own edgling space efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived
threat to national security and technological leadership
(known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and
swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to
an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on
NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in
space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.* [13]
On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it be-
73
74
gan operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the
46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities.* [14] A NASA seal
was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.* [15] Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the
United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A signicant contributor to NASA's
entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was
the technology from the German rocket program led by
Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army
Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.* [16] Earlier research eorts within
the U.S. Air Force* [14] and many of ARPA's early space
programs were also transferred to NASA.* [17] In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the
California Institute of Technology.* [14]
5.2 Space ight programs
CHAPTER 5. NASA
itself and with the cooperation of several other nations
including post-Soviet Russia.
5.2.1 Manned programs

The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs
started by NACA were extended by NASA as support
for manned spaceight. This was followed by a one-man
space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and
security fears caused by early leads in space exploration
by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy
proposed the ambitious goal of landing a man on the
Moon by the end of [the 60s], and returning him safely
to the Earth.This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo
program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However,
reduction of the perceived threat and changing political
priorities almost immediately caused the termination of
most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an
Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semireusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was
approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international
community, which now included the former rival, postSoviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of
166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X15 rocket ights above the USAF denition of spaceight
altitude, 260,000 feet (80 km).* [18]
X-15 rocket plane (195968)
Main article: North American X-15
The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered
At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch.
Wernher von Braun is at center.
Main article: List of NASA missions

NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned
spaceight programs throughout its history. Unmanned
programs launched the rst American articial satellites
into Earth orbit for scientic and communications purposes, and sent scientic probes to explore the planets
of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and
including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Manned
programs sent the rst Americans into low Earth orbit
(LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by
landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the
Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space
Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by
X-15 in free ight
hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction

with the U.S. Air Force and Navy. The design featured
a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.* [19]
Requests for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954
5.2. SPACE FLIGHT PROGRAMS
75
for the airframe, and February 4, 1955 for the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and the XLR30 engine
contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and
three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched
from the wing of one of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail
number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took
place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a
speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).
Friendship 7
Friendship 7, NASA's rst manned orbital spaceight
Project Gemini (196166)
Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective

was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible,
therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched
by existing rockets was favored. U.S. Air Force's Man in
Space Soonest program looked at many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15,
to small ballistic space capsules.* [22] By 1958, the space
plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic
Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air capsule.* [23]
Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). One hundred When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force
ninety-nine ights were made between 1959 and 1968, program was transferred to it and renamed Project Merresulting in the ocial world record for the highest speed cury. The rst seven astronauts were selected among canever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of didates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pi2014), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles lot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepper hour (7,273 km/h).* [20] The altitude record for X- ard became the rst American in space aboard Freedom
15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).* [21] Eight of the pi- 7, launched by a Redstone booster on a 15-minute
lots were awarded Air Force astronaut wings for ying ballistic (suborbital) ight.* [24] John Glenn became the
above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two ights by Joseph A. rst American to be launched into orbit by an Atlas
Walker exceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying launch vehicle on February 20, 1962 aboard Friendship
as spaceight according to the International Aeronauti- 7.* [25] Glenn completed three orbits, after which three
cal Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical more orbital ights were made, culminating in L. Gordon
techniques used in the later manned spaceight programs, Cooper's 22-orbit ight Faith 7, May 1516, 1963.* [26]
including reaction control system jets for controlling the
orientation of a spacecraft, pressurized space suits, and The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own singlehorizon denition for navigation.* [21] The reentry and pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They beat the U.S. for the rst
landing data collected were valuable to NASA for design- man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into
a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one
ing the Space Shuttle.* [19]
month before Shepard's ight.* [27] In August 1962, they
achieved an almost four-day record ight with Andriyan
Project Mercury (195963)
Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.
Main article: Project Mercury
Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962
The rst rendezvous of two spacecraft, achieved by Gemini 6 and
Still frame of John Glenn in orbit from camera inside 7
76
Main article: Project Gemini
Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration ights, developing space rendezvous
techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini
was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome
the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar
landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA)
and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The rst
manned Gemini ight, Gemini 3, was own by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.* [28] Nine
missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an
endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous,
docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data
on the eects of weightlessness on humans.* [29]* [30]
CHAPTER 5. NASA
programs ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s
dollars* [32] or an estimated $205 billion in presentday US dollars.* [33] (In comparison, the Manhattan
Project cost roughly $26.2 billion, accounting for ination.)* [33]* [34] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for
previous projects.* [35] The spacecraft was also bigger; it
had two main parts, the combined command and service
module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The
LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command
module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth.
Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita

Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by
converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or
three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two
manned ights before Gemini's rst ight, achieving
a three-cosmonaut ight in 1963 and the rst EVA
in 1964. After this, the program was then canceled,
and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei
Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to
Apollo.
Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969
Spacecraft and rocket comparison including Apollo (biggest),

Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone
rockets are left out
The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the rst time in a ight around the Moon in December 1968.* [36] Shortly before, the Soviets had sent
an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.* [37] On the
next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed
for the Moon landing were practiced* [38]* [39] and then
nally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.* [40]
The rst person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin, while Michael
Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions
also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December
1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceights, twelve
Project Apollo (196172)
men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a
wealth of scientic data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of
Main article: Apollo program
lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed
included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat
The U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in putting ow, lunar ranging, magnetic elds, and solar wind.* [41]
the rst man in space, motivated President John F. The Moon landing marked the end of the space race and
Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961 to com- as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind* [42] when
mit the federal government to a program to land a man he stepped down on the Moon.
on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which eectively Apollo set major milestones in human spaceight. It
launched the Apollo program.* [31]
stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low
Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientic Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial
77
Main article: Skylab
Apollo 17's lunar roving vehicle, 1972
Skylab was the United States' rst and only independently

built space station.* [44] Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB
upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973 atop
the rst two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nauticalmile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50 to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its rst crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in
1973 and 1974.* [44] It included a laboratory for studying
the eects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.* [44]
NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and
elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle
was not ready for ight before Skylab's re-entry on July
11, 1979.* [45]
To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets
originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to
launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three threeman crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59,
and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic
feet (320 m3 ), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of
the Apollo Command Module.* [45]
body.* [43] Apollo 8 was the rst manned spacecraft to

orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked
the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond
low Earth orbit to date. The program spurred advances
in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and
manned spaceight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many
elds of engineering and left many physical facilities and
machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (197275)
objects and artifacts from the program are on display
at various locations throughout the world, notably at the
Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.
Skylab (196579)
Apollo-Soyuz crews with models of spacecraft, 1975
Main article: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
Skylab space station, 1974
On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and

Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be
capable of docking with each other.* [46] This authorized
the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo
78
CHAPTER 5. NASA
Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The

mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US
manned space ight until the rst orbital ight of the
Space Shuttle in April 1981.* [47]
cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an

airlock.* [53] Another famous series of missions were the
launch and later successful repair of the Hubble Space
Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.* [54]
The mission included both joint and separate scientic

experiments, and provided useful engineering experience
for future joint USRussian space ights, such as the
ShuttleMir Program* [48] and the International Space
Station.
In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the

Shuttle-Mir missions (19951998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a fulledged space station. This cooperation has continued
with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest
partners in the largest space station built: the International
Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on
this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during
the two-year grounding of the shuttle eet following the
2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
Space Shuttle program (19722011)

Main article: Space Shuttle program
Discovery lifto, 2008
The Shuttle eet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts

in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in
2003.* [55] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts,
NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second
loss.* [55] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing
of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with
over 300 astronauts sent into space.* [56]
International Space Station (1993present)
Main article: International Space Station
The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's
Mission prole. Left: launch, top: orbit (cargo bay

open), right: reentry and landing
The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in
the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently
launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle
orbiters were built by 1985. The rst to launch, Columbia,
did so on April 12, 1981,* [49] the 20th anniversary of the
rst space ight by Yuri Gagarin.* [50]
Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an
external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at its
side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only component that was not reused.
The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185643 km (115
400 miles)* [51] and carry a maximum payload (to low
orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).* [52] Missions could last
from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.* [51]
On 20 missions (198398) the Space Shuttle carried
Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European
Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital ight, but remained in the Shuttle's
The International Space Station
Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian

Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the
Japanese Kib laboratory module.* [57] NASA originally
planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US
budget constraints led to the merger of these projects
into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed
by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA),
the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the
European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space
Agency (CSA).* [58]* [59] The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other
components, which have been launched by Russian

Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.* [57] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth
Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the
completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected
by 2016.* [60]* [61] The ownership and use of the space
station is established in intergovernmental treaties and
agreements* [62] which divide the station into two areas
and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian
Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),* [63]* [64]
with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other
international partners.* [62]
79
Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that
of any previous space station.* [70] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their halfyear long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are
the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since
2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV)
since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)
since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012
and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The
Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for
cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew
members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another
US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel
to and from the International Space Station exclusively
aboard the Soyuz.* [71] The highest number of people
occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three
times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.* [72]
The ISS program is expected to continue until at least
2020 but may be extended until 2028 or possibly beyond
that.* [73]
The STS-131 (light blue) and Expedition 23 (dark blue) crew

members in April 2010
Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS

Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend
approximately six months on the ISS.* [65] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to
two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009,
expedition crew size has been six crew members.* [66]
Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew
Program becomes operational.* [67] The ISS has been
continuously occupied for the past 13 years and 358 days,
having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has
been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.* [68]* [69]
Spacewalking NASA astronaut in Earth orbit
Commercial Resupply Services (2006-present)

Main article: Commercial Resupply Services
The development of the Commercial Resupply Services
(CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.* [74] The development of these
vehicles was under a xed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded
award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached
to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone.* [75] Private companies
were also required to have someskin in the gamewhich
refers raising an unspecied amount of private investment
for their proposal.* [76]
On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital
Sciences Corporation.* [77] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9
rocket and Dragon spacecraft.* [78] Orbital Sciences uses
its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The rst
Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.* [79]
The rst Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013.* [80] The CRS program now provides for all
America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few
vehicle-specic payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.* [81]
Commercial Crew Program (2010present) Main

article: Commercial Crew Development
The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program
eye and, as of 2014, is the largest articial satellite in was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating Ameri-
80
CHAPTER 5. NASA
can commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of

delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back
to Earth.* [82]* [82] It is hoped that these vehicles could
also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.* [83]
Like COTS, CCDev is also a xed price milestone-based
developmental program that requires some private investment.* [75]
In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the rst phase
of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among
ve American companies to foster research and development into human spaceight concepts and technologies
in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies.* [84] In 2012,
the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among
three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.* [85] This phase of the CCDev program is
expected to last from June 3, 2012 to May 31, 2014.* [85]
The winners of this latest round were SpaceX's Dragon
planned to be launched on a Falcon 9, Boeing's CST-100
planned to be launched on an Atlas V and Sierra Nevada's
Dream Chaser, which is also planned to be launched on Artist's rendering of the 70 mt variant of SLS launching Orion
an Atlas V.* [86] NASA will most likely only choose one
provider for the Commercial Crew program, this vehicle is expected by NASA to become operational around
2017.* [87]* [88]
The unmanned variant of Dragon is seen approaching the ISS
Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit
Dream Chaser atmospheric test article
Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010present)
For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has
been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS),
a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond
low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010,
President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and
shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.* [89] During a speech at the Kennedy
Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new
heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly planned
Ares V.* [90] In his speech, Obama called for a manned
mission to an asteroid as soon as 2025, and a manned
mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.* [90] The NASA
Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and
signed into law on October 11, 2010.* [91] The act ocially canceled the Constellation program.* [91]
Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013
new law also required the construction of a beyond low

earth orbit spacecraft.* [92] The Orion spacecraft, which
was being developed as part of the Constellation program,
was chosen to fulll this role.* [93] The Space Launch
System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.* [94]
The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required
to be able to lift 70 mt into LEO. It is then planned
to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130
mt.* [93]* [95]
Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test

ight of Orion's crew module, is planned to be launched
in 2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket.* [95] Exploration
Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS
The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV that would also send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory,
be chosen within 90 days of its passing; the launch vehi- which is planned for 2017.* [95] The rst manned ight
cle was given the name Space Launch System. The of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) is to

launch between 2019 and 2021; it is a 10- to 14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit.* [95]
As of March 2012, the destination for EM-3 and the intermediate focus for this new program is still in-ux.* [96]
5.2.2
Unmanned programs
81
yby (Mariner 2), to take the rst pictures from another
planet (Mariner 4), the rst planetary orbiter (Mariner 9),
and the rst to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner
10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.* [101]
Uranus by Voyager 2, 1986
Deep space mission deployed by Shuttle, 1989
Main article: Unmanned NASA missions
The rst successful landing on Mars was made by Viking

1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars
by Mars Pathnder.* [102]
Outside Mars, Jupiter was rst visited by Pioneer 10 in

1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into
the planet's atmosphere, and became the rst spacecraft
to orbit the planet.* [103] Pioneer 11 became the rst
spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making
the rst (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune
in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The rst spacecraft to
leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983.* [104] For
The rst US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has* since
been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. [105]
started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early space
race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry mesSputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project sages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.* [106]* [107]
was transferred to this agency and still continues to this A problem with deep space travel is communication. For
day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the instance, it takes about 3 hours at present for a radio sigSun, measuring magnetic elds and the solar wind, among nal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft at a point more
other aspects.* [99] A more recent Earth mission, not re- than halfway to Pluto.* [108] Contact with Pioneer 10 was
lated to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as
Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into they explore the outer boundary between the Solar Sysorbit in 1990.* [100]
tem and interstellar space.* [109]
More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.* [97]
Besides exploration, communication satellites have also
been launched by NASA.* [98] The missions have been
launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with
a rocket stage to take it farther.
The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least
four unmanned programs. The rst was Mariner in the
1960s and 70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and
Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the
Mariner program were also the rst to make a planetary
On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars.
Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012,
and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or
present life on Mars.* [110]* [111]* [112]
82
CHAPTER 5. NASA
Artist's concept of NASA's Intelligent Payload Experiment (IPEX)

and M-Cubed/COVE-2 satellites (CubeSats) that were
launched as part of the NROL-39 GEMSat mission in December
2013.
5.2.3
Recent and planned activities
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys

of Mars and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun.
Other active spacecraft missions are MESSENGER for
Mercury, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond),
Vision mission for an interstellar precursor spacecraft by NASA
and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored
Enable program and institutional capabilities to contrans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989
duct NASA's aeronautics and space activities
2003), Cassini (1997), and Juno (2011).
Share NASA with the public, educators, and stuThe New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006
dents to provide opportunities to participate
and is currently en route for a Pluto yby in 2015. The
probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February
2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and test- In August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two
ing on-board instruments during the yby. On the hori- space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Ofzon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part ce. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are
*
of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of superior to the Hubble Space Telescope. [118]
*
Mars. [113]
In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the
On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base.* [114] The goal was to start
building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a
fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations
and in-situ resource utilization. However in 2009, the
Augustine Committee found the program to be on aunsustainable trajectory.* [115] In 2010, President Barack
Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base,
and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.* [116]
Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated

heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended
to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and
other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids,
and one day Mars.* [119] The Orion MPCV is planned
for an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket
around September 2014.* [120]
On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on
Mars. On August 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the rst
pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to
Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:
Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been* [117]

Extend and sustain human activities across the solar
system
Expand scientic understanding of the Earth and the
universe
Create innovative new space technologies
Advance aeronautics research
Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast
capabilities of the Curiosity Rover, which is
now on the surface of Mars.
Since the beginning of time, humankinds
curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life
new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I
want to congratulate the men and women of
our NASA family as well as our commercial
5.3. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
83
Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012
and government partners around the world, for

taking us a step beyond to Mars.
This is an extraordinary achievement.
Landing a rover on Mars is not easy others
have tried only America has fully succeeded.
The investment we are making the knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and
analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about
the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past
and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benets to Earth and inspire
a new generation of scientists and explorers, as
it prepares the way for a human mission in the
not too distant future. Thank you.* [121]
Mars rock, viewed by a rover
tional Space Station, and diagnosis of medical conditions

is challenging. Astronauts are susceptible to a variety
of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeciencies, loss of bone and muscle,
orthostatic intolerance due to volume loss, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. Ultrasound oers a unique
opportunity to monitor these conditions in space. This
study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound
performed by non-expert operators in populations such
5.3 Scientic research
as medical and high school students. It is anticipated that
remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth
For technologies funded or otherwise supported by
in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a
NASA, see NASA spin-o technologies.
trained physician is often rare.* [122]* [123]* [124]
5.3.1
Medicine in space
Main article: Space medicine

A variety of large-scale medical studies are being conducted in space by the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the
Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study,
in which astronauts (including former ISS Commanders
Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound
scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose
and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in
space. Usually there is no physician on board the Interna-
5.3.2 Ozone depletion

In 1975, NASA was directed by legislation to research
and monitor the upper atmosphere. This led to Upper
Atmosphere Research Program and later the Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites in the 1990s to monitor
ozone depletion.* [125] The rst comprehensive worldwide measurements were obtained in 1978 with the Nimbus 7 satellite and NASA scientists at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.* [126]
84
5.3.3
CHAPTER 5. NASA
Salt evaporation and energy manage- duct necessary tests at the John F. Kennedy Space center. The main purpose was to evaluate two innovative inment
In one of the nation's largest restoration projects, NASA

technology helps state and federal government reclaim
15,100 acres (61 km2 ) of salt evaporation ponds in South
San Francisco Bay. Satellite sensors are used by scientists to study the eect of salt evaporation on local ecology.* [127]
situ remediation technologies, thermal removal and oxidation destruction of DNAPLs.* [131] National Space
Agency made a partnership with Military Services and
Defense Contract Management Agency named theJoint
Group on Pollution Prevention. The group is working on reduction or elimination of hazardous materials or
processes.* [132]
NASA has started Energy Eciency and Water Conservation Program as an agency-wide program directed to
prevent pollution and reduce energy and water utilization.
It helps to ensure that NASA meets its federal stewardship responsibilities for the environment.* [128]
On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the rst federal agency to directly
use landll gas to produce energy at one of its facilities
the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.* [133]
5.3.4
Earth science
5.4 Sta and leadership
Main article: List of NASA Administrators
Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over

460 feet (140 m) and passing within 4.7 million miles (7.6106
km) of Earth's orbit) circa 2013 (alternate image).
Understanding of natural and human-induced changes on

the global environment is the main objective of NASA's
Earth science. NASA currently has more than a dozen
Earth science spacecraft/instruments in orbit studying all
aspects of the Earth system (oceans, land, atmosphere,
biosphere, cryosphere), with several more planned for
launch in the next few years.* [129]
NASA is working in cooperation with National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). The goal is to produce worldwide solar resource maps with great local
detail.* [130] NASA was also one of the main participants in the evaluation innovative technologies for the
cleanup of the sources for dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). On April 6, 1999, the agency signed
The Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) along with the
United States Environmental Protection Agency, DOE,
and USAF authorizing all the above organizations to con-
NASA's administrator is the agency's highest-ranking ofcial and serves as the senior space science adviser to the
President of the United States. The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC
and provides overall guidance and direction.* [134] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United
States.* [135]
The rst administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan, appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower; during his
term he brought together the disparate projects in space
development research in the US.* [136]
The third administrator was James E. Webb (served
19611968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy.
In order to implement the Apollo program to achieve
Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon by
1970, Webb directed major management restructuring
and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned
Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center.
In 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Charles
Bolden as NASA's twelfth administrator.* [137] Administrator Bolden is one of three NASA administrators
that were astronauts along with Richard H. Truly (served
19891992) and Frederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).
5.6. BUDGET
85
5.5 Facilities
NASA's budget from 1958 to 2012 as a percentage of federal

budget
Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California
5.6 Budget
Main article: Budget of NASA
NASA's budget has generally been approximately 1%

of the federal budget from the early 1970s on, but
briey peaked to approximately 4.41% in 1966 during
the Apollo program.* [139] Recent public perception of
the NASA budget has been shown to be signicantly difVehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space ferent from reality; a 1997 poll indicated that Americans
Center
responded on average that 20% of the federal budget went
Main article: NASA facilities
to NASA.* [140]
The percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated has been steadily dropping since the Apollo program and as of 2012 the NASA budget is estimated to
be 0.48% of the federal budget.* [141] In a March 2012
meeting of the United States Senate Science Committee,
Neil deGrasse Tyson testied thatRight now, NASAs
annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice
thata penny on a dollarwe can transform the counJohn F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best- try from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic
its 20th century
known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for struggle, to one where it has reclaimed
*
*
birthright
to
dream
of
tomorrow.
[142]
[143]
every United States human space ight since 1968. Although such ights are currently on pause, KSC continues
to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities
for America's civilian space program from three pads at 5.7 Environmental Impact
the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.
NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve
more than one application for historic or administrative
reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at the
Kennedy Space Center and own special aircraft for instance two Boeing 747 which were used for transport of
the Space Shuttle orbiter.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is

home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control
Center, where all ight control is managed for manned
space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also
houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains,
and provides astronauts as crew members for U.S. and
international space missions.
Space exploration can aect life on Earth by using toxic

chemicals to manufacture rockets, and carbon dioxide
pumped into the atmosphere during operation of rockets.* [144] NASA addressed environmental concerns of
its now defunct constellation program in accordance with
the National Environmental Policy Act.* [145]
Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket 5.8 Current missions
and Skylab were developed.* [138] The JPL, mentioned
above, was together with ABMA one of the agencies be- See also: List of NASA missions
hind Explorer 1, the rst American space mission.
Examples of some current NASA missions:
86
CHAPTER 5. NASA
5.9 See also

Aerospace Education Services Project
Astronomy Picture of the Day
Astrotech Corporation
Buran, Soviet space shuttle
Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Oce
Federation of Earth Science Information Partners
(ESIP Federation)
List of aerospace engineering topics
List of government space agencies
List of NASA aircraft
Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope
2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars orbiter
List of NASA missions

List of rockets used by NASA
NASA Acquisition Internet Service
Cassini, Saturn orbiter
NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program
Chandra X-ray Telescope
NASA awards and decorations
Curiosity rover (Mars Science Laboratory), Mars

rover
NASAcast
NASA insignia
Dawn, asteroid orbiter
NASA RealWorld-InWorld Engineering Design

Challenge
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
NASA Research Park
Hubble Space Telescope
NASA spin-o
NASA TV
Kepler mission
Project A119
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Lunar orbiter
Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans

Committee
MESSENGER, Mercury orbiter
Saturn (rocket family)
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars orbiter

MAVEN
Scientic research on the ISS

Small Explorer program
Spacelab
New Horizons, Pluto yby
Space policy of the Barack Obama administration
Opportunity rover, Mars rover
Space probe
Solar Dynamics Observatory

Spitzer Space Telescope
Space race
Starlite, a MMO game by NASA
Timeline of Solar System exploration
STEREO
Unmanned spacecraft
Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission
Vision for Space Exploration
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[129] Taking a global perspective on Earth's climate. Global
Climate Change: NASA's Eyes on the Earth. Archived
from the original on July 24, 2011.
[143] Past, Present, and Future of NASA - U.S. Senate Testimony (Video)". Hayden Planetarium. 7 Mar 2012. Retrieved 4 Dec 2012.
[144] The Environmental Impact of a Return to the Moon.
Universe Today. 31 Jan 2008. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
[145] Constellation Programmatic Environmental Impact
Statement. NASA. 1 Aug 2011. Retrieved 19 June
2014.
5.11 External links

General
Ocial website

NASA Engineering and Safety Center
NASA Photos and NASA Images
NASA Launch Schedule
NASA Television and NASA podcasts
NASA on Google+
NASA's channel on YouTube
@NASA on Twitter
NASA in the Federal Register
NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site
The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth
NASA Documents relating to the Space Program,
195362, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Online documents pertaining to the early history
and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower
Presidential Library
NASA records available for research at the National
Archives at Atlanta
Technical Report Archive and Image Library
(TRAIL) historic technical reports from NASA
and other federal agencies
NASA Alumni League, NAL Florida Chapter,
NAL JSC Chapter
Further reading
How NASA works on howstuworks.com
NASA History Division
Monthly look at Exploration events
NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System
NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server
NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the
Contemporary Past
Quest: The History of Spaceight Quarterly
91
Chapter 6
Apollo program
(NASA), the United States' civilian space agency, and the
program was responsible for the landing of the rst humans on Earth's Moon in 1969. First conceived during
the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower as a three-man
spacecraft to follow the one-man Project Mercury which
put the rst Americans in space, Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of
landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to
the Earthby the end of the 1960s, which he proposed in
a May 25, 1961, address to Congress. Project Mercury
was followed by the two-man Project Gemini (196266).
The rst manned ight of Apollo was in 1968.
Apollo program insignia
Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin
landed their Lunar Module (LM) on the Moon on July 20,
1969, and walked on its surface while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command spacecraft, and all
three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent
Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the
last in December 1972. In these six spaceights, 12 men
walked on the Moon.
Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, and was supported by the
two-man Gemini program which ran concurrently with
it from 1962 to 1966. Gemini missions developed some
of the space travel techniques that were necessary for the
success of the Apollo missions. Apollo used Saturn family rockets as launch vehicles. Apollo / Saturn vehicles
were also used for an Apollo Applications Program which
consisted of three Skylab space station missions in 1973
74.
Apollo succeeded in achieving its goal of manned lunar

landing, despite the major setback of a 1967 Apollo 1
cabin re that killed the entire crew during a pre-launch
test. After the rst landing, sucient ight hardware
remained for nine follow-on landings with an ambitious
plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of
these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved sucBuzz Aldrin (pictured) walked on the Moon with Neil Armstrong, cessful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented
on Apollo 11, July 2021, 1969
by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon, which
disabled the command spacecraft's propulsion and life
The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, support. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the
was the third human spaceight program carried out Lunar Module as a lifeboatfor these functions.
by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
92
6.1. BACKGROUND
Apollo set several major human spaceight milestones.
It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low
Earth orbit; Apollo 8 was the rst manned spacecraft to
orbit another celestial body, while the nal Apollo 17
mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth
manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program
returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of lunar rocks and soil to
Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the
Moon's composition and geological history. The program
laid the foundation for NASA's current human spaceight
capability, and funded construction of its Johnson Space
Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred
advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.
93
can fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US
House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day
after Gagarin's ight, many congressmen pledged their
support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up.* [7] Kennedy was circumspect in his
response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on
America's response to the Soviets.* [8]
6.1 Background
See also: Space Race
The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during
the Eisenhower administration, as a follow-up to America's Mercury program. While the Mercury capsule could
only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, the Apollo spacecraft was to be able to carry three
astronauts on a circumlunar ight and eventually to a
lunar landing. The program was named after the Greek
god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe
Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby.* [1] Silverstein chose the
name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt
Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate
to the grand scale of the proposed program.* [2] While
NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for
the program was far from certain given Eisenhower's ambivalent attitude to manned spaceight.* [3]
In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the elds of space exploration and missile defense. Using space exploration as
a symbol of national prestige, he warned of a "missile
gap" between the two nations, pledging to make the US
notrst but, rst and, rst if, but rst period.* [4] Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to
a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he
became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put o by the massive
nancial commitment required by a manned Moon landing.* [5] When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget
increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.* [6]
On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the rst person to y in space, reinforcing Ameri-
President Kennedy delivers his proposal to put a man on the Moon

before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961
On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President

Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that
could oer NASA the opportunity to catch up.* [9]* [10]
Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that we are neither making maximum eort
nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a
position of leadership.* [11]* [12] His memo concluded
that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it
rst.* [11]
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the rst US manned
spaceight Freedom 7, Kennedy proposed the Apollo
program to Congress in a special address to a joint session:
Now it is time to take longer strides - time

for a great new American enterprise - time for
this nation to take a clearly leading role in space
achievement, which in many ways may hold the
key to our future on Earth.
...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade
is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space
project in this period will be more impressive to
mankind, or more important in the long-range
exploration of space; and none will be so dicult or expensive to accomplish.* [13]
94
CHAPTER 6. APOLLO PROGRAM
6.2 NASA expansion

At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had own in spaceless than a month earlierand
NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even
some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met.* [14] Kennedy even came close
to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of eort.* [15]
Landing men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required
the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the
largest commitment of resources ($24 billion) ever made
by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support
of over 20,000 industrial rms and universities.* [16]
6.2.1
Manned Spacecraft Center
choose this as our goal? And they may well

ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why,
35 years ago, y the Atlantic? ...
We choose to go to the Moon. We choose
to go to the Moon in this decade and do the
other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve
to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills; because that challenge is one
that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win
... .* [18]
The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson
soon after his death in 1973.* [19]
Main article: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

It became clear that managing the Apollo program would
exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task
Group, which had been directing the nation's manned
space program from NASA's Langley Research Center.
So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization
into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land
donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961.* [17] It
was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of
controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force
Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.
President Kennedy speaks at Rice University (17 min, 47 sec)
In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury

astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his
organization to rented space in Houston, and construction
of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice
to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:
But why, some say, the Moon?
Why
6.2.2 Launch Operations Center

Main article: Kennedy Space Center
It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the
Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest
launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn
I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and
LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for
the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a
Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of
Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development
and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt
H. Debus, a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named
the LOC's rst Director.* [20] Construction began in
November 1962. Upon Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963,
to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of
Kennedy.* [21]
The LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control Center, and a 130 million cubic foot (3.7 million cubic meter) Vertical Assembly Building (VAB) in which
the space vehicle (launch vehicle and spacecraft) would
be assembled on a Mobile Launcher Platform and then
moved by a transporter to one of several launch pads.
Although at least three pads were planned, only two,
designated A and B, were completed in October 1965.
The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout
Building (OCB) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their
launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in
two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric
pressure at altitudes up to 250,000 feet (76 km), which is
nearly a vacuum.* [22]* [23]
6.3. CHOOSING A MISSION MODE
6.2.3
95
Organization
planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set

of ights that could meet it while minimizing risk to huAdministrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo man life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut
costs under control, he had to develop greater project skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:
management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr.
George E. Mueller for a high management job. Mueller
Direct Ascent: A spacecraft would travel directly
accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reto the Moon as a unit, land, and return leaving its
organization necessary to eectively administer Apollo.
landing stage on the Moon. This plan would have reWebb then worked with Associate Administrator (later
quired a more powerful launch vehicle, the planned
Deputy Administrator) Robert Seamans to reorganize
Nova rocket.
the Oce of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).* [24] On
Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR): Multiple rockJuly 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment
ets (up to 15 in some plans) would be launched,
as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space
carrying various parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft
Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainand propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI).
erd Holmes on his retirement eective September 1. UnThese
would be assembled into a single spacecraft
der Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned
in
Earth
orbit.
Spacecraft Center (Gilruth) Marshall Space Flight Center
(von Braun) and the Launch Operations Center (Debus)
Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR): One Saturn V
eectively reported to Mueller.* [25]
would launch a spacecraft that was composed of
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile
projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could
be found among high-ranking ocers in the United States
Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for
his eective management of the Minuteman program,
as OMSF program controller. Phillips' superior ocer
Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA,
along with a sta of ocers under him, on the condition
that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller
agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964,
until it achieved the rst manned landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty.* [26]
6.3 Choosing a mission mode
modular parts. A command module would remain

in orbit around the Moon, while a lunar excursion
module would descend to the Moon, return to dock
with the command ship, and then be discarded. In
contrast with the other plans, LOR required only a
small part of the spacecraft to land on the Moon,
thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from
the Moon's surface for the return trip.
Lunar Surface Rendezvous: Two spacecraft
would be launched in succession. The rst, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to
Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some
time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would
have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to
the manned vehicle.
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission
mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that
a rendezvous let alone a docking neither of which
had been attempted even in Earth orbit, would be extremely dicult in lunar orbit. Dissenters including John
Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were oered by the LOR
approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent
a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spokesomewhat as a voice in the wilderness,
Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in
studies of the question.* [27]
Seamans' establishment of the Golovin committee in July

1961 represented a turning point in NASA's mission
John Houbolt explaining the LOR concept
mode decision.* [28] While the ad-hoc committee was intended to provide a recommendation on the boosters to be
See also: Moon landing
used in the Apollo program, it recognized that the mode
decision was an important part of this question. The
Once Kennedy had dened a goal, the Apollo mission committee recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR
96

of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized for use in various possible missions,
such as: shuttle service to a space station, circumlunar
ight, or return to Earth from a lunar landing. Once the
Moon landing goal became ocial, detailed design began of the Command/Service Module (CSM) in which
the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission
and lift o from the lunar surface for the return trip.
The nal choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the
CSM's role to a translunar ferry used to transport the
crew and a new spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened to Lunar Module, LM) which
would take two men to the lunar surface and return them
to the CSM.* [32]
6.4.1 Command/Service Module
Early Apollo conguration for Direct Ascent and Earth Orbit

Rendezvous, 1961
Main article: Apollo Command/Service Module

The Command Module (CM) was the conical crew cabin,
mode, but its consideration of LOR as well as Houbolt's

ceaseless workplayed an important role in publicizing
the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early
1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began
to come around to support LOR.* [29] The engineers at
Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was
announced by Wernher von Braun at a brieng in June
1962. NASA's formal decision in favor of LOR was announced on July 11, 1962. Space historian James Hansen
concludes that:
Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the
United States may still have reached the Moon,
but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s, President
Kennedy's target date.* [30]
The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a life boatin the event of
a failure of the command ship. This happened on Apollo
13 when an oxygen tank failure left the command ship
without electrical power. The Lunar Module provided
propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the
crew home safely.* [31]
Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit
designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only
component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without
major conguration changes as the program evolved from
the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered
with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer
its atmospheric entry path. Parachutes were carried to
slow its descent to splashdown. The module was 11.42
feet (3.48 m) tall, 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter, and
weighed approximately 12,250 pounds (5,560 kg).* [33]
A cylindrical Service Module (SM) supported the Command Module, with a service propulsion engine and an
RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation
6.4 Spacecraft
system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants.
A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance
Main article: Apollo spacecraft
communications on the lunar ights. On the extended
lunar missions, an orbital scientic instrument package
Preliminary design studies of Apollo spacecraft began in was carried. The Service Module was discarded just be1960 as a three-man command module supported by one fore re-entry. The module was 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long and
6.5. LAUNCH VEHICLES

12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter. The initial lunar ight
version weighed approximately 51,300 pounds (23,300
kg) fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry
a lunar orbit scientic instrument package weighed just
over 54,000 pounds (24,000 kg).* [33]
97
hours. An Extended Lunar Module weighed over 36,200
pounds (16,400 kg), and allowed surface stays of over 3
days.* [33]
The contract for design and construction of the Lunar

Module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering
North American Aviation won the contract to build the Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J.
CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch Kelly.* [35]
vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started
early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the
service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM o
6.5 Launch vehicles
of the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the
*
thrust required for translunar ight. [34] Also, there was
no provision for docking with the Lunar Module. A
1964 program denition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would
be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar
spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and
take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.* [32]
6.4.2
Lunar Module
Main article: Apollo Lunar Module

The Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from
Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale: Little Joe II,
Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V
Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun

and his team of rocket engineers had started work on
plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and
the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these plans,
von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA, and
made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The
initial direct ascent plan to send the three-man Apollo
Command/Service Module directly to the lunar surface,
on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require
a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability
of over 180,000 pounds (82,000 kg).* [36] The June 11,
1962, decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the
Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded
to develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo.* [37]
Apollo 16 LM on the Moon
lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take

them back to orbit to rendezvous with the Command
Module. Not designed to y through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations, and was of an
extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine.
The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration
equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin,
ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The
initial LM model weighed approximately 33,300 pounds
(15,100 kg), and allowed surface stays up to around 34
6.5.1 Little Joe II

Main article: Little Joe II
Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively
small rocket was required for qualication ight testing of
this system. A size bigger than the NAA Little Joe would
be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General
Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualication
test ight,* [38] four LES test ights (A-001 through 004)
were made at the White Sands Missile Range between
May 1964 and January 1966.* [39]
98
6.5.2
Saturn I
manned CSM ights on the Saturn I from late 1965

through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The
22,500-pound (10,200 kg) payload capacity* [43] would
Main article: Saturn I
have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to
Since Apollo, like Project Mercury, used more than
use the uprated Saturn IB for all manned Earth orbital
one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used
ights.* [44]
spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers:
AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x
for Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, MercuryAtlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than 6.5.3 Saturn IB
numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This
Main article: Saturn IB
was changed by the time manned ights began.* [40]
Saturn I, the rst US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low
Earth orbit tests. The S-I rst stage burned RP-1 with
liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer, to produce 1,500,000
pounds-force (6,670 kN) of thrust. The S-IV second
stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled RL-10 engines with
90,000 pounds-force (400 kN) of thrust. A planned
Centaur (S-V) third stage with two RL-10 engines, never
ew on Saturn I.* [41]
The Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn

I. The S-IB rst stage increased the thrust to 1,600,000
pounds-force (7,120 kN), and the second stage replaced
the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce
200,000 lbf (890 kN) of thrust. A restartable version of
the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The
Saturn IB could send over 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) into
low Earth orbit, sucient for a partially fueled CSM or
the LM.* [45] Saturn IB launch vehicles and ights were
designated with an AS-200 series number,ASindicatingApollo Saturnand the2indicating the second
member of the Saturn rocket family.
6.5.4 Saturn V
A Saturn IB rocket launches Apollo 7, 1968
The rst four Saturn I test ights were launched from

LC-34, with only live rst stages, carrying dummy upper stages lled with water. The rst ight with a live
S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by
ve launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101
through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last
three of these further supported the Apollo program by
also carrying Pegasus satellites, which veried the safety A Saturn V launches Apollo 11 in 1969
of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency
and severity of micrometeorite impacts.* [42]
Main article: Saturn V
In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four
6.7. LUNAR MISSION PROFILE
99
The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was 33 feet (10.1
m) in diameter and stood 363 feet (110.6 m) tall with
its 96,800-pound (43,900 kg) lunar payload. Its capability grew to 103,600 pounds (47,000 kg) for the later
advanced lunar landings. The S-IC rst stage burned
RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of 7,500,000 pounds-force
(33,400 kN), which was upgraded to 7,610,000 poundsforce (33,900 kN). The second and third stages burned
liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modied version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to 230,000 lbf
(1,020 kN) and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit.* [46]
Saturn V launch vehicles and ights were designated with
an AS-500 series number, ASindicating Apollo Apollo 11 crew, who made the rst manned landing: commander
Saturnand the 5indicating Saturn V.
Neil Armstrong, CM pilot Michael Collins, and LM pilot Buzz
Aldrin
6.6 Astronauts
groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or

Mercury veterans. Crews on all development ights (exMain article: List of Apollo astronauts
cept the Earth orbit CSM development ights) through
NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations during the the rst two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans.
Dr. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the rst NASA
scientist astronaut to y in space, and landed on the Moon
on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in
the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing
crews.* [48]
See also: Astronauts who ew on Apollo, listed by group
6.7 Lunar mission prole

The nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded as
follows:
Apollo 1 crew: Edward H. White, command pilot Gus Grissom,
and Roger Chaee
Apollo program was Donald K. DekeSlayton, one

of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and
Apollo crew assignments.* [47]
Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to y missions in the
Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earths orbit
and ew around the Moon between December 1968 and
December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24
walked on its surface, though none of them returned to
the Moon after landing once. One of the moonwalkers
was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus Grissom, Edward
H. White, and Roger Chaee were killed during a ground
test in preparation for their Apollo 1 mission.* [40]
The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut
Launch The 3 Saturn V stages burn for about 11

minutes to achieve a 100-nautical-mile (190 km)
circular parking orbit. The third stage burns a small
portion of its fuel to achieve orbit.
Translunar injection After one to two orbits to
verify readiness of spacecraft systems, the S-IVB
third stage reignites for about 6 minutes to send the
spacecraft to the Moon.
Transposition and docking (1) The Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) panels separate to free
the CSM and expose the LM. The Command Module Pilot (CMP) moves the CSM out a safe distance,
and turns 180.
Transposition and docking (2), The CMP docks
with the LM, and pulls the combined spacecraft
away from the S-IVB, which then is sent into solar
orbit. The lunar voyage takes between 2 and 3 days.
100

Midcourse corrections are made as necessary using
the SM engine.
Lunar orbit insertion The spacecraft passes about

60 nautical miles (110 km) behind the Moon, and
the SM engine is red to slow the spacecraft and put
it into a 60-by-170-nautical-mile (110 by 310 km)
orbit, which is soon circularized at 60 nautical miles
by a second burn.
After a rest period, the Commander (CDR) and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) move to the LM, power up
its systems, and deploy the landing gear. The CSM
and LM separate; the CMP visually inspects the LM,
then the LM crew move a safe distance away and
re the descent engine for Descent orbit insertion,
which takes it to a perilune of about 50,000 feet (15
km).
Powered descent At perilune, the descent engine
res again to start the descent. The CDR takes over
manual control after pitchover for a vertical landing.
The rst three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10,

and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a ight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which
would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing
site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a
lunar orbital plane change, which required a course
change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the
free-return option.
On later landing ights, the SM engine was used instead of the LM engine to begin powered descent,
in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing.
On Apollo 12 and later missions, the jettisoned LM
ascent stages were deliberately crashed on the Moon
at known locations, as another active seismic experiment. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo
13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere,
and Apollo 16, where a loss of attitude control after
jettison prevented making a targeted impact.* [49]
The CDR and LMP perform one or more EVAs exploring the lunar surface and collecting samples, alternating with rest periods.
6.8 Development history
The ascent stage lifts o, using the descent stage as

a launching pad.
6.8.1 Unmanned ight tests
The LM rendezvouses and docks with the CSM.
Apollo unmanned development mission launches. Click

The CDR and LMP transfer back to the CM with on a launch image to read the main article about each
their material samples, then the LM ascent stage is mission
jettisoned, to eventually fall out of orbit and crash See also: List of Apollo missions
on the surface.
Trans-Earth injection The SM engine res to send Two Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital ights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The rst, ASthe CSM back to Earth.
201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of
The SM is jettisoned just before reentry, and the
265.7 nautical miles (492.1 km) and splashed down 4,577
CM turns 180 to face its blunt end forward for reennautical miles (8,477 km) downrange in the Atlantic
try.
ocean.* [50] The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached
Atmospheric drag slows the CM. Aerodynamic heat- 617.1 nautical miles (1,142.9 km) altitude and was recoving surrounds it with an envelope of ionized air ered 13,900 nautical miles (25,700 km) downrange in the
which causes a communications blackout for several Pacic ocean. These ights validated the Service Module
engine and the Command Module heat shield.* [51]
minutes.
Parachutes are deployed, slowing the CM for a A third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37,
splashdown in the Pacic Ocean. The astronauts are went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage
restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a
recovered and brought to an aircraft carrier.
nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload
was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of
Lunar ight prole (distances not to scale).
which engineers measured with temperature and pressure
sensors, and a TV camera. This ight occurred on July 5,
6.7.1 Prole variations
before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems
getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for ight.* [52]
After Apollo 12 placed the second of several
seismometers on the Moon, the S-IVBs on subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the 6.8.2 Preparation for manned ight
Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit, as an active seismic experiment to induce vibrations in the Two manned orbital Block I CSM missions were planned:
AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were
Moon.
6.8. DEVELOPMENT HISTORY

titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer. The astronauts
would wear a modied version of the Gemini spacesuit.
101
ican's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his ndings in a December 19 letter to NAA
president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter
by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans.* [56] Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes
it would be ready for manned ight in 1967, not long after
the rst manned CSM ights.* [57]
After an unmanned LM test ight AS-206, a crew would

y the rst Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known
as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be
launched on a separate Saturn IB.) The Block II crew positions were titled Commander (CDR) Command Module Pilot (CMP) and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP). The
astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo spacesuit, Disaster strikes
designed to accommodate lunar extra-vehicular activity
(EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a Main article: Apollo 1
clearshbowltype for greater visibility, and the lunar Grissom, White, and Chaee decided to name their ight
surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.
Grissom, White and Chaee were named for the AS204 crew on March 21, 1966, with a backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David
Scott, with rookie Russell L.RustySchweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra and rookies Donn
Eisele and Walter Cunningham were named as the prime
crew for AS-205.
In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled,
since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished
on the 14-day rst ight, and AS-205 would have been
devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB
was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime
AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were
reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.* [53]
Charred Apollo 1 cabin interior
Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the rst manned ight.

They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at
North American, and in the altitude chamber at the
Kennedy Space Center. Aplugs-outtest was planned
for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on
LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied
Program delays
to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by
a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the
The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vedelivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy hicle fueled.* [58]
Space Center with long lists of equipment problems
The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27,
which had to be corrected before ight; these delays 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First
caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and
the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits, which
eliminated hopes the rst manned mission might be ready delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications
to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in
the last Gemini mission. Eventually the planned AS-204 the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electriight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.* [54]
cal re began in the cabin, and spread quickly in the high
North American Aviation was prime contractor not only
for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V S-II second
stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the rst
unmanned Saturn V ight AS-501 from late 1966 to
November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had
to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)* [55]
The problems with North American were severe enough
in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel
Phillips to head a "tiger team" to investigate North Amer-
pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high

enough from the re that the cabin burst and the re
erupted onto the pad area, frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before
the hatch could be opened.* [59]
NASA immediately convened an accident review board,
overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex,
the review board concluded that deciencies existed
in Command Module design, workmanship and quality
102
control.* [59] At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as
Command Module program manager.* [60] Webb also
reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Oce (ASPO)
Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George
Low.* [61]
The Block II spacesuit in January 1968, before (left) and after

changes recommended after the Apollo 1 re

had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones
could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries
of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters
were used instead of numbers. The A missions were unmanned Saturn V validation; B was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the rst manned
CSM/LM ight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM
ight; F would be the rst lunar mission, testing the LM
in lunar orbit but without landing (a dress rehearsal
); and G would be the rst manned landing. The list of
types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H
lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J
for extended-stay lunar landings.* [62]
The delay in the CSM caused by the re enabled NASA
to catch up on man-rating the LM and Saturn V. Apollo
4 (AS-501) was the rst unmanned ight of the Saturn V,
carrying a Block I CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the Command Module's heat shield to survive a
trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the Service
Module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher
than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed. This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection,
followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the Service Module engine to achieve another highspeed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion,
which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages.
Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the
third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from
restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers
were able to use the Service Module engine to essentially
repeat the ight prole of Apollo 4. Based on the good
performance of Apollo 6 and identication of satisfactory xes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the
Saturn V ready to y men, cancelling a third unmanned
test.* [63]
To remedy the causes of the re, changes were made in

the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the
most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen
mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch,
and removal of ammable cabin and space suit materials. The Block II design already called for replacement
of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release,
outward opening door. NASA discontinued the manned
Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V ights. Crew members would also exApollo 5 (AS-204) was the rst unmanned test ight of
clusively wear modied, re-resistant Block II space suits,
LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January
and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless
22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used
of whether a LM was present on the ight or not.
for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully testred and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the rst descent stage ring. The asUnmanned Saturn V and LM tests
cent engine was red in abort mode, known as are-inOn April 24, 1967, Mueller published an ocial Apollo the-holetest, where it was lit simultaneously with jettimission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for son of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a
Low decided the next LM
all ights, manned or unmanned. The sequence would second unmanned test, George
*
[64]
ight
would
be
manned.
start with Apollo 4 to cover the rst three unmanned
ights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor
the crew per their widows' wishes.* [40]
6.8.3 Manned development missions
In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in
order to achieve the manned lunar landing. Each step Apollo manned development mission patches. Click on
6.8. DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
103
a patch to read the main article about that mission
of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours,

31 minutes outside the spacecraft, walking on the surface,
Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and dewas the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele and Cun- ploying automated scientic instruments, while continuningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital ight which ously sending black-and-white television back to Earth.
The astronauts returned safely on July 24.
tested the CSM systems.
Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart,
launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IB's. In the
summer it had become clear that the LM would not be
ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another
simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George
Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next
mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission.
This would keep the program on track. The decision
was not announced publicly until successful completion
of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and James
Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's
attention by making 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas
Eve, and returning safely to Earth.
For more details on this topic, see Apollo 8.
That's one small step for [a] man, one giant

leap for mankind.
Neil Armstrong, just after stepping onto the
Moon's surface* [65]
For more details on this topic, see Apollo 11 and Neil

ArmstrongFirst Moon walk.
6.8.4 Production lunar landings

Apollo production manned lunar landing mission patches.
Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission
In November 1969, Gemini veteran CharlesPeteCon-
The following March, LM ight, rendezvous and docking

were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo
9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its
Portable Life Support System (PLSS) outside the LM.
The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10
in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Staord,
John Young and Eugene Cernan. Staord and Cernan
took the LM to within 50,000 feet (15 km) of the lunar
surface.
Apollo landings on the Moon, 19691972
rad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing

on Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3
unmanned lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967
on the Ocean of Storms. The Command Module Pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon, Jr. Conrad
Neil Armstrong descends the LM's ladder in preparation for the and Bean carried the rst lunar surface color television
rst steps on the lunar surface, as televised live on July 20, 1969 camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed
into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours
The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 and 45 minutes. On one, they walked to the Surveyor,
by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Arm- photographed it,* and removed some parts which they restrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and turned to Earth. [66]
Aldrin performed the rst landing at the Sea of Tranquil- The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs were enough for
ity at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. NASA pub-
104
licized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing
sites, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM
for the last ve missions, along with the payload capacity
of the Saturn V. These nal missions would combine the
I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while
his companions were on the surface, and allowing them
to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions
would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised lifto
of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the
extended missions to allow greater exibility and visibility for driving the LRV.
The success of the rst two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as Commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell,
Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise in April 1970, headed for
the Fra Mauro formation. But two days out, a liquid
oxygen tank exploded, disabling the Service Module and
forcing the crew to use the LM as a life boatto return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a
combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a
subcontractor not making a tank component according to
updated design specications.* [31] Apollo was grounded
again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank
was redesigned and an extra one was added.

Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell.
This time the mission was successful. Shepard and
Mitchell spent 1 day, 9 hours on the surface, with two
EVAs totalling 9 hours 22 minutes.
Extended missions
Lunar Roving Vehicle used on Apollos 1517
Apollo 15 was launched in July 1971, with David Scott,

Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed
near Hadley Rille, and spent just under 2 days, 19 hours
on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected
about 77 kilograms (170 lb) of lunar material.
Mission cutbacks
Main article: Canceled Apollo missions
About the time of the rst landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab
orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the
original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn
IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly
budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the
development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971,
the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and
19. The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits
at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island,
Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville,
Plaque left on the Moon by Apollo 17
Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans,
Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Hous- Apollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands in April
ton, Texas.
1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with
The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the orig- Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spent
inal planned landing sites in order to achieve the most ef- just under 3 days on the surface, with a total of over 20
fective geological sample and data collection from the last hours EVA.
four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last Apollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing
of the H series missions, but since there were only two in the Taurus-Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene
missions left, it was changed to the rst of three J mis- Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's rst
sions.
scientist-astronaut, geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt.
Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18, but the
14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on
6.11. PROGRAM COST
105
the nal lunar landing. Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the sively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anorthite, and
surface for just under 3 days, 3 hours and spent just over is believed to be representative of the highland crust. A
23 hours of total EVA.
geochemical component called KREEP was discovered,
which has no known terrestrial counterpart. KREEP and
the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the
outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten
6.9 Mission summary
(see lunar magma ocean).
Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process eects. Many samples appear to be pitted with
micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on
Source for surface times and sample amounts: Apollo by
Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show
the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orlo 2004).* [68]
signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that
are generated during impact events. Some of the returned
samples are of impact melt (materials melted near an im6.10 Samples returned
pact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are
highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.
Main article: Moon rock
Main article: List of Apollo missions
Analysis of composition of the lunar samples supports

the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was created
through impact of a large astronomical body with the
Earth.* [70]
6.11 Program cost

When President Kennedy rst chartered the Moon landThe most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the ing program, a preliminary cost estimate of $7 billion
Genesis Rock, returned from Apollo 15.
was generated, but this proved an extremely unrealistic
guess of what could not possibly be determined precisely,
and James Webb used his judgment as administrator to
change the estimate to $20 billion before giving it to Vice
President Johnson.* [71]
Webb's estimate shocked many at the time (including the
President) but ultimately proved to be reasonably accurate. In January 1969, NASA prepared an itemized estimate of the run-out cost of the Apollo program. The
total came to $23.9 billion, itemized as follows:* [72]
Ferroan Anorthosite Moon rock, returned from Apollo
16.
The Apollo program returned 838.2 pounds (380.2 kg) of
lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in
Houston.* [67] Today, most of the samples are stored at
the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979.
Apollo spacecraft: $7,945.0 million

Saturn I launch vehicles: $767.1 million
Saturn IB launch vehicles: $1,131.2 million
Saturn V launch vehicles: $6,871.1 million
The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old

Launch vehicle engine development: $854.2 million
compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by
Mission support: $1,432.3 million
radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from
about 3.2 billion years for the basaltic samples derived
Tracking and data acquisition: $664.1 million
from the lunar mare, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust.* [69] As such, they
Ground facilities: $1,830.3 million
represent samples from a very early period in the devel Operation of installations: $2,420.6 million.
opment of the Solar System, that are largely absent on
Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts The nal cost of project Apollo was reported to Congress
David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mis- as $25.4 billion in 1973.* [73] It took up the majority
sion. This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclu- of NASA's budget while it was being developed. For
106
example, in 1966 it accounted for about 60 percent of

NASA's total $5.2 billion budget.* [74] A single Saturn V
launch in 1969 cost up to $375 million, compared to the
National Science Foundation's scal year 1970 budget of
$440 million.* [75]
In 2009, NASA held a symposium on project costs which
presented an estimate of the Apollo program costs in
2005 dollars as roughly $170 billion. This included all
research and development costs; the procurement of 15
Saturn V rockets, 16 Command/Service Modules, 12
Lunar Modules, plus program support and management
costs; construction expenses for facilities and their upgrading, and costs for ight operations. This was based
on a Congressional Budget Oce report, A Budgetary
Analysis of NASAs New Vision for Space, September
2004.* [71] The Space Review estimated in 2010 the cost
of Apollo from 1959 to 1973 as $20.4 billion, or $109
billion in 2010 dollars, averaged over the six landings as
$18 billion each.* [76]
6.12 Apollo Applications Program

Main article: Apollo Applications Program
There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked just where it
landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all
the time since merely imaginary.The New York Times* [77]
6.13 Recent observations

In September 2007, the X PRIZE Foundation and Google
announced the Google Lunar X Prize, to be awarded for
a robotic lunar landing mission which transmits close-up
images of the Apollo Lunar Modules and other articial
objects on the surface.* [78]
In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's
SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while
orbiting above the lunar surface.* [79] In 2009, NASA's
robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting
50 kilometers (31 mi) above the Moon, photographed
the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar
surface, and photographed each site where manned
Apollo ights landed.* [80]* [81] All of the U. S. ags left
on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to
still be standing, with the exception of the one left during
the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that
mission's lift-o from the lunar surface and return to
the mission Command Module in lunar orbit; the degree
to which these ags retain their original colors remains
unknown.* [82]
Looking beyond the manned lunar landings, NASA

investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo
hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (Apollo X,) proposed up to 30 ights to Earth orbit, using the space in
the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a
small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would
continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This
study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop
to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper In a November 16, 2009 editorial, The New York Times
stage, and grew into the Apollo Applications Program opined:
(AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by Apollo
Telescope Missions, which would replace the LM's de[T]here's something terribly wistful about
scent stage equipment and engine with a solar telescope
these photographs of the Apollo landing sites.
observatory. The most ambitious plan called for using an
The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were
empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus
walking there now, we could make him out,
y-by mission.
make out his footsteps even, like the astroThe S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these
plans to make it o the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab,
it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in
space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages
of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope
Mount, the solar telescope that would have been used on
the Apollo Telescope Missions. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station
itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979, by which time
it had become the oldest operational Apollo-Saturn component.
naut footpath clearly visible in the photos of

the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is
caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those
Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, its a reminder
of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed
the possibility that it might be unable to lift
o again and the astronauts would be stranded
on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as were able to
come to looking directly back into the human
past.* [77]
6.15. APOLLO 11 BROADCAST DATA RESTORATION PROJECT
107
6.14 Legacy
6.14.1
Science and engineering
Further information: NASA spin-o technologies

The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.* [83]* [84] Apollo
stimulated many areas of technology. The ight computer design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the Minuteman Missile System, the
driving force behind early research into integrated circuits. Computer-controlled machining was rst used in
the fabrication of Apollo structural components.
6.14.2
Cultural impact
We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth.
Eugene Cernan
taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts, is The Blue Marble

(right).
Many astronauts and cosmonauts have commented on the
profound eects that seeing Earth from space has had on
them;* [86] the 24 astronauts who traveled to the Moon
are the only humans to have observed Earth from beyond
low Earth orbit, and have traveled farther from Earth than
anyone else to date.
According to The Economist, Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the
Soviet Union in the Space Race, and beat it by accomplishing a singular and signicant achievement, and
thereby showcased the superiority of the capitalistic, freemarket system as represented by the US. The publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the
Everything that I ever knew my life, my loved ones, the Navy program required the organization of tremendous public
everything, the whole world was behind my thumb.James resources within a vast, centralized government bureauLovell
cracy.* [87]
The crew of Apollo 8 sent the rst live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read 6.15 Apollo 11 broadcast data
from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christrestoration project
mas Eve, 1968. This was believed to be the most widely
watched television broadcast until that time. The mission
and Christmas provided an inspiring end to 1968, which See also: Apollo 11 missing tapes
had been a troubled year for the US, marked by Vietnam
War protests, race riots, and the assassinations of civil
As part of Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA
rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., and Senator Robert
spearheaded an eort to digitally restore the existing
F. Kennedy.
videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk.* [88]
An estimated one-fth of the population of the world After an exhaustive three-year search for missing tapes
watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moon- of the original video of the Apollo 11 moonwalk, NASA
walk.* [85]
concluded the data tapes had more than likely been acci*
An eect of the Apollo program is the view of Earth as a dentally erased. [89]
fragile, small planet, captured in photographs taken by the
astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous,
We're all saddened that they're not there.
108

We all wish we had 20-20 hindsight. I don't
think anyone in the NASA organization did
anything wrong, I think it slipped through the
cracks, and nobody's happy about it.
Dick Nafzger, TV Specialist, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center* [89]
The Moon landing data was recorded by a special Apollo

TV camera which recorded in a format incompatible with
broadcast TV. This resulted in lunar footage that had to
be converted for the live television broadcast and stored
on magnetic telemetry tapes. During the following years,
a magnetic tape shortage prompted NASA to remove
massive numbers of magnetic tapes from the National
Archives and Records Administration to be recorded
over with newer satellite data. Stan Lebar, who led the
team that designed and built the lunar television camera
at Westinghouse Electric Corporation, also worked with
Nafzger to try to locate the missing tapes.* [89]
So I don't believe that the tapes exist today
at all. It was a hard thing to accept. But there
was just an overwhelming amount of evidence
that led us to believe that they just don't exist
anymore. And you have to accept reality.
Stan Lebar, lunar television camera designer,
Westinghouse Electric Corporation* [89]
The Wonder of It All (2007)

In the Shadow of the Moon (2007)
When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions (miniseries) (2008)
Moon Machines (miniseries) (2008)
James May on the Moon (documentary commemorating 40 years since the landings) (2009)
NASA's Story (documentary series) (2009)
Moonscape (freely downloadable Apollo 11 documentary) (2012)
6.16.2 Docudramas
The Apollo program, or certain missions, have been
dramatized in Apollo 13 (1995), Apollo 11 (1996), From
the Earth to the Moon (1998), Space Race (2005), and
Moonshot (2009).
6.17 See also

Apollo 11 ight to the Moon
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
Apollo TV camera
With a budget of $230,000, the surviving original lunar

broadcast data from Apollo 11 was compiled by Nafzger
and assigned to Lowry Digital for restoration. The video
was processed to remove random noise and camera shake
without destroying historical legitimacy.* [90] The images were from tapes in Australia, the CBS News archive,
and kinescope recordings made at Johnson Space Center. The restored video, remaining in black and white,
contains conservative digital enhancements and did not
include sound quality improvements.* [90]
6.16 Depictions on lm
6.16.1
Documentaries
Numerous documentary lms cover the Apollo program

and the Space Race, including:
Moonwalk One (1970)
For All Mankind (1989)
Moonfrom the BBC miniseries The Planets
(1999)
Magnicent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D
(2005)
List of man-made objects on the Moon

List of megaprojects
Lockheed Propulsion Company
Moon landing
Moon landing conspiracy theories
Pad Abort Test-1 (Apollo)
Soviet manned lunar programs
Splashdown (spacecraft landing)
Stolen and missing moon rocks
Exploration of the Moon
6.18 References
[1] Murray & Cox 1989, p. 55
[2] Release 69-36(Press release). Cleveland, OH: Lewis
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OCLC 38918860. Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the
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6.19 Bibliography
Beschloss, Michael R. (1997). Kennedy and the
Decision to Go to the Moon. In Launius, Roger
D.; McCurdy, Howard E. Spaceight and the Myth
of Presidential Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06632-4. LCCN
96051213.
Dawson, Virginia P.; Bowles, Mark D. (2004).

Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage
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Ertel, Ivan D.; Newkirk, Roland W. et al. (1978).
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (PDF) IV.
Foreword by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht. Washington,
D.C.: Scientic and Technical Information Oce,
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SP-4009. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
Gray, Mike (1994) [First published W. W. Norton & Company 1992]. Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon. New York:
Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-023280-X. OCLC
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Hansen, James R. (1999). Enchanted Rendezvous:
John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the LunarOrbit Rendezvous Concept (PDF). Monographs in
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Heppenheimer, T.A. (1999). The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle. The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.:
NASA. OCLC 40305626. NASA SP-4221. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
Johnson, Stephen B. (2002). The Secret of Apollo:
Systems Management in American and European
Space Programs.
New series in NASA history. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0-8018-6898-X. LCCN 2001005688. OCLC
48003131.
Launius, Roger D.; McCurdy, Howard E., eds.
(1997). Spaceight and the Myth of Presidential
Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois
Press. ISBN 0-252-06632-4. LCCN 96051213.
Launius, Roger D. (July 2004) [Originally published July 1994]. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monographs in Aerospace History Number 3
(Reprint ed.). Washington, D.C.: NASA. Retrieved
August 1, 2013.
Murray, Charles; Cox, Catherine Bly (1989).
Apollo: The Race to the Moon. New York: Simon &
Schuster. ISBN 0-671-61101-1. LCCN 89006333.
OCLC 19589707.
Orlo, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical
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00061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
Papike, James J.; Ryder, Graham; Shearer, Charles
K. (January 1998). Lunar Samples. Planetary
Materials. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (Washington, D.C.: Mineralogical Society of
America) 36 (1): 50015234. ISBN 0-93995046-4. ISSN 0275-0279. LCCN 99474392.
Sidey, Hugh (1963). John F. Kennedy, President (1st
ed.). New York: Atheneum. LCCN 63007800. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
Townsend, Neil A. (March 1973), Apollo Experience Report: Launch Escape Propulsion Subsystem
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Wilford, John Noble (1969). We Reach the Moon:
The New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure. New York: Bantam Paperbacks. OCLC
29123.
6.20 Further reading

Apollo Program Summary Report PDF (46.3 MB)
NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975
Collins, Michael (2001) [Originally published 1974;
New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux]. Carrying the
Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. Foreword by Charles
Lindbergh. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN
978-0-8154-1028-7. LCCN 2001017080. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences
as an astronaut, including his ight aboard Apollo
11.
Cooper, Henry S.F., Jr. (1995) [Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press]. Thirteen:
The Apollo Flight That Failed. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5.
LCCN 94039726. OCLC 31375285. Although this
book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of
background information on Apollo technology and
procedures.
French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2007). In the
Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to
Tranquility, 19651969. Foreword by Walter Cunningham. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. LCCN 2006103047.
OCLC 182559769. History of the Apollo program
from Apollos 111, including many interviews with
the Apollo astronauts.
Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond.
New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-00799. LCCN 00027720. OCLC 43590801. Factual,
from the standpoint of a ight controller during the
Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.
Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jerey (2000) [Previously published 1994 as Lost Moon]. Apollo 13. Boston:
Houghton Miin Company. ISBN 0-618-05665-3.
LCCN 99089647. OCLC 43118301. Details the
ight of Apollo 13.
Pellegrino, Charles R.; Sto, Joshua (1999). Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race
to the Moon. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-38080261-9. OCLC 41579174. Tells Grumman's story
of building the Lunar Modules.
Scott, David; Leonov, Alexei; Toomey, Christine
(2004). Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the
Cold War Space Race. Foreword by Neil Armstrong;
introduction by Tom Hanks (1st U.S. ed.). New
York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-308655. LCCN 2004059381. OCLC 56587777.
Seamans, Robert C., Jr. (2005). Project Apollo: The
Tough Decisions. Monographs in Aerospace History
113
Number 37. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16 The Apollo Flight Journal by W. David Woods, et
074954-9. LCCN 2005003682. OCLC 64271009.
al.
NASA SP-4537. History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960, to January 5, 1968. Multimedia
Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995).
Deke!: An Autobiography. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-85918-X. Account of Deke
Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief
of the astronaut oce, including selection of Apollo
crews.
The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 1:
PDF (131.2 MB) From origin to November 7, 1962
PDF (13.4 MB) November 8, 1962 September 30,
1964
PDF (57.7 MB) October 1, 1964 January 20, 1966
PDF (24.2 MB) January 21, 1966 July 13, 1974
Wilhelms, Don E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A
Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson:
University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1065-2.
LCCN 92033228. OCLC 26720457. The history
of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.
6.21 External links

Apollo program history at NASA's Human Space
Flight (HSF) website
The Apollo Program at the NASA History Program
Oce
Apollo Spinos at the NASA Spino website
The Apollo Program at the National Air and Space
Museum
Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature at
NASA (in Flash)
Lunar Mission Timeline at the Lunar and Planetary
Institute
NASA reports
Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA,
JSC-09423, April 1975
NASA History Series Publications
Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at
the NASA History Program Oce
The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal edited by Eric M.
Jones and Ken Glover
Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University

Apollo Gallery at NASA's Human Space Flight (includes videos/animations)
Audio recording and transcript of President John F.
Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al.,
discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet
Room, November 21, 1962)
The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a
large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
Apollo Image Atlas almost 25,000 lunar images,
Lunar and Planetary Institute
The short lm Time of Apollo (1975)" is available
for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
114
6.22 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.22.1
Text
International Space Station Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station?oldid=631174903 Contributors: WojPob,

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Devore, Thierryc, Ddama, Rchandra, Wronkiew, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Peter Ellis, Isidore, Confuzion, Kolt, Dvavasour, SarekOfVulcan, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, MistToys, Piotrus, Kaldari, ShakataGaNai, Fred Stober, Jossi, Oneiros, Rattlesnake, Melonhead,
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Starks, Johnwcowan, Matevzk, Zntrip, Unixxx, EasyTarget, Nuno Tavares, Sburke, Oliphaunt, Madchester, JHolman, Benbest, Drostie,
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6.22.2
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File:Contraves-Goerz_Kineto_Tracking_Mount.jpeg
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Space Exploration

International Space Station

Education and cultural outreach

Pirs and Poisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.14 Scheduled additional modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.15 Cancelled components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cranes and robotic arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Power and thermal control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Communications and computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expeditions and private ights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 Fleet operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.1 Currently docked/berthed

1.10.2 Scheduled launches and dockings/berthings

1.10.4 Launch and docking windows

1.11 Life aboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.11.1 Crew activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.12 Crew health and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.12.4 Microbiological environmental hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.13 Threat of orbital debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.14 End of mission

1.16 International co-operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.17 Sightings from Earth

1.18 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.22 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.22.1 Agency ISS websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.22.3 Live viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.17.1 Naked eye

Solid rocket boosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Orbiter markings and insignia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Re-entry and landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of orbiters and other hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Space Shuttle successors and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Space Shuttle related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Space Shuttle program

Conception and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Assets and transition plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 Other STS program vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Low Earth orbit

Space ight programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recent and planned activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Salt evaporation and energy management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sta and leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manned Spacecraft Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Launch Operations Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Choosing a mission mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lunar mission prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Prole variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Unmanned ight tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Preparation for manned ight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Manned development missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Production lunar landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Mission summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105