Table of Contents

PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................vii
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................. ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. x
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Air Quality Management in Cambodia ............................................................................. 2
1.2 Health Impacts from Air Pollution.................................................................................... 5
1.3 Air pollution and the Multiple Benefits of Mitigation ...................................................... 6
1.4 Objective of Developing the Clean Air Plan of Cambodia ............................................... 7
1.5 Methodology for Developing the National Clean Air Plan .............................................. 8
1.6 Stakeholder Engagement................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Challenges identified during the formulation of the Clean Air Plan ................................ 9
2. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY AND SOURCES OF EMISSIONS ....................................... 10
2.1 Status of Air Quality in Cambodia .................................................................................. 10
2.2 National Total Emission.................................................................................................. 12
2.3 Air Pollution .................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Particulate Matter .................................................................................................... 14
2.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) ............................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 Nitrogen Dioxide (NOx) .......................................................................................... 17
2.3.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) .......................................................................................... 19
2.3.5 Ammonia (NH3) ..................................................................................................... 20
2.4 Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) ........................................................................ 21
2.4.1 Black Carbon ........................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Methane ................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.3 Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) ........................................... 24
2.5 Green House Gases (GHGs) ........................................................................................... 26
2.5.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ............................................................................................. 26
2.6 Emission Source Sectors ................................................................................................. 28
2.6.1 Transportation ......................................................................................................... 28
2.6.2 Electricity Generation ............................................................................................. 29
2.6.3 Industry.................................................................................................................... 31
2.6.4 Residential ............................................................................................................... 33
2.6.5 Other Contributing Sector ....................................................................................... 36
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia iii
3. MEASURES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS ............................................................................. 42
3.1 The Government Circular on Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution ..... 42
3.2 Sub Decree on Control of Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance .................................... 46
3.3 Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan (CCCSP) 2014-2023.................................... 46
3.4 Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined Contribution............................................ 48
3.5 Emission Reduction from Priority Air Pollution Measures ............................................ 49
3.6 Expected changes in air pollution concentration and impacts ........................................ 52
3.7 Air Pollution Human Health Benefits ............................................................................. 53
4. ACTION PLAN TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION .............................................................. 60
4.1 Emission Control from Transportation ........................................................................... 60
4.2 Emission Control from Industries and Handicrafts......................................................... 63
4.3 Emission Control from Electricity Generation ............................................................... 65
4.4 Emission Control from Residential Sector...................................................................... 67
4.5 Emission Control from other sources .............................................................................. 69
4.5.1 Emission Control from Construction Sites.............................................................. 71
4.5.2 Emission Control from Open Waste Burning ......................................................... 73
5. IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING THE MEASURES ........................................ 76
5.1 Characterizing the nature of the air pollution problem ................................................... 76
5.2 Developing an emission inventory .................................................................................. 76
5.3 Identifying the air quality goal and timeframe for achievement ..................................... 76
5.4 Conducting air quality modelling and identifying new emission reduction strategies in
order to achieve the air quality goal .......................................................................................... 76
5.5 Formulating and adopting the requirements ................................................................... 77
5.6 Implementing effective programs for permitting and enforcement ................................ 77
5.7 Monitor implementation of air pollution mitigation measures identified in this plan .... 77
5.8 Public participation ......................................................................................................... 77
5.9 Review and update Air Pollution Action Plan ................................................................ 77

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia iv

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Graph of average of PM2.5 in Phnom Penh City from 2017 to 2020 ......................... 11
Figure 2.2 Map of Air Quality Monitoring Station ....................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3 Summary of pollutants that are classified as air pollutants, short-lived climate
pollutants and greenhouse gases (Source: CCAC SNAP, 2019) .................................................. 14
Figure 2.4 Share of PM2.5 emissions by sector in 2015 ............................................................... 15
Figure 2.5 Total PM2.5 Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ..................................... 15
Figure 2.6 Share of Sulphur Dioxide emission by sector in 2015................................................. 16
Figure 2.7 Total Sulpur Dioxide (SO2) Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ............. 17
Figure 2.8 Share of Nitrogen Dioxide emission by sector in 2015 ............................................... 18
Figure 2.9 Total Nitrogen Dioxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ................... 18
Figure 2.10 Share of Carbon Monoxide emission by sector in 2015 ............................................ 19
Figure 2.11 Total Carbon Monoxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ................ 19
Figure 2.12 Share of Ammonia emission by sector in 2015 ......................................................... 20
Figure 2.13 Total Ammonia Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ............................. 21
Figure 2.14 Share of Black Carbon emission by sector in 2015 ................................................... 22
Figure 2.15 Total Black Carbon Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ....................... 22
Figure 2.16 Share of Methane emission by sector in 2015 ........................................................... 23
Figure 2.17 Total Methane Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 ............................... 24
Figure 2.18 Share of NMVOCs emission by sector in 2015 ......................................................... 25
Figure 2.19 Total NMVOC Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030............................... 26
Figure 2.20 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by sector in 2015 ............................................... 27
Figure 2.21 Total Carbon Dioxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030 .................... 27
Figure 2.22 Contribution of transport sectors to total transport emissions in Cambodia in 2010 ............. 28
Figure 2.23 Progression of PM2.5 emissions from the transport sector between 2010 and 2030 ............ 29
Figure 2.24 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by Fuel type in 2010 (%) ................................... 30
Figure 2.25 Progression of Carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation between 2010-2030...... 30
Figure 2.26 Contribution of Electricity generation sectors to total electricity generation emissions
in Cambodia in 2015 ..................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 2.27 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by industry sector in 2010, (%) ......................... 32
Figure 2.28 Progression of Carbon dioxide emissions from industry sector between 2010-2030......... 33
Figure 2.29 Contribution of industry sectors to total industry emissions in Cambodia in 2015 ......... 33
Figure 2.30 Share of Carbon Monoxide emission by type of zone in 2015, (%) .......................... 34
Figure 2.31 Progression of carbon monoxide emissions from the residential between 2010-2030.... 35
Figure 2.32 Contribution of residential sectors to total residential emissions in Cambodia in 2015 .......... 36
Figure 2.33Progression of PM2.5 emission from construction sector between 2010-2030 ......... 39
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia v
Figure 3.1 Reduction of national PM2.5 emissions from measures.............................................. 50
Figure 3.2 Reduction of national black carbon emissions from measures .................................... 50
Figure 3.3 Reductions of national nitrogen oxide emissions from measures ............................... 51
Figure 3.4 Reduction of carbon dioxide from measures ............................................................... 51
Figure 3.5 Reduction of methane from measures ......................................................................... 52
Figure 3.6 Overview of LEAP-IBC calculation framework for air pollution health impact assessment... 54
Figure 3.7 Population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations for Cambodia from LEAP-IBC for 2010-
2030 for the baseline scenario ....................................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.8 Reduction in population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations for Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 ........................................................................................................................ 58
Figure 3.9 Premature deaths attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure in Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 for the baseline scenario ................................................................................ 58
Figure 3.10 Premature deaths attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure in Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 ........................................................................................................................ 59
Figure 4.1 PM2.5 reductions from transport measures ................................................................. 62
Figure 4.2 Carbon dioxide reductions from transport measures ................................................... 62
Figure 4.3 PM2.5 reductions from industry measures .................................................................. 64
Figure 4.4 CO2 reductions from industry measures ...................................................................... 64
Figure 4.5 CO2 reductions from electricity generation measures ................................................. 66
Figure 4.6 SO2 reductions from electricity generation measures .................................................. 67
Figure 4.7 PM2.5 reductions from residential measures ............................................................... 68
Figure 4.8 CO2 reductions from residential measures................................................................... 69
Figure 4.9 PM10 reductions from construction measures ............................................................. 73
Figure 4.10 PM2.5 reductions from open waste burning mitigation measures............................. 74
Figure 4.11 CO reduction from open waste burning mitigation measures ................................... 75

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia vi

 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 The existing framework for air quality management in Cambodia ............................ 3
Table 1.2 WHO Air Quality Guideline (WHO, 2006) .................................................................... 6
Table 1.3 Pollutants exposure and health impact ............................................................................ 6
Table 2.1 Overview of air quality status in Cambodia .............................................................. 10
Table 2.2 Total emissions from 2010 to 2030 ............................................................................ 13
Table 2.3 National total emission of air pollutants, short-lived climate pollutants and
greenhouse gases in 2015 in the Cambodia by sector (Thousand MT). .................................... 13
Table 2.4 Electricity Generation by Fuel Types (GWh) ............................................................... 29
Table 2.5 Total Energy Consumption in Industry Sector (ktons) ................................................. 32
Table 2.6 Energy Consumption for Residential Sector (ktons) .................................................... 34
Table 2.7 Total Firewood Supplied for Charcoal Making and Charcoal Produced (ktons) .......... 36
Table 2.8 Charcoal Making emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030 ............................ 36
Table 2.9 Energy Consumption for Agriculture............................................................................ 37
Table 2.10 Agriculture (use energy) emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030 .............. 37
Table 2.11 Subsidiaries and industry crop production in Cambodia 2010-2015, (tons) ............... 38
Table 2.12 Agriculture (Non energy) emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030 ............. 38
Table 2.13 Construction projects in Cambodia between 2009-2019 ............................................ 39
Table 2.14 Waste Generation and Estimated Uncollected Waste in Cambodia, (Tonnes/Year) .. 40
Table 2.15 Waste sector emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030 ................................. 41
Table 3.1 Matrix of mitigation measures from Circular #01 in use for Development of Clean Air Plan ..... 43
Table 3.2 Matrix of mitigation measures from the sub decree in use for Development of Clean Air Plan ...... 46
Table 3.3 Matrix of mitigation measures from CCCSP in use for Development of Clean Air Plan ..... 47
Table 3.4 Matrix of recommended mitigation measures in use for Development of Clean Air Plan ....... 47
Table 3.5 Matrix of mitigation measures from NDC in use for Development of Clean Air Plan .................. 48
Table 3.6 Summary of baseline and nationally avoided emission ................................................ 49
Table 4.1 Mitigation measures apply for transportation sector ..................................................... 60
Table 4.2 Emission reductions for transport mitigation measures by pollutant ............................ 61
Table 4.3 Mitigation measures apply for industry sector .............................................................. 63
Table 4.4 Emission reductions for industry mitigation measures by pollutant ............................. 63
Table 4.5 Mitigation measures apply for electricity generation .................................................... 65
Table 4.6 Emission reductions for electricity generation by pollutant ......................................... 66
Table 4.7 Mitigation measures apply for residential sector .......................................................... 67
Table 4.8 Emission reductions for residential mitigation measures by pollutant ......................... 68
Table 4.9 Mitigation measures apply for construction sector ....................................................... 72
Table 4.10 Emission reductions for construction mitigation measures by pollutant .................... 72
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia vii
Table 4.11 Mitigation measures apply for open waste burning .................................................... 73
Table 4.12 Emission reductions for open waste burning mitigation measures by pollutant ................ 74
Table 5.1 Air Pollution Action Plan Roadmap: Activities, Organizations and time line ............. 78

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia viii

 ACRONYMS

CCAC Climate and Clean Air Coalition

CH4 Methane
CO2 Carbon dioxide
EDC Electricite Du Cambodge
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GWP Global Warming Potential
Kg Kilogram
Km Kilometer
Km2 Square kilometer
MT Metric ton (tonne)
kWh Kilo Watt Hour
LEAP-IBC Long-Range Energy Alternatives Planning- Integrated Benefits Calculator
M Meter
MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
MME Ministry of Mines and Energy
MOE Ministry of Environment
MOP Ministry of Planning
MT metric ton (tonne)
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NH3 Ammonia
NIS National Institute of Statistics
NMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compound
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NOX Nitrous Oxide
PM Particulate Matter
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SEI Stockholm Environment Institute
SLCPs Short-Lived Climate Pollutants
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
WHO World Health Organization
μg/m3 microgram per cubic meter air

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia ix

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The development of the Clean Air Plan of Cambodia is the first time that the emissions of
key health-damaging air pollutants have been quantified nationally, and the reduction in air
pollution from the implementation of mitigation measures that aim to improve air quality for the
sake of environmental and public health protection have been quantified. In the document, the
detail of pollutants is described based on their emission levels in Cambodia not only for historical
years, but also their expected pathway trend in the future while the mitigation measures are
exanimated.

The relevant data from the transport sector, agriculture, construction, energy consumption,
waste and other related emission sources sectors are collected and with the assistance from the
LEAP-IBC application, the current emission state of all major air pollutants such as nitrogen
oxides, fine particulate matter, short-lived climate pollutants (black carbon and methane) and
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) are quantified, as is their likely progression in the future.

In general, the largest sources of air pollutants and short-lived climate pollutants in
Cambodia are transport, electricity generation, industrial process and residential sectors. Tracking
to the source of specifically main air pollutants, it shows that residential sector is the largest source
of PM2.5 and black carbon, following by charcoal making and transport. While the transport sector
is highly contributed to emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide,
the electricity generation is the second contributor of CO2 following by industrial process sector.
The main source of SO2 is from electricity generation and Industry. The project of total emission
illustrates that in 2030, PM2.5 will reach 98.5 Thousand MT, 14.6 Thousand MT (Black carbon),
70 Thousand MT (SO2), 329 Thousand MT (NOx) and 40,150.8 Thousand MT (CO2).

The several air pollutants and SLCPs have common sources, therefore designing mitigation
strategies has the potential to lead to the simultaneous reduction of multiple pollutants, and also
greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide. The potential emissions reduction is examined
with the implementation of key existing government regulations, policies and strategies related to
emission reduction. To implement air pollution measures according to the circular no.01on
“Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution, the air pollutant emission can reduce
dramatically. Especially, for PM2.5, PM10 and CO, where the implementation of the mitigation
measures in the circular could cut emissions of these pollutants by halve in 2030 compared to a
baseline scenario. For all measures combined, air pollutant emission is cut significantly over the
next 9 years compared to a baseline scenario, with a reduction in emissions in 2030 of 59.8
Thousand MT (60.71%) for PM2.5, 73 Thousand MT (55.1%) for PM10, 9.3 Thousand MT
(63.69%) for Black Carbon, 36.5 Thousand MT (52.14%) for SO2, 158 Thousand MT (48.02%)
for NO2 and 7,461.7 Thousand MT (18.58%) for CO2.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia x

1. INTRODUCTION

The Kingdom of Cambodia is located in the southwest of the Indochinese peninsular and
has a rich culture that dates back 2,000 years ago. The country has a land area of 181,035
square kilometers and population of 16 million people (2017). Like in the rest of Southeast
Asia, Cambodia’s climate is characterized by two main seasons: the monsoon, which brings
rain from mid-May to October, and dry season from November to April. Cambodia is
recognized as a country with rich natural and cultural resources. Environment and natural
resources are the foundation of economic, social, cultural and well-being of the Cambodian people.

Economically, Cambodia has enjoyed strong growth rates during the past decade.
Economic performance had positive statistics with an average Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
growth of 6.98% between 2010-2015, and 7.1% from 2015-2019 (Cambodia Economic
Update, World Bank (WB). 2019). GDP per capita is US$1,641 in 2019 (WB, 2019) compared
to approximately US$1,215 in 2016 (MEF, 2016). With its rapidly growing economy,
Cambodia is not immune to rapidly rising air pollution levels. Urban Cambodians, in
particular, have observed a deterioration in the quality of the air they breathe and rural
Cambodians are not immune to breathing high levels of air pollutions, especially the 80% of
rural population who continue to rely on wood for cooking. Increasing industrial processes; a
growing fuel-intensive vehicle fleet; wildfires, open field burning of solid waste, and
construction sites, are seen as the main contributors to this decline in air quality.

Scientifically, air pollution causes a series of significant health problems especially on

respiratory system and premature death. Air pollution and climate change are also closely
related. Carbon dioxide and the short-lived climate-forcing pollutants (SLCPs) have
significant impact on the climate. Improving air quality would benefit the climate and foster
sustainable development through delivering better health outcomes, preventing crop losses ,
and preventing the climate from reaching tipping points that can aggravate long -term climate
impacts and make adapting to climate change more challenging.

Cambodia has an opportunity to curb the trend of rising air pollution. To do this,
significant effort in monitoring, enforcement of Cambodia’s ambitious and innovative new air
quality regulation is needed. Additional priority mitigation measures could also be identified
to complement existing air quality regulations and help achieve national ambient air quality
standards. Within the effort to reduce air pollution in Cambodia, the nation received financial
and technical support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)’s Asia
Pacific Clean Air Partnership (APCAP) and the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to
develop an important strategic document tilted “Clean Air Plan of Cambodia”. This important

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 1

document will contain information and action plans related air pollution control in Cambodia,
such as instructional framework, sources of air pollution, emissions projection and especially,
priority emission mitigation measures.

1.1 Air Quality Management in Cambodia

Air pollution causes a series of significant adverse impacts to public health, environment,
and the economic development. Although effects are experienced locally, air pollution is also
a transboundary problem: while most air pollutants, for example oxides of nitrogen, directly
impact air quality proximate to their emission source, other pollutants such as Sulphur dioxide
can also travel long distances to affect air quality hundreds or even thousands of kilometers
away.

Since 2000, the Government of Cambodia began to address air and noise pollution at the
national level with the Sub-decree No. 42 on Air Pollution Control and Noise Disturbance.
The Sub-decree outlines the general purpose which is to “protect the quality of the environment
and public health from air pollution… through monitoring, curbing and mitigation activities.”
Table 1.1 provides an overview of the existing framework for air quality management in
Cambodia.

The Department of Air Quality and Noise Management (DAQNM) under the supervision
of the General Directorate of Environmental Protection of the Ministry of Environment of
Cambodia is the main government agency assigned in monitoring and controlling air pollution
from all sources (area, stationary, and mobile sources). The DAQNM’s mandate is to develop
policies, strategies, regulations, and action plans to prevent air pollution and improve the air
quality for public health and environment protection. Moreover, DAQNM has duties to control
emissions from stationary sources, such as factories, to ensure the emissions from pollution
sources are in compliance with the national emission standard. Part of the responsibilities of
the DAQNM is to study, research, evaluate, and disseminate new and emerging technology on
monitoring, prevention, and control of air pollutant emissions, noise, or vibration from mobile
and stationary sources and to act as the focal institution/partner to implement the
international/regional conventions, protocols and agreements related to air pollution.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 2

Table 1.1 The existing framework for air quality management in Cambodia

Related Air Quality

Name of Type of Year went into
/ 25 Clean Air
Policy/Measures Policy/Measures implementation/adopt
Measure1
Constitution of the National 1993 The state shall
Kingdon of Cambodia Constitution protect the
environment, water,
air,..

Law on Environmental Law 1996 Protection the water,

Protection and Natural land, air,..
Resource Management

Sub-decree on Regulation 1999 Managing

Environmental Impact environmental
Assessment Process pollution from
investment projects

Sub-decree on Water Regulation 1999 Stop biogas leakage

Pollutioin Control from wastewaater
treatment

Sub-decree on the Regulation 2000 Strengthen industral

Control of Air Pollution process emission
and Noise Disturbance standards, air
quality standard

Sub-decree on Solid Regulation 1999, amended 2015 Improve solid waste

Waste Management management

Sub-decree on Regulation 2015 Improve solid waste

Management of management
Garbage and Solid
Waste of Urban Areas

Regulation on General Regualtion 2018 Promote renewable

Conditions for electricity
Connecting Solar PV generation
Generation Sources to
the Electricity Supply
System of National
Grid

National Strategic Plan 2006 Strictly enforce ban

Implementation Plan on household waste
for Management of burning
Persistent Organic
Pollutants

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 3

Climate Change Strategic Plan 2013 Provide incentives
Strategic Plan 2014- for improved energy
2023 efficiency in
households

National Strategic Plan Strategic Plan 2013 Regularly maintain

for Climate Change and inspect vehicles
Adaptation and
Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation in Transport

National Strategic Plan Strategic Plan 2013 Clean energy

on Green Growth 2013- promotion
2030

National Policy, Strategic Plan 2013 Improve energy

Stretegy and Action efficiency for
Plan on Energy industry
Efficiency

National Determined Strategic Plan 2015 Clean cooking and

Contribution heating, provide
(UNFCCC) better mobility
options, mainstream
electric vehicles

Blue Mobility Strategic Plan 2015 Mainstream electric

vehicles

National Environmental Strategic Plan 2016 Strengthen

Strategy and Action industrial process
Plan 2016-2023 emissions standards

Cambodia National Strategy Plan 2017 Prevention of forest

REDD+ Strategy 2017- and peatland fires
2026

Green City Strategic Strategic Plan 2017 Promote renewable

Plan for Phnom Penh electricity
generation,
incentives for
improved energy
efficiency in
households

Deika on Solid Waste Strategic Plan 2017 Improve solid waste

Management in management,
Battambang strictly enforce bans
on household waste
burning

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 4

 Phnom Penh Strategic Plan 2018 Strengthen emission
Sustainable City Plan standars for road
2018-2030 vehicles, Promote
renewable
electricity
generation

Phnom Penh Waste Strategic Plan 2018 Improve solid waste

Management Strategy management
and Action Plan 2018-
2035

Circular on Measures to Strategic Plan 2020 new ambient air

Prevent and Reduce the quality standards for
Ambient Air Pollution PM10, and PM2.5,
emissions standards
for vehicles, and a
fuel quality standard

Cambodia’s Updated Strategic Plan 2020 Emission reduction

Nationally Determined measurement,
Contribution renewable energy

Implementation of Circular 2018 Technical guidelines

technical guidelines on for the control and
air pollution control prevention of air
from industrial pollution from
enterprises stationary sources
and emissions
standards

Implementation of Air Circular 2020 Determine and

Quality Index to implement air quality
Calculate Air Pollution index
Data in the Kingdom of
Cambodia

1.2 Health Impacts from Air Pollution

Air pollution has no boundary and the exposure to air pollutants, both short- and long-term
exposure, can affect human health. Particulate matter (PM) containing a complex mixture of
organic and inorganic particles suspended in the air which the major components are sulphates,
nitrates, ammonia, black carbon etc. Particles with the diameter of 2.5 μm or less are the most
health-damaging as it can penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs. There are some diseases
associated with long-term exposure to PM such as adverse birth outcomes, childhood respiratory
disease, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and neurodevelopment and cognitive function. It is reported by
World Health Organization (WHO) that about 91% of people globally breathe air that exceed the
WHO Air Quality Guidelines (Table 1.2) and that ambient air pollution has killed about 4.2 million
people annually worldwide where Western Pacific and South East Asia are the most affected
(WHO, 2016).
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 5
Table 1.2 WHO Air Quality Guideline (WHO, 2006)

Pollutant NO2(μg/m3) SOx(μg/m3) PM2.5(μg/m3) PM10(μg/m3) O3(μg/m3)

Annually 40 - 10 20 -
24 hours - 20 25 50 -
8 hours - - - - 100
1 hour 200 - - - -

Differences variety of air pollution sources associated with different types of health effects. There
are several studies including Toxicological, Epidemiological, Clinical, Toxicological studies
regarding to on health impact due to air pollutants has been conducted and there were evidences
on effect of pollutants and diseases associated.
Table 1.3 Pollutants exposure and health impact

Pollutants Exposure Impact

short-term mortality and morbidity
- lung cancer
- mortality and morbidity
PM2.5
long-term - cardiovascular mortality and morbidity,
- several health outcomes: atherosclerosis
- adverse birth outcomes and childhood respiratory disease
- mortality, morbidity (both, short-term and long-term)
PM10 - cardiovascular diseases, including ischemic heart disease,
cerebrovascular disease and heart failure associated
- respiratory and cardiovascular mortality
long-term
NO2 - respiratory symptoms and lung function in children
short-term - respiratory outcome
- effect on heart rate variability
- asthma symptoms in children
SO2 - respiratory symptoms and lung function in children
- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
- mortality and morbidity risk
O3 premature mortality and non-fatal respiratory diseases

1.3 Benefits of Air pollution Mitigation

The emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere can cause a variety of adverse impacts
including human health, climate, and environmental impacts. Air pollution reduction has been
identified as a global health priority which has been reflected in the sustainable development goal
(SDG) as following: urban sustainable development as SDG 11 indicates air pollution levels in
cities, sustainable energy as SDG 7 indicates the access to clean energy), health as SDG 3 indicates
reduction of mortality due to air pollution (WHO, 2016). Thus, mitigation for emission reduction
is significant and in general, the implementation of these mitigation measures can also contribute
to sustainable development benefits.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 6

 a) Poverty
Pollution is strongly linked to poverty and the vulnerable populations are always the first to
be impacted and those impacts give the vulnerable populations a critical time to adapt. Being in a
good health make people spend less on medical expense, and at the same time increase
productivity. Emission reduction contribute to decrease the rate of global warming, lessen the
environmental shocks, disasters, crop lost.
b) Zero Hunger
Air pollution affect not only on health, but also a major cause on crop damage and affect
food quality and security. According to the UNEP/WMO assessment, with the implementation of
SLCPs emission mitigation, the loss of 52 million tons of four staple crops: maize, rice, soybean
and wheat will be avoided globally through actions on methane and black carbon air pollution.
c) Good Health and Well-Being
The pollutants from air pollution emission has a closely link to diseases including cancer,
respiratory infection and cardiovascular disease. The pollutants increase in population morbidity
and mortality. The implementation of mitigation measure will help reduce use of diesel powered
vehicles resulting in the reduction of black carbon emissions, promote public transport, clean
energy. Fresh air provides the families not only with physical health, but also emotional health.
d) Clean Water and Sanitation
Air pollution can place water at risk. Harmful acid rain produced by pollutants such SO2 and
NOx from open burning and the combustion of fossil fuels mix with precipitation can lower water
quality that make the water unsafe for consumption.
e) Climate Action
Fuel combustion play a main role in climate change, which put food, air and water supplies
at risk, and cause a major threat to human health. With the mitigation measures, greenhouse gas
will be reduced through the control of fuel quality, avoid open burning, improvement of
transportation, use clean energy.
f) Life Below Water
Accumulation and deposition of air pollutants, for example acid rain, on water may cause
negative effect to quality and life under water. It may lead to eutrophication and acidification of
fresh water bodies and accumulation of toxic metals and other pollutants in water, as well as
aquaculture.

1.4 Objective of Developing the Clean Air Plan of Cambodia

The purpose of the Clean Air Plan of Cambodia is to outline a set of priority policies and
measures to reduce the key sources of air pollution in the country and lead to improvement of
air quality levels for public health protection. It also identifies the effectiveness of the planned

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 7

and proposed mitigation measures to reduce air pollution emissions. This Clean Air Plan builds
on existing plans and strategies in the Cambodia including the Air Pollution Circular #01
(Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution), and other relevant plan that that
include mitigation measures (that can affect air pollution emissions), but for which the air
pollution emission reduction potential has not yet been evaluated.

The priority mitigation measures identified in this plan are aligned and complementary
to the Air Pollution Circular mitigation measures. In addition, the Clean Air Plan proposes
additional measures relevant for the Cambodia based on the recommended 25 clean air
measures from the UNEP and CCAC 2018 Report “Air Pollution in Asia Pacific: Science -
Based Solutions.”

The overall objectives of the Plan and the planning process are:

• To develop an integrated analysis of air pollutants, greenhouse gases and short-lived

climate pollutants to identify the major sources sectors of air pollutants currently, and
how they are likely to change in the future.
• To identify mitigation measures in existing plans and strategies that will be effective at
reducing air pollution emissions while simultaneously mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions.
• To identify additional mitigation measures that could be taken to further reduce air
pollution emissions.
• To quantify the multiple benefits of the identified mitigation measures for improving air
quality and mitigating climate change.
• To identify possible ways to further mainstream action on air and climate pollutants into
existing planning processes.
• To prioritize action and pave the way for coordinated air quality management.
• To encourage planned implementation of existing plans and in creating new action in
different sectors.

1.5 Methodology for Developing the National Clean Air Plan

An integrated emissions and scenario analysis for air pollutants, greenhouse gases and
short-lived climate pollutants estimates the current and future national trends in air quality.
Followed by the air pollution, GHG and SLCP emission reductions could result from the full
implementation of the identified air pollution mitigation measures. Finally, specific actions to
increase implementation of these air pollution mitigation measures are identi fied, as well as
actions to improve air quality management in general in Cambodia.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 8

 To develop the Clean Action Plan of Cambodia, it is necessary to develop quantitative
analysis of air pollution in Cambodia to identify current sources, and to evaluate the effect of
the different mitigation measures included in the plan. Therefore, the LEAP (Low Emissions
Analysis Platform) and its Integrated Benefits Calculator (IBC) or in short LEAP-IBC
developed by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) that has been used for energy
planning and greenhouse gas and air pollution mitigation assessments was utilized. In addition,
because of the range of sources that emit pollutants in Cambodia, a wide range of stakeholders
was engaged and consulted in the development of this plan.

1.6 Stakeholder Engagement

The Plan was developed by a technical working group established in December 2020 on
a decision of the Ministry of Environment in charge of developing and executing the mitigation
measures. The technical working group comprises of representatives from inter-ministerial
agencies, academic institutes, and other relevant sectors. The members of the technical
working group coming from relevant line ministries and research academia such as Minis try
of Environment, Ministry of Industry Science Technology and Innovation, Ministry Mine and
Energy, Ministry of Public Work and Transportation, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fishery, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Education Youth and Sports, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and International Cooperation, Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology,
Ministry of Information, Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training, Ministry of Health,
Ministry of Commerce, General Department of Customs and Excise, Council Development of
Cambodia, Royal University of Phnom Penh and Institute of Technology of Cambodia. The
terms of reference for the working group is provided as Annex 1.

1.7 Challenges identified during the formulation of the Clean Air Plan

The following challenges were identified during the development of this plan:
• Limited data on pollutant sources, emissions and levels of air quality to subsequently
identify measures to mitigate concentrations. Therefore, international default data in air
pollution emission factors were employed in the absence of certain local data.
• Lack of human resources and technical expertise within the government with regards to
air quality management.
• Difficulty in securing commitment from stakeholders in developing and implementing
new actions for the Plan. Even though air quality management is a crosscutting issue,
many stakeholders do not see the benefits of air quality in contributing towards their
development goals. (Formulation of new actions without support may also lead to an
absence of ownership by the lead stakeholders. This would hinder the Plan from being
adopted and implemented.)
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 9
2. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY AND SOURCES OF EMISSIONS

This chapter describes the state of air quality in the country. It discusses the pollutants
in detail, including the magnitude of emissions of different pollutants in the Cambodia
currently, and their likely progression into the future. The major sources sectors of emissions
of each pollutant in the Cambodia such as residential, transport, waste, agriculture, and
electricity generation are also identified.

2.1 Status of Air Quality in Cambodia

Table 2.1 Overview of air quality status in Cambodia

Status of Air Quality

In Cambodia, as in other countries, economic development is certainly leading to increase

the level of air pollution. The concentration of PM2.5, SOX, NOX, CO, CO2, O3, TSP and
other substances are emitted from various sources such as vehicle, motorbike, factories,
generators, etc.

Air Quality Monitoring

Air quality monitoring has been in place since 1999 and from 2017 air quality have been
further strengthen by installing the first equipment for PM2.5 monitor in Phnom Penh. Later,
in 2018, air quality monitoring were installed in Phnom Penh and other provinces. For
monitoring the current air quality, so far, the DAQNM has installed 44 units of low-cost air
quality monitoring equipment across the provinces of Cambodia. The equipment mainly
monitors key parameters including PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2, SO2 and O3. The data from the
air quality monitoring equipment have been recorded and daily posted in MOE Facebook
page and LED Screen in front of the MOE building in Phnom Penh. Air Quality Index (AQI)
is developed to better communicate with the public. AQI results for stations throughout the
country have been published daily through the social media page of the Ministry of
Environment. For better management of air pollution sources, MoE was provided with the
first mobile air quality monitoring vehicle with which 16 parameters and positive inert
particles with the diameter of 1 micrometer can be detected. This mobile air quality monitor
was inaugurated in 2020.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 10

Air Quality Data

Generally, in many cities, there is no noticeable variation in concentration of monitoring

parameters except PM2.5. In Phnom Penh, the average annually concentration of PM2.5 in
Phnom Penh keep increasing (13.59 μg/m³ in 2017, 19.26 μg/m³ in 2018) and it came in
with an average annually reading of 21.12 μg/m³ in 2019. However, the reading is still
complying with the standard (25 μg/m³), but above the WHO air quality guideline for
particulate matter. Due to the climate and the cycle of the seasons, in certain months of the
year the quantity of PM in the air is significantly higher in the dry season. As for PM 2.5, it
is observed that the concentration is generally high in region with high forest cover.

Average of PM2.5 in Phnom Penh from 2017 to 2020

40
PM2.5 Concentration in µg/m3

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2017 (Average =13.59 µg/m3) 2018 (Average =19.26 µg/m3)
2019 (Average =21.12 µg/m3) 2020 (Average =19.69 µg/m3)

Figure 2.1 Graph of average of PM2.5 in Phnom Penh City from 2017 to 2020

Reporting of AQ information

The data from the air quality monitoring equipment have been recorded and daily posted in
MOE Facebook page and LED Screen in front of the MOE building. Air Quality Index (AQI)
is developed to better communicate with the public. AQI results for stations throughout the
country have been published daily through the social media page of the Ministry of
Environment.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 11

Figure 2.2 Map of Air Quality Monitoring Station
2.2 National Total Emission

The levels of air pollution in the atmosphere are determined by i) the emissions of air
pollutants from different sources in Cambodia, ii) weather patterns that disperse and transport
air pollutants from one location to another, and iii) emissions of air pollutants in other countries
that are transported to Cambodia. This Clean Air Action Plan of Cambodia focuses on
assessing the emissions of air pollutants that occur within Cambodia, as it is those sources
within the country that it is possible to take action and implement mitigation measures to
reduce the magnitude of air pollutant emissions, and improve air quality for Cambodians.

National total emissions were estimated from all major energy and non-energy sectors
for the Cambodia for all major air pollutants (nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds,
ammonia, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), organic carbon and carbon monoxide), short-lived
climate pollutants (black carbon and methane), and greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide). More
information on these individual air pollutants is included in Section 2.3. Table 2.2 displays
how the national emissions of these pollutants were projected to progress over the years from
2010 until 2030 under a baseline scenario taking into account future projections of population
and economic growth in Cambodia. Table 2.3 shows, for the base year 2010, the pollutant
emissions split by major source sectors.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 12

Table 2.2 Total emissions from 2010 to 2030

Baseline: (Thousand MT), Summary

Volatile Organic
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen-Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non-Methane

Compounds

Monoxide
Ammonia

Methane

Carbon
PM2.5

PM10
2010 28.69 7.21 61.44 74.03 138.08 63.71 83.57 346.38 347.36 978.49 9,161.76

2015 31.85 8.46 68.14 83.85 124.91 32.93 127.03 462.16 304.39 1,234.18 13,608.09

2020 34.04 9.35 72.88 92.50 114.04 40.97 158.00 578.95 260.26 1,492.55 18,444.60

2025 38.58 11.37 83.33 107.85 109.95 52.18 221.38 778.54 234.10 1,952.94 26,438.60

2030 44.97 14.57 98.50 132.42 112.00 70.05 328.96 1,119.21 218.22 2,725.61 40,150.82

Table 2.3 National total emission of air pollutants, short-lived climate pollutants and
greenhouse gases in 2015 in the Cambodia by sector (Thousand MT).

Carbon Monoxide
Volatile Organic
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen-Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non-Methane

Compounds
Ammonia
Branches

Methane
PM2.5

PM10

Residential 12.726 3.842 29.325 36.539 3.972 3.631 9.917 117.983 22.163 371.972 14.891

Commercial and Public Services 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.001 0.297 0.113 0.020 0.005 0.039 59.439

Industry 0.975 0.567 1.980 2.024 0.004 2.658 3.652 4.084 0.411 8.259 402.524

Agriculture 0.045 0.064 0.153 0.153 0.000 0.037 1.499 0.080 0.005 0.207 117.892

Energy Industry Own Use 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.000 0.015 0.044 0.001 0.002 0.011 49.450

Transport 2.295 1.868 6.151 6.151 0.188 2.398 90.485 189.469 2.084 437.511 8233.438

Electricity Generation 0.010 0.008 0.192 0.397 0.009 20.756 10.200 0.063 0.050 0.394 4043.851

Charcoal Making 4.151 0.611 8.366 8.366 1.191 1.852 0.579 105.544 43.119 311.483 -

Industrial Process Emissions - 0.001 0.218 0.370 - 0.153 0.077 0.153 - 0.421 686.601

Agriculture (Non-Energy) 1.742 0.264 2.886 3.044 117.434 0.190 1.249 2.296 229.671 32.478 -

Waste 9.904 1.229 18.423 22.361 2.106 0.941 9.215 42.467 6.879 71.401

Construction - - 0.444 4.442 - - - - - - -

In general, the largest sources of air pollutants and short-lived climate pollutants in the
Cambodia are the transport, industry, residential and waste sectors, and electricity generation,
industrial process emissions and charcoal making also contribute the pollution for some
specific pollutants e.g. PM2.5, SO2, NOx, and greenhouse gases like CO 2. This shows that
several air pollutants and SLCPs have common sources, therefore designing mitigation
strategies has the potential to lead to the simultaneous reduction of multiple pollutants, and
also greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide. Between now and 2030, emissions of
key pollutants are expected to increase substantially if policy measures to reduce emissions
are not implemented (under baseline scenario), due to the growth of population and the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 13
 The following sections describe in detail the major sources, and future projections of
each air pollutant and SLCPs.

2.3 Air Pollution

Figure 2.3 Summary of pollutants that are classified as air pollutants, short-lived climate
pollutants and greenhouse gases (Source: CCAC SNAP, 2019)

2.3.1 Particulate Matter

The classification of particles in air by size and composition are known as particulate matter
or PM. It is not a single pollutant, but made of multiple components and is produced from
emissions from multiple emission sources. The different sizes of aerosols are:

− Total Suspended Particles or TSP (aerodynamic diameter < 30 µm)

− PM10 or course particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter < 10 µm)
− PM2.5 or fine particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 µm)

The PM size affects its lifetime in the atmosphere, distribution, and indoor-outdoor ratio.
PM2.5 is extremely harmful to human health at high levels of short-term exposure and from
prolonged exposure even to low concentrations.

In 2015, the total emission of PM2.5 in Cambodia was about 68.14 Thousand MT. The
Residential sector dominated the share of about 43.03% and followed by 27.04% from Waste,
12.28% from Charcoal Making, 9.03% from transport, 2.91% from industry, and other sources
merged only about 5.72%), Figure 2.4. The main reason that causes the PM2.5 have a highest share
because number of people living in rural area (about 80%) use wood as fuel for cooking stove.
Emissions from charcoal making comes from open waste burning.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 14

 Figure 2.5 below shows the trend in emissions by their source sectors between 2010 and
2030 under the baseline scenario. Under baseline scenario, PM2.5 emissions are projected to
increase about 37.63 percent by 2030.

Emission sector contributing to PM2.5 in 2015, (%)

2.91%
5.72%

12.28%
Industry
Charcoal Making
9.03%
Transport
43.03% Waste
Residential
27.04%
Other

Figure 2.4 Share of PM2.5 emissions by sector in 2015

Paticulate Matter: PM2.5 in kMT (Baseline)

100 Residential
90 Waste

80 Transport

70 Charcoal Making
PM2.5 Emission

60 Industry

50 Agriculture (Non
Energy)
40 Construction
Industrial Process
30
Emissions
Electricity Generation
20
Agriculture
10
Commercial and
0 Public Services
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Energy Industry Own
Use

Figure 2.5 Total PM2.5 Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

In 2030, the largest emission source of direct PM2.5 emissions is still projected to come
from the residential sector (wood burning mostly from rural areas) with the total emission of 98.5

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 15

Thousand TM. Direct emissions of PM2.5 from the residential sector come from cook stove that
use charcoal and wood in rural areas of Cambodia.

2.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

SO2 is a colorless gas that easy to dissolve in water droplet to form sulfuric acid and later
developed to be acid rain. It has been known as a potential pollutant which can damage building,
reduce crop production, and harmful to human health as well as the natural ecosystem. SO2 is
primarily produced when burning fossil fuel in power plants, charcoal transformation, combustion
in vehicle engine and other source sector which activities consumed fuel oils.

The figure 2.6 is show that electricity generation is main SO2 emissions contributor
responsible for about 64.88% in 2015, and residential (11.35%), industry (8.31%), transport
(7.50%), charcoal making (5.79%), and the remaining 2.17% were from combined sources (waste,
Commercial and Public Services, Agriculture (Non-Energy), Industrial Process Emissions,
Agriculture, and Energy Industry Own Use).

Emission sector contributing to Sulfur-Dioxide in 2015, (%)

2.17% 7.50%
5.79%
Transport
11.35% Charcoal Making
Residential
Industry
8.31% Electricity Generation
64.88% Other

Figure 2.6 Share of Sulphur Dioxide emission by sector in 2015

The total emission of SO2 from 2010-2030, Figure 2.7, were declined due to the reduction
of fuel-based electricity generation in relation to the increase of coal thermal power plant. As of
2010, the total emission was about 63.71 Thousand MT and dropped to about 32.93 Thousand MT
in 2015, the estimated decrease rate was about 8.2% per year. SO2 emission in 2015 from
electricity generation reduced by two times from 62.85 Thousand MT in 2010 to about 32
Thousand MT in 2015, it is caused by the changing fuel consumption in electricity generation from
heavy fuel oil to sub bituminous coal. Similar trend was observed in the industry sector.
Nevertheless, an increasing trend start from 2015 to 2030 of SO2 emissions were applied to

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 16

electricity generation, transport, residential and charcoal making, which the total SO2 reaches 70
Thousand TM in 2030.

80 Total SO2 Emission in kMT (Baseline)

Electricity Generation

70 Industry

Residential
60
Emission of SO2

Charcoal Making
50
Transport

40 Commercial and Public

Services
30 Agriculture (Non Energy)

Industrial Process
20 Emissions
Agriculture
10 Waste

0 Energy Industry Own Use

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.7 Total Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

2.3.3 Nitrogen Dioxide (NOx)

Oxides of Nitrogen are released from vehicle emissions, burning of biomass and forests.
High levels of nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of acid rain, which in turn damages
vegetation, buildings and pollute water bodies. Nitrogen oxides at high concentrations are also
harmful lung irritants and can cause respiratory diseases including bronchitis and wheezing. They
also react with volatile organic compounds to form tropospheric ozone, which is toxic to human health.
Nitrogen oxides are also a key precursor to the formation of secondary particulate matter in the
atmosphere, contributing to the levels of PM2.5 that people are exposed to and that cause negative
health impacts.

In Cambodia, transport was the major source of NOx emissions which contribute about
71.23% and electricity generation (8.03%), residential (7.81%), waste (7.25%), industry (2.87%),
agriculture (1.18%) and other merge source (1.62%) were the remaining (Agriculture (Non-
Energy), Charcoal Making, Commercial and Public Services, Industrial Process Emissions,
Energy Industry Own Use), Figure 2.8.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 17

 Emission sector contributing to Nitrogen-Dioxide in 2015 (%)
1.62% 1.18%
7.81%
7.25% Agriculture
2.87% Residential
Waste
8.03% Industry
Electricity Generation
71.23%
Transport
Other

Figure 2.8 Share of Nitrogen Dioxide emission by sector in 2015

Total NOx Emission in kMT (Baseline)

350 Transport

Electricity Generation
300
Industry
250
Emission of NOx

Waste

200 Residential

Agriculture
150
Agriculture (Non Energy)

100 Charcoal Making

Industrial Process
50 Emissions
Commercial and Public
Services
0 Energy Industry Own Use
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.9 Total Nitrogen Dioxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

Figure 2.9 above displays the trend of NOx emissions by source sector between 2010 and
2030 under the baseline scenario, which the total NOx reaches 329 Thousand TM in 2030. The
highest emissions of NOx was observed from the transport sector, with a significant projected
increase because of the emission from the freight (land) and Passenger (land) in transport sector
accounted for 75.65% and 24.35%, respectively. Electricity generation is also a large source of
NOx that is projected to increase in the future. Residential and industry sector are also the major
source of NOx that increase in following year.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 18

2.3.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO)

CO is an odorless and colorless gas, the product of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
and other biomass. In Cambodia, transport sector was the main CO emissions contributor
responsible for about 35.45% and residential almost 30.14%, charcoal making (25.24%), waste
(579%), and the remaining 3.39% were from combined sources (agriculture, industry, electricity
generation, industrial process emissions, commercial and public services and energy industry own
use), Figure 2.10.

Emission Sector Contributing to Carbon Monoxides in 2015 (%)

3.39% 5.79%

Waste
25.24% Charcoal Making
35.45%
Residential
Transport
Other

30.14%

Figure 2.10 Share of Carbon Monoxide emission by sector in 2015

Total Carbon Monoxide Emission in kMT (Baseline)

3000 Transport

Residential
Carbon Monoxides Emission

2500
Charcoal Making

2000 Waste

Agriculture (Non Energy)

1500
Industry

Industrial Process
1000 Emissions
Electricity Generation

500 Agriculture

Commercial and Public

0 Services
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Energy Industry Own Use

Figure 2.11 Total Carbon Monoxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 19

 The total annual CO emissions from 2010-2030 are presented in Figure 2.11. It clearly
shows the CO emission increased by about 3.2% annually and the CO emission elevated from
1234.18 Thousand MT to 2725.61 Thousand MT from 2010 to 2030. Transport still a leading
contributor, followed by Residential and third largest was the charcoal making.

2.3.5 Ammonia (NH3)

NH3 is commonly known occurred naturally in the environment including soil, air, and the
plant also animal and the human body. Exposure to a high concentration of NH3 can pose negative
impacts on human health which influence the cardiovascular and respiratory system. NH3 released
to atmospheric environment can bind with other gaseous pollutants which are later detrimental to
the natural environment.

The total emission of NH3 in 2015 was about 124.90 Thousand MT with largely contributed
by Agriculture in non-energy sector about 94.02% (117.43 Thousand MT), follow by 3.18%
(almost 4.00 Thousand MT) in residential sector and 2.80% (3.50 Thousand MT) combine sector
that have shown in Figure 2.12.

Emission Sector Contributing to Ammonia in 2015 (%)

2.80% 3.18%

Other
Residential
Agriculture (Non Energy)
94.02%

Figure 2.12 Share of Ammonia emission by sector in 2015

Figure 2.13 below is presented about the total annual emission from 2010-2030. The
overall trend was downtrend as higher emission of NH3 happened in 2015 (about 138.8 Thousand
MT) as compared to the 2030 emission of about 112 Thousand MT. The major influential factor
was mainly from the livestock sector where the decrease the population of livestock feeding at
both household and farming.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 20

 Total Ammonia Emission in kMT (Baseline)
140
Agriculture (Non
Energy)
120 Residential

Waste
100
Emission Ammonia

Charcoal Making
80
Transport

60 Electricity Generation

40 Industry

Commercial and Public

20 Services
Energy Industry Own
Use
0
Agriculture
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.13 Total Ammonia Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

2.4 Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs)

2.4.1 Black Carbon

Black carbon or soot, is a component of particulate matter (PM) and, therefore, behaves
much differently than GHGs. It does not mix well in the atmosphere; therefore, its particles remain
suspended in the air until they settle back on the surface, or become washed out by rain, or
contribute to cloud formation. The average atmospheric lifetime of a single soot particle is only a
few days. As a dark mass, black carbon particles absorb abundant amounts of energy, trapping
heat and warming the climate. Like methane, for the equivalent mass emission, black carbon
warms the climate more intensely than CO2 over a short time frame, and to greater extremes.
Despite lasting in the atmosphere for a few days, one ton of black carbon has a warming effect
equal to 1,000 -2,000 tons of CO2 over a 100 –year period.

Figure 2.14 shows that residential sector was the main black carbon contributor shared
about 53.10% and followed by transport (25.82%), waste (16.98%), charcoal making (8.44%),
industry (7.84%), agriculture in non-energy sector (3.65%) and the remaining 1.06% were from
combined sources (agriculture, electricity generation, commercial and public services, and
industrial process emissions).

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 21

 Emission Sector Contributing to Black Carbon in 2015 (%)
1.04% 3.65%

8.44%
Agriculture (Non Energy)
25.82% Charcoal Making
16.98% Waste
Industry
7.84%
Residential
Transport
53.10% Other

Figure 2.14 Share of Black Carbon emission by sector in 2015

Total Black Carbon Emission in kMT (Baseline)

15
Transport

Residential
Black Carbon Emission

Industry

10 Waste

Charcoal Making

Agriculture (Non
Energy)
5 Agriculture

Electricity Generation

Commercial and Public

Services
0 Industrial Process
Emissions
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.15 Total Black Carbon Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

Black carbon emissions are the result of incomplete combustion of biomass or fossil fuels.
Major sources of black carbon include biomass cooking stoves, diesel and two-stroke engines, and
open-air-burning of waste. Figure 2.15 displays the trend in emissions of black carbon by their
source sectors between 2010 and 2030 under the baseline scenario. Black carbon mission increased
annually with an average rate of 2.7% with the total emission reaching 14.6 Thousand TM in 2030.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 22

The residential, waste and transport are still the major contributor to the black carbon emission
over the period of 2010-2030.

2.4.2 Methane

Methane (CH4) is a colorless, odorless, and highly flammable gas composed of one carbon
atom and four hydrogen atoms. It can be produced naturally and synthetically, and when burned
in the presence of oxygen, it produces carbon dioxide and water vapor. The gas is also known as
a significant contributor to climate change.

CH4 has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 years, but it has significant warming potential
during that time. The Global Warming Potential or GWP of one ton of methane is equivalent to
21 tons of CO2 over 100 years and equivalent to 75 tons of CO2 over 20 years. GWPs allow
comparisons of the warming impacts of different gases by measuring how much energy 1 ton of
any given gas absorbs over a period of time, compared to 1 ton of carbon dioxide. Besides having
a high warming impact of its own, methane also serves as a major contributor to the production of
tropospheric ozone, (which is also a short-lived climate pollutant, and warms the atmosphere).

Emission Sector Contributing to Methane in 2015 (%)

0.84% 2.26%

7.28%

Waste
14.17%
Residential
Charcoal Making
Agriculture (Non Energy)

75.45% Other

Figure 2.16 Share of Methane emission by sector in 2015

Figure 2.16 above shows the largest contributor to methane emissions is the agriculture in
non-energy sector. The total annual CH4 emission in 2015 was 304.39 Thousand MT and livestock
source was dominated with a share of about 75.45% follow by charcoal making is 14.17%,
residential is 7.28%, waste is 2.26% and the remaining sources contributed about 0.86 collectively.
For the emission from livestock, cows accounted for the largest emissions of about 80% among
other species.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 23

 Total Methane Emission in kMT (Baseline)
350 Agriculture (Non Energy)

300 Charcoal Making

Residential
250
Methane Emission

Waste
200
Transport

150 Industry

100 Electricity Generation

Commercial and Public

50 Services
Agriculture
0
Energy Industry Own Use
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.17 Total Methane Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

The total annual CH4 emission from 2010-2030 in agriculture (Non-Energy) shows an
inconsistency pattern in emissions as downtrend as a highest emission of methane in happen in
2010 (about 347.36Thousand MT) as compare to 2030 emission about 218.2 Thousand MT
(Figure 2.17), these could be explained by the decrease of domestic feeding at both households
and farming. The emission of methane were remain steady from 2010-2030 in charcoal making
and residential sector.

2.4.3 Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC)

Apart from affecting global warming, tropospheric ozone affects impacts evaporation rates,
cloud formation, precipitation levels, and wind patterns. It also impairs the ability of plants to
absorb carbon, thereby suppressing crop yields and subsequently harming ecosystems. These
impacts mainly occur within the regions where tropospheric ozone precursors are emitted.

Unlike the other GHGs, tropospheric or ground level ozone (a primary component of smog)
is not directly emitted. Instead, it is the product of the atmospheric reaction of a number of
precursor pollutants, including methane, nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and carbon monoxide (CO). Tropospheric ozone has an atmospheric lifetime of
approximately 3 weeks. The major emission sources of ozone precursors methane and NOx were
discussed in earlier sections. Figure 2.16 shows that for VOCs, which also contribute to ozone
formation, the major source is the transport sector.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 24

 Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) are toxic air pollutants that may
cause cancer, brain and nervous damage, and other adverse effects on humans. Although some
VOCs are naturally-occurring, many come from human sources such as paint and solvents,
adhesives, petroleum products, pharmaceuticals and refrigerants. The contributing emission
sources to NMVOCs is illustrated in Figure 2.18. The total annual NMVOCs in 2015 were 462.16
Thousand MT with largely contributed by transport (41.00%) and residential (25.53%). Charcoal
making shared (22.84%), waste contributed (9.19%) and the remaining was 1.45% is the combine
source (industry, agriculture, industry process emission, electricity generation, commercial and
public services, and energy industry own use).

Emission Sector Contributing to NMVOC in 2015 (%)

1.45%

9.19%

Waste
22.84% Charcoal Making
41.00%
Residential
Transport
Other

25.53%

Figure 2.18 Share of NMVOCs emission by sector in 2015

Between 2010-2030, Figure 2.19, the NMVOCs leveled up from 346.37 Thousand MT to
1119.21 Thousand MT in 2030 with an estimated average growth rate of 3.45% per year.
Residential and Charcoal making sources show an increasing trend that aligned with the population
growth and the demand for solid fuels for daily cooking. Moreover, transport sector also increases
dramatically from 85.85 Thousand MT in 2010 to 805.42 Thousand MT in 2030 with an estimate
average growth rate of 41.91% per annual. It is because of the passenger car increase from 2010-
2030 that is further described in transport section (Section 2.6.1).

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 25

 Total NMVOC Emission in kMT (Baseline)
1200
Transport

Residential
1000
Charcoal Making
Emission of NMVOC

800 Waste

Industry
600
Agriculture (NonEnergy)

Industrial Process
400 Emissions
Electricity Generation

200 Agriculture

Commercial and Public

0 Services
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Energy Industry Own Use

Figure 2.19 Total NMVOC Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

2.5 Green House Gases (GHGs)

GHGs, which trap heat in the atmosphere, are the principal cause of climate change. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) makes up for an estimated 76 percent of anthropogenic GHG emissions globally,
followed by methane and nitrous oxide. Methane emissions in the Cambodia are described above
as it is also a short-lived climate pollutant. CO2 has a much longer lifetime than Methane, and
remains in the atmosphere for around a hundred years.

In Cambodia, the analysis has shown that the major sources of greenhouse gases are also
major sources of air pollutants. Transport is the major source of CO2, and is simultaneously a
major source of NOx. Electricity generation and Waste is the major source of SOx and methane,
and is also a major source of many other air pollutants. Therefore, there is a large potential for
developing integrated strategies to simultaneously improve air quality and reduce the Cambodia’s
very small contribution to global warming. Like air pollutants and SLCPs, emissions of GHGs are
also projected to grow substantially in the future due to increase in population, and demand for
energy.

2.5.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission in Cambodia emanated from transport, electricity

generation, industry process emission, industry, commercial and public services, agriculture, and
other combined sources.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 26

 Emission Sector Contributing to Carbon Dioxide in 2015 (%)
1.78% 2.96%
5.05%

Industry
Industrial Process Emissions
29.72% Electricity Generation
60.50% Transport
Other

Figure 2.20 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by sector in 2015

Figure 2.20 shows that the largest CO2 emission come from the transport of 60.50%. The
second largest emission of CO2 was electricity generation of 29.72%, followed by industrial
process emission and industry was 5.05% and 2.96%. For the emission from 2010-2030 in figure
2.21 below shows that increasing bar from 9161.76 Thousand MT to 40150,86 Thousand MT with annual
increase rate 3.86%.

Total Carbon Dioxide Emission in kMT (Baseline)

45000
Transport
40000
Electricity
35000
Carbon Dioxide Emission

Generation

30000 Industrial Process

Emissions
25000 Industry

20000 Commercial and

Public Services
15000
Agriculture
10000
Residential
5000

0 Energy Industry
Own Use
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.21 Total Carbon Dioxide Emission in Cambodia between 2010 and 2030

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 27

2.6 Emission Source Sectors

Having described the main pollutants considered in this plan in Sections 2.2-2.4 above, the
major source sectors identified, specifically transport, electricity generation, industry, residential,
charcoal making and other contribute sector, are now considered in more detail in turn in the sub-
sections below.

2.6.1 Transportation

Transport is one of the major sources of atmospheric pollutions. The transport sector covers
on-road transport, waterway, railway, and aviation. However, railway and aviation were not
considered in this estimation due to lacking reliable data. Thus, only on-road transport and
waterways were considered. Following the growth in population and urbanization, there has been
a rapid increase in the number of vehicles imported into Cambodia. According to the annual report
of Ministry of Public Works and Transport, the total registered vehicles have increased more than
52.70% from 2010 to 2015. The total number of vehicles registered had increased from 398,502
in 2015 to 646,073 in 2019 by approximately 62% (MoPWnT, 2019).

Contribution of transport sectors to total transport emissions in the

Cambodia in 2015
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Methane
PM2.5

PM10
Black Carbon

NMVOCs
Organic Carbon

Carbon monoxide

Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia

Nitogen Oxides
Sulfur Dioxide

Passenger: Land Passenger: Shipping Freight: Land Freight: Shipping

Figure 2.22 Contribution of transport sectors to total transport emissions in the Cambodia in 2010

The figure 2.22 shows how the different transport sectors contribute to emissions of
different pollutants in the base year 2010. For instance, the highest share of direct PM2.5 emissions
were contributed from the road transport of freight (40%), followed by passenger of road transport
emissions (38%). Note that shipping also contribute about 21% share of PM2.5 by transport goods
or passengers. The reason of this significant increase was the increasing of the huge number of
vehicles in Cambodia with the annual increase rate of 12.43% in the last 5 years.
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 28
 Particulate Matter PM2.5 in Thousand MT: Baseline
25

20
PM2.5 Emission

15

10

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Passenger: Land Passenger: Shipping Freight: Land Freight: Shipping

Figure 2.23 Progression of PM2.5 emissions from the transport sector between 2010 and 2030

2.6.2 Electricity Generation

Two important variables (inputs) to estimate the emissions from the electricity generation
are process share and process efficiency. The National Energy Statistics for Cambodia offered the
historical data from 2010-2015 that could serve the purpose of having the process share (%), Table
2.4 estimated using the electricity production from a sum of different fuel types. The economic
development and population growth affect electricity consumption. The electricity generation
increased almost 5 times between 2010 and 2015 and above 2 times higher in 2015 as compared
to 2014 (of 2,981 GWh). The electricity generation (GWh) was converted to ktons of electricity
generation by each fuel type.

Table 2.4 Electricity Generation by Fuel Types (GWh)

Fuel Types 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Biomass 7 6 11 27
Coal 32 47 37 169 863 2,128
Diesel Oil 12 11 8
Heavy Fuel Oil 773 783 746 477 266 141
Hydro 31 47 517 1,009 1,841 2,153
Imported 1,389 1,662 1,990 2,028 1,531 1,249
Thermal wood 6 14 12
Total 2250 2564 3310 3689 4512 5698

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 29

 Carbon Dioxide Emission by Feul in 2010 (%)

2.89 %

10.62 %

Sub Bituminous Coal

Heavy Fuel Oil
Diesel

86.49 %

Figure 2.24 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by Fuel type in 2010, (%)

Figure 2.24 above shows the carbon dioxide emission by percent of fuel type in 2010. The
largest share of carbon dioxide emission about 86.49% by heavy fuel oil. The second largest of
carbon dioxide emission share about 10.62% by sub bituminous coal and follow by diesel is about
2.89% in 2010.

Carbon Dioxide in kMT : Baseline

10000
9000
Carbon Dioxide Emission

8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Sub Bituminous Coal Heavy Fuel Oil Diesel

Figure 2.25 Progression of Carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation between 2010-2030

Figure 2.25 above focuses on carbon dioxide emissions and the emission trend for the fuel
type in electricity generation between 2010 and 2030 under baseline scenario. Due to expected
increases in economic growth and population, emission of carbon dioxide from heavy fuel oil was

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 30

huge decrease in 2010 compared to 2015, because heavy fuel oil was replaced by sub bituminous
coal in 2015 and the trend of carbon dioxide emission from sub bituminous coal are increase
substantially into the future.

Contribution of Eletricity Generation Sectors to Total Elctricity

Generation Emissions in Cambodia in 2015
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Organic Black PM2.5 Ammonia Sulfur PM10 Nitogen NMVOCs Methane Carbon Carbon
Carbon Carbon Dioxide Oxides monoxide Dioxide

Sub Bituminous Coal Heavy Fuel Oil

Figure 2.26 Contribution of Electricity generation sectors to total electricity generation emissions
in the Cambodia in 2015

The figure 2.26 shows how the different electricity generation sectors contribute to
emissions of different pollutants in the base year 2015. For example, the highest share of ammonia
was contributed from the heavy fuel oil (90%) and from other pollution were contributed by sub
bituminous coal about (70%-80%)

2.6.3 Industry

Several fuel types (coal, petroleum products, biomass, and electricity) were reported in the
MME & ERIA (2016) and is used for the industrial sector (such as Food, beverages, and tobacco,
Paper, pulp, and printing, Construction, Textile and Leather, Garment and other industry);
however, the detailed process disaggregation was not available. The coal consumption is an
increasing trend over time in which 13 ktons in 2015 as compared to 5 ktons in 2010 due to the
investment on the thermal coal power plant in Cambodia and expecting in a growing trend in the
future. In the same period, petroleum products are in declining trend i.e., a total of 192 ktons in
2010 dropped to 112 ktons in 2015. Both biomass and electricity consumption are steadily
increasing over the same period. The total energy consumption in the industry sector is summarized
in Table 2.5.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 31

Table 2.5 Total Energy Consumption in Industry Sector (ktons)

Types of Fuel 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Coal 5 6 6 7 9 13
Petroleum Products 192 204 197 177 154 112
Gas / Diesel Oil (DO) 66 69 77 74 82 77
Fuel Oil (FO) 124 129 116 98 66 27
LPG 0 0 0 1 1 2
Other petroleum products (OPP) 3 6 4 4 5 6
Biomass 244 254 265 276 289 312
Electricity 42 54 77 71 91 98

Figure 2.27 shows that the largest carbon dioxide emitter was from the Industrial Process
Emissions (51.92%), followed by about 48.08% from industry sector in 2010. For figure 2.28
shows about the overall trend of carbon dioxide emission from 2010 to 2030. It was downtrend as
higher emission in industry sector happened in 2010 (about 1322.43 Thousand MT) as compared
to the 2015 emission of about 1089.13 Thousand MT. The major changes was mainly from the
heavy fuel oil were replaced by sub bituminous coal similar case to the electricity generation as
well.

Carbon Dioxide Emission by industry sector in 2010 (%)

Industry
48.08 %
51.92 % Industrial Process Emissions

Figure 2. 27 Share of Carbon Dioxide emission by industry sector in 2010, (%)

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 32

 Carbon Dioxide Emission : Baseline
4000

3500
Emission (kMT)

3000

2500
Industry
2000
Industrial Process
1500
Emissions
1000

500

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.28 Progression of Carbon dioxide emissions from industry sector between 2010-2030

The figure 2.29 shows how the different industry sectors contribute to emissions of
different pollutants in the base year 2015. For instance, the highest share of all pollution emissions
was contributed from the industry (80%-90%) except the carbon dioxide the highest share is from
industrial Process Emissions about 63%.

Contribution of Industry Sectors to total Industry Emissions in

Cambodia in 2015
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Organic Black PM2.5 Ammonia Sulfur PM10 Nitogen NMVOCs Methane Carbon Carbon
Carbon Carbon Dioxide Oxides monoxide Dioxide

Industry Industrial Process Emissions

Figure 2.29 Contribution of industry sectors to total industry emissions in Cambodia in 2015

2.6.4 Residential

Key activity data for energy consumption in the residential sector (in ktons) for lighting
and cooking purposes is presented in Table 2.6. These data were derived from the Cambodia
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 33
National Energy Statistics 2016 for the period 2010-2015 (MME & CERIA, 2016). The data from
ERIA for the period of 2010 to 2015 was used to estimate emission from residential and
commercial sectors. Energy for cooking and lighting was split based on fuel types. The
consumption of the electricity as the lighting source at households was increased gradually from
75 ktons in 2010 to 131 ktons in 2015 while the no more kerosene being used since 2014. For
cooking, solid fuels (firewood and charcoal) remained shared the largest fuel mixed in Cambodia
and followed by LPG. Biogas statistics from 2010-2015 reported by the National Biodigester
Programme were included.

Table 2.6 Energy Consumption for Residential Sector (ktons)

Description 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Lighting
Kerosene 9 6.5 2 2 0 0
Electricity 75 73 93 102 114 131
Cooking
Firewood 636.91 665.31 694.03 724.07 758.46 770.23
Charcoal 120.23 125.59 131.01 136.68 143.17 145.39
Biogas 0.86 1.11 0.97 0.26 0.38 0.38
LPG 7 8 3 3 4 5

Carbon Monooxide Emission by type of zone in 2015 (%)

3.09 %

8.59 %

Phnom Penh
Other Urban
Rural

88.32 %

Figure 2.30 Share of Carbon Monoxide emission by type of zone in 2015, (%)
The total emission of carbon monoxide by residential sector in 2015 was about 371.97
Thousand MT, the main emitter were from rural area about 88.32%, other urban area was about
8.59%, and Phnom Penh city was about 3.09%, Figure 2.30.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 34

 Carbon Monoxide Emission : Baseline
450
400
350
Emission in kMT

300
Kerosene
250
LPG
200
Charcoal
150
Wood
100
50
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 2.31 Progression of carbon monoxide emissions from the residential between 2010-2030

The total annual carbon monoxide emissions from 2010-2030 in residential sector are
presented in figure 2.31. It clearly shows the carbon monoxides emission in residential sector
mainly increase from 2010-2030 by wood in rural area. The second contribute of carbon
monoxides in residential sector from 2010-2030 by charcoal and the remaining of carbon
monoxides from residential was LPG and Kerosene. According to the graph its shows that from
2010-2020 the emissions is almost stay still; however, carbon monoxide starts to increase slightly
from 2020-2030.

The figure 2.32 shows how the different residential sectors contribute to emissions of
different pollutants in the base year 2015. For instance, the highest share of carbon dioxide was
contributing in Phnom Penh area (48.76%), follow by rural area (32%) and other urban area. For
other pollution such as organic carbon, black carbon, PM2.5, PM10, ammonia, Sulfur Dioxide,
Nitrogen Oxides, NMVOCs, and Methane, the highest share was contributing by rural area about
80% to 90% and the rest were Phnom Penh area and other urban area.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 35

 Contribution of Residential Sectors to total Residential Emissions in
Cambodia in 2015
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Organic Black PM2.5 Ammonia Sulfur PM10 Nitogen NMVOCs Methane Carbon Carbon
Carbon Carbon Dioxide Oxides monoxide Dioxide

Phnom Penh Other Urban Rural

Figure 2.32 Contribution of residential sectors to total residential emissions in Cambodia in 2015

2.6.5 Other Contributing Sector

Table 2.7 shows the total amount of wood consumed for charcoal production and charcoal
produced for the period of 2010 to 2015. The data derived from ERIA was used to calculate
emissions from this sector. In Cambodia, charcoal making was assumed still processed in
traditional kilns and only firewood was used for transformation. Of each year estimation, the
process efficiency of this method is only 11.43%.

Table 2.7 Total Firewood Supplied for Charcoal Making and Charcoal Produced (ktons)

Description 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Wood consumed 245.44 256.22 266.7 278.07 291.06 295.43
Charcoal production 28.05 29.3 30.5 31.8 33.3 33.76

Table 2.8 Charcoal Making emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030

Year
No Pollutants
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
1 Black Carbon 0.60 0.61 0.60 0.64 0.68
2 Ammonia 1.18 1.19 1.17 1.25 1.32
3 Sulfur-Dioxide 1.83 1.85 1.82 1.94 2.05
4 Organic Carbon 4.10 4.15 4.09 4.35 4.59
5 PM2.5 8.26 8.37 8.23 8.77 9.25
6 PM10 8.26 8.37 8.23 8.77 9.25
7 Methane 42.58 43.12 42.43 45.19 47.66
8 Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 104.22 105.54 103.86 110.61 116.67
9 Carbon Monoxide 307.59 311.48 306.51 326.44 344.32

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 36

The total annual emission from 2010-2030 of charcoal making (Table 2.8) shows the largest
pollution was carbon monoxides. Without any mitigation in carbon monoxides, there is a constant
from 2010-2020 and it starts increase in carbon monoxides emission estimated from 2020-2030.

a) Agriculture (Use Energy)

As reported in the Cambodia National Energy Statistics (MME & ERIA, 2016), the most
dominant fuel used for the agricultural purpose is diesel oil (DO). Cambodia is an agricultural
country, the utilization of mechanical machinery for agricultural purposes is important. From the
statistics, 2010-2015 indicated the increasing trend from 2010-2014 and slightly declined in 2015
(38 ktoe as compared to 2014 (50 ktoe).

Table 2.9 Energy Consumption for Agriculture

Type of fuel 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Agriculture
Gas/Diesel oil 32 38 44 42 50 38

Table 2.9 below display the projection trend in pollutions emission from agriculture (Use
Energy) sector between 2010-2030 in baseline scenario. According to the table, carbon monoxides
is a dominant pollution in agriculture and it increase over the years.

Table 2.10 Agriculture (use energy) emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030

Year
No Pollutants
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
1 Organic Carbon 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06
2 Black Carbon 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08
3 PM2.5 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.19
4 PM10 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.19
5 Sulfur-Dioxide 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05
6 Nitrogen-Oxide 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.10
8 Methane 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
9 Carbon Monoxide 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.24 0.26
10 Carbon Dioxide 99.28 117.89 123.30 134.33 146.81
b) Agriculture (Non-Energy)

For the Agriculture in non-energy sector, the annual agricultural subsidiaries and industrial
crop productions from 2010-2015 compiled by the MAFF is presented in Table 2.10. Default
values of the fraction burnt (25% of each crop production) built-in LEAP for non-energy were
adopted directly for all of crop categories/species except the fraction burnt for the rice straw

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 37

burning with the rate of 23.7% for Cambodia case as reported in Thadalin et al. (2016) was used
for rice straw burning.

Table 2.11 Subsidiaries and industry crop production in Cambodia 2010-2015, (tons)

Type 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Rice 8,249,452 8,779,365 9,290,940 9,389,961 9,324,416 9,335,284
Mung bean 21,859 76,196 74,679 57,243 60,651 59,221
Soya bean 156,610 114,603 120,165 131,092 104,181 96,943
Maize 1,425,275 1,417,089 1,757,765 1,775,296 1,023,613 732,711
Jute 261 304 271 208 167 75
Cassava 4,248,942 8,033,843 7,613,697 7,933,382 11,943,204 13,298,109
Peanut 21,957 22,836 30,376 29,294 27,762 25,151
Sweet potato 79,347 46,648 48,754 50,543 848,629 45,425
Sesame 29,916 33,478 26,764 24,473 17,261 17,860
Sugarcane 355,830 468,738 1,573,772 911,333 1,540,997 709,176
Tobacco 14,625 12,861 8,987 8,814 13,939 8,058

Table 2.12 Agriculture (Non energy) emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030

Year
No Pollutants
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
1 Organic Carbon 1.41 1.74 1.85 2.01 2.20
2 Black Carbon 0.21 0.26 0.28 0.31 0.33
3 PM2.5 2.33 2.89 3.06 3.33 3.64
4 PM10 2.46 3.04 3.23 3.51 3.84
5 Ammonia 130.94 117.43 106.46 101.77 103.19
6 Sulfur-Dioxide 0.15 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.24
7 Non Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 2.04 2.30 2.45 2.67 2.91
8 Methane 275.91 229.67 185.11 152.31 128.71
9 Carbon Monoxide 25.97 32.48 34.39 37.47 40.95
The total pollution emission in agriculture (non energy) from 2010-2030, Table 2.12, were
declined due to the reduction of dairy cattle (cow) have been decrease annually. As of 2010, the
total methane emission was about 275.91 Thousand MT and dropped to about 128.71 Thousand
MT according to the projection. For other pollution its almost stay still between 2010-2030.

c) Construction

Emissions from the construction sector are caused by activities involved in the construction
phase, which are usually short-lived or temporary. These activities include concrete batching plant,
production sites, the use of heavy equipment on the roads, lack of control over the transportation

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 38

of gravel, stone, cement, construction materials that cause dust emit to the atmosphere and
emissions from heavy vehicles can occur due to these related activities. Sometimes a project’s
construction-related emissions can have a significant impact with respect to air quality and/or
global climate change. Air pollutants, such as particles smaller than 10 micrometers (PM10), can
be caused by dust on the streets, open waste incineration, construction materials storage,
excavation and use of construction equipment.

Table 2.13 Construction projects in Cambodia between 2009-2019

Whole of Cambodia
Building type
Non-Residential Residential Industrial Commercial
Year (m2) (m2) (m2) (m2)

2009 431,397.53 1,565,231.29 1,309,123.38 2,616,202.79

2010 359,847.58 1,469,659.50 614,798.80 144,913.85
2011 1,342,263.08 2,051,139.93 1,323,725.92 334,413.21
2012 456,914.25 2,682,426.19 2,008,477.74 1,166,469.06
2013 302,674.57 2,075,450.50 1,479,733.78 3,203,098.19
2014 364,107.71 3,165,690.93 1,725,902.96 977,353.07
2015 422,581.49 4,343,181.78 1,878,362.00 1,024,253.18
2016 443,972.79 6,321,557.00 2,239,579.00 5,603,580.00
2017 600,418.00 5,804,378.00 1,195,090.00 3,763,695.00
2018 2,784,873.00 5,182,768.00 884,631.00 3,512,496.00
2019 1,590,043.00 10,619,761.00 3,697,426.00 7,316,768.00
Source: Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction

Particulate Matter: PM2.5 emission in construction sector

2500
Paticulate Matter emission

2000

1500

1000

500

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Non Residentail Commercial Industrial Residentail
Figure 2.33 Progression of PM2.5 emission from construction sector between 2010-2030
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 39
 Figure 2.33 above present about progression of PM2.5 emission from construction sector
between 2010-2030. The main sources of PM2.5 emission was from Residential and it increase
every year according to the projection of LEAP analysis.

d) Waste

For the waste sector, the sources of emissions are originating from the point of generation,
waste management process and final disposal. By following the 2006 IPCC guideline, the sources
of emissions are categorized into:

• Solid waste disposal

• Biological treatment of solid waste
• Incineration and open burning of waste
• Wastewater treatment and discharge

Table 2.14 Waste Generation and Estimated Uncollected Waste in Cambodia, (Tonnes/Year)

Waste Generation Estimated Uncollected Waste

Year
Urban Sub-urban/rural Urban Sub-urban/rural
2008 763,826 2,805,454 554,958 2,543,470

2013 840,031 3,085,349 618,898 2,790,860

2014 854,960 3,140,179 631,794 2,840,330

2015 870,184 3,196,098 644,980 2,890,894

The waste generation and uncollected waste estimation were prepared using the number of
population and waste generation per capita. The solid waste generation per capita was estimated
at around 0.5 kg/day and roughly to be about 4 million tonnes as of 2015 and the uncollected
wastes were estimated at about 87% of the total waste generation. From the National Institute of
Statistics, the population in Cambodia are classified as Urban and suburban/rural area, the waste
generation and uncollected waste are presented in Table 2.14. The amount of uncollected solid
waste in suburban areas of Phnom Penh was calculated based on the percentage of collection
coverage (83.3%) in Phnom Penh city reported in (IGES & UNEP, 2018). The waste disposal at
the landfill for some provinces were reported in Sethy (2017) were used to justify the uncollected
wastes in those provinces while the rest assumed all wastes are burnt after subtracting the
incombustible compositions.

Table 2.15 below shows the trend in methane emission from waste sector between 2010-
2030 in baseline scenario. Without any mitigation measure, there is a steady increase in methane
emission estimated over the year especially from municipal waste burning in Cambodia. Figure
2.35 demonstrates the progression of the direct PM2.5 emission from uncontrolled waste burning

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 40

over the years. From this analysis, it is clear that the waste sector is a major source of GHGs,
SLCPs and air pollutants. In the waste sector, waste incineration is the dominant source of these
emissions. The expected increase in emissions if driven by expected increases in population and
waste generation.

Table 2.15 Waste sector emission by pollutants types between 2010-2030

Waste (Thousand MT)

No Pollution 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

1 Organic Carbon 9.13 9.9 10.67 11.36 11.98

2 Black Carbon 1.13 1.23 1.32 1.41 1.49
3 PM2.5 16.99 18.42 19.84 21.13 22.29
4 PM10 20.62 22.36 24.09 25.65 27.06
5 Ammonia 1.94 2.11 2.27 2.42 2.55
6 Sulfur-Dioxide 0.87 0.94 1.01 1.08 1.14
7 Nitrogen-Oxide 8.5 9.21 9.92 10.57 11.15
Non-Methane Volatile
8 39.16 42.47 45.74 48.72 51.38
Organic Compounds
9 Methane 6.34 6.88 7.41 7.89 8.32
10 Carbon Monoxide 65.84 71.4 76.91 81.91 86.4

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 41

3. MEASURES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS

The potential emissions reduction with the implementation of key existing government
regulations, policies and strategies related to emission reduction were estimated using the LEAP-
IBC tool. It is important that potential air pollution reduction are quantified for the mitigation
measures in order to visualize the pollution scenario for developing effective actions. In particular,
the Circular #01on “Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution”, the sub decree
no.42 on “Control Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance”, Climate Change Strategic Plan 2014-
2023 and Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined Contribution are the main existing
government regulations and policies on emission reduction that are examined in this report.
Moreover, additional essential clean air measures are also analyzed to visualize the potential
emission reduction as for policy recommendation.

3.1 The Government Circular on Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution

The circular on “Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution” was issued in
early 2020. The circular was developed to support the government goal on reducing air pollution
in Cambodia for reflecting the recent increase of the Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in
urban areas of the country which poses a risk to the health of population. In the circular contains
strategic measurements on reducing air pollution from the major sources and activities that led to
the increasing of the concentration of Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) including the release
of emissions from industrial, the uses of diesel-powered vehicles and other combustion fuels,
wildfires, forest fires lawns, yard burning, garbage burning, open field burning of solid waste,
waste landfills and construction sites. To be specific, there are 7 strategic measures including in
this circular as following.
- The Administration of Construction Sites focuses on reinforcing the management of dust
or particulate matter into the air and other discharges from pollutant sources such as
construction sites, concrete production sites, transport of pebble sand, cement or other
construction materials by means to require prior tire cleaning from the production sites
- The Quality Management of High Sulfur Content on Fuel focuses on promoting the
implementation of sulfur standard level which contained in fuel for compliance with EURO
standard (EURO III, IV, V).
- The Administration of Air Pollutants from Vehicles focuses on promoting the
implementation of the emission standard on air pollutants from vehicles for compliance
with EURO standard (EURO III, IV, V). Strengthening the traffic management in the
capital, provinces, cities and towns through improving the efficiency of urban planning and
reducing congestion and implementing prioritized strategies, public transportation and

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 42

 enhancing the construction of motorcycle and pedestrian route systems are a part of this
measure too.
- The Administration of Air Pollutants Emission from Production Sites focuses on
promoting the technical installation of smoke and dust filters in the production sites in
order to reduce the release of toxic gases into the air through the implementation of new
technologies including using alternative clean energy from the use of natural gas, wind,
hydropower, solar and biomass and promoting the use of clean coal sources that is not
producing as much ash and low sulfur content (less than 1% sulfur content).
- The Administration of the Open-Field Waste Burning focuses on preventing and avoiding
of all kinds of forest clearing, burning of garbage, burning solid waste in the open spaces,
landfill and public squares and educating people to stop burning garbage, solid wastes,
grasses, stalks and other agricultural wastes.
- The Improving Management and Improving the Urban Environment focuses on carrying
out an environmental sanitation programs in the public areas and regularly clean the streets
and expanding the green areas in building city and other surrounding areas that are under
construction.
- The Establishment of Air Pollution Monitoring and Forecasting System focuses on
installing the equipment for air quality monitoring in provincial and capital throughout the
Kingdom of Cambodia and developing the action plans to create the monitoring system
and giving an early warning for severe air pollution and to disseminate it to the public on
time in order to prepare for any risks and health problems.

Table 3.1 Matrix of mitigation measures from Circular N. 01 in use for Development of Clean Air Plan

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sector: Construction
Administration of Construction Site 50% of all construction 2030
1- Shall be reinforced the management projects implement air
of dust or particulate matter into the pollution reduction
air and other transport of pebble measurement on
sand, cement or other construction administration of
materials by means to require prior construction sites
tier cleaning from the production (Assumption)
sites, installation of high-pressure
steam spray, and apply the proper
tire cover before leaving out from
the business sites in order to avoid

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 43

 any spill or crumbs and dusty or
particulate matter in to the roads.
2- Shall be reinforce the inspection and
shall be strengthened the education
to all construction site owners
Sector: Transport
The quality management of high sulfur 1- Sulfur level to meet 1- 2020
content on fuel Euro III level 2- 2021
2- Sulfur level to meet 3- 2024
Euro IV level
3- Sulfur level to meet
Euro V level
(Government Circular)
The Administration of Air Pollutants from 1- Imported cars to meet 1- 2022
Vehicles Euro IV in 2022 2- 2027
1- Promoted the implementation of the 2- Imported cars to meet
emission standard on air pollutants Euro V in 2027
from vehicles as the following: (Government Circular)
a. For car type
- From 1st January 2022 onward, all
kinds of new and used vehicles
imported into the Kingdom of
Cambodia must comply with the
Standard in Type 4 (EURO IV) as
stated in Annex II of this circular
- From 1st January 2027 onward, all
kinds of new and used vehicles
imported into the Kingdom of
Cambodia must comply with the
Standard in Type 5 (EURO V) as
stated in Annex II of this circular
b. For Motorcycle and Tricycle Types All imported motorcycles 2023
- From 1st January 2023 with new and and tricycles to meet Euro
used motorcycle and tricycle that III
manufactured and imported into the (Government Circular)

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 44

 Kingdom of Cambodia must comply
with the Standard in Type 3 (Euro
III) as stated in Annex III of this
circular
1- Implementing as prioritize with the Developing or improving 2030
public transport strategy and public transport strategy
enhancing the construction of and route systems to
motorcycle and pedestrian route reduce air pollution
systems (Assumption)
2- There should be a plan to reduce the Reducing import of used 2030
import of used vehicles and cars 30% in 2030
encourage the use of new vehicles (Assumption)
and/or vehicles that use clean energy
in order to eliminate the import of
old vehicles
3- Strengthening the management and Strengthening the 2030
monitoring the fuel quality and management and
suppressing the production, sale and monitoring the fuel
distribution of fuel products that do quality of 80% of fuel
not meet fuel quality standards station have to comply
which have high sulfur content with EU standard
exceed the standard (Assumption)
Sector: Open waste burning
The administration of the opened-field 50% reduction of illegal 2030
waste burning opened waste burning
1- Must have strategies to prevent and across country through
to avoid of all kinds of forest implementing air
cleaning, burning of garbage, pollution reduction
burning solid waste in the open measurement on
areas, landfill and public squares administration of air
2- Must educating people to stop pollutants emission from
burning garbage, solid waste, opened-field waste
grasses, stalks and other agricultural burning
wastes (Assumption)

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 45

 3- If having severe forest fire, must
immediately apply strategies through
using all possible means in order to
effectively extinguish the forest fire

3.2 Sub Decree on Control of Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance

The sub decree on “Control of Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance” was issued in 2000.
The sub decree was developed with purpose of protecting the environment quality and public
health from air pollutants and noise pollution through monitoring, curb and mitigation activities.
This sub-decree applies to all movable sources and immovable sources of air and noise pollution.
In the sub decree there are 8 chapter and 39 articles where relates to provision on emission of air
and noise pollution, pollution source monitoring, air pollution monitoring, inspection, emission
standard and ambient air quality standard and so on.
Table 3.2 Matrix of mitigation measures from the sub decree in use for Development of Clean Air Plan

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sector: Industry
Implementing industrial emission control 50% reduction in industrial 2030
emission as a result of
implementation of emission
control
(Assumption)

3.3 Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan (CCCSP) 2014-2023

The government strategic document “Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan 2014-2023”
was issued in 2013. This document was developed with vision “Cambodia develops towards a
green, low-carbon, climate-resilient, equitable, sustainable and knowledge-based society”. The
strategy document determines 3 goals including:
- Reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts of people, in particular the most
vulnerable, and critical systems (natural and societal);
- Shifting towards a green development path by promoting low-carbon development and
technologies;
- Promoting public awareness and participation in climate change response actions.
The CCCSP 2014-2023 outlines 8 strategic objectives including:
- Promote climate resilience through improving food, water and energy security
- Reduce sectoral, regional, gender vulnerability and health risk to climate change impacts

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 46

 - Ensure climate resilience of critical ecosystems (Tonle Sap Lake, Mekong River, coastal
ecosystems, highlands, etc.), biodiversity, protected areas and cultural heritage sites
- Promote low-carbon planning and technologies to support sustainable development
- Improve capacities, knowledge and awareness for climate change responses
- Promote adaptive social protection and participatory approaches in reducing loss and
damage due to climate change
- Strengthen institutions and coordination frameworks for national climate change
responses
- Strengthen collaboration and active participation in regional and global climate change
processes

Table 3.3 Matrix of mitigation measures from CCCSP in use for Development of Clean Air Plan

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sector: Residential
1- Promote and installing fuel efficiency 1- 60% of residential in 1- 2030
stove in rural areas rural switch from 2- 2030
2- Promote using bio-gas for cooking in using less efficiency
rural areas stoves
2- 60% of residential in
rural switch from
using bio-mass to
bio-gas
(Assumption)

Table 3.4 Matrix of recommended mitigation measures in use for Development of Clean Air Plan

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sector: Charcoal Making
Improve efficiency of charcoal production Charcoal kiln efficiency 2030
increase from 11% to best
available 30% efficiency
(Assumption)
Sector: Transport
1- Freight transport implementing Euro 1- All new heavy-duty 1- 2022
IV standards vehicles meet Euro 2- 2022
2- Passenger transport, all buses IV standards from
implementing Euro IV 2022

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 47

 2- All new buses meet
Euro IV standards
from 2022
(Assumption)

3.4 Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined Contribution

The government strategic document “Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined

Contribution” was issued in 2020. This document was developed to presents Cambodia
commitments and needs for the next decade, in order to realize her vision of a low carbon and
resilient society. This strategic document showcased her progress in climate policy, and put
forward mitigation targets and adaptation actions consistent with the national circumstances of
Cambodia.

Table 3.5 Matrix of mitigation measures from NDC in use for Development of Clean Air Plan

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sector: Electricity Generation
Energy Efficiency - Energy efficiency in 2030
- Application of electrical residential sector
equipment’s labeling and Minimum improves by 31.7%
Energy Performance Standards - Energy efficiency in
(lighting, cooling and equipment) commercial and
- Improvement of process public services
performance of energy efficiency sector improves by
by establishment of energy 41.7%
management in building/industries - Energy efficiency in
- Public awareness campaigns on industry sector
energy saving improve by 2.3%
- Building codes and (Assumption)
enforcement/certification for new
buildings and those undergoing
major renovation
- Introduction of efficient electrical
motors and boilers

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 48

3.5 Emission Reduction from Priority Air Pollution Measures

Table 3.6 Summary of baseline and nationally avoided emission

Whole of Cambodia (Thousand MT)

Organic Compounds

Carbon Monoxide
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen-Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non-Methane
Ammonia

Methane
Volatile
PM2.5

PM10
Baseline
emissions 44.97 14.57 98.50 132.42 112.00 70.05 328.96 1,119.21 218.22 2,725.61 40,150.82
2030/Unit
Air Pollution
Circular
21.98 9.26 53.19 74.18 108.13 59.00 286.36 315.91 194.95 1,127.17 39,420.31
Measures
2030/Unit
All Measures
17.20 5.33 38.71 59.36 107.31 33.55 171.04 230.75 165.28 878.98 32,689.07
2030/Unit
Total Emission
Reduction
(Baseline
Emission - Air 23.00 5.31 45.31 58.24 3.87 11.05 42.60 803.30 23.27 1,598.45 730.51
Pollution
Circular
Measures)
% Reduction 51.14 36.43 46.00 43.98 3.45 15.78 12.95 71.77 10.66 58.65 1.82

Total Emission
Reduction
(Baseline 27.77 9.24 59.80 73.06 4.69 36.50 157.92 888.46 52.94 1,846.63 7,461.75
Emission - All
Measure)

% Reduction 61.75 63.43 60.71 55.17 4.19 52.10 48.01 79.38 24.26 67.75 18.58

By applying LEAP-IBC calculation based on the best available data, the estimation of air
pollutant emission scenario in 2030 and the potential emission reduction through implementing
measures are illustrated. According to the above table, the baseline emission in 2030 (Business as
Usual Scenario) are highlighted summary, the highest air pollutants emitting in 2030 is CO2
(40,150.82Thousand MT) following by CO (2,725.61Thousand MT). For particular matter PM2.5
and PM10 are estimated increasing up to 98.5Thousand MT and 132.42Thousand MT, respectively.
Other key air pollutants are also presented such as Black Carbon = 14.57 Thousand MT, SO2 = 70.05
Thousand MT, NO2 = 328.96 Thousand MT.

To implement air pollution measures according to the circular no.01on “Measures to

Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution, the air pollutant emission can reduce dramatically.
Especially, for PM2.5, PM10 and CO which the volume of them is reduced by half. Besides, the
implementation of measures taking from the sub decree, Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan
and Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined Contribution result in additional reduction in all

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 49

air pollutants. To combine with all measures, air pollutant emission is cut significantly with a
cutting rate of 59.8 Thousand MT (60.71%) for PM2.5, 73 Thousand MT (55.1%) for PM10, 9.3
Thousand MT (63.69%) for Black Carbon, 36.5 Thousand MT (52.14%) for SO2, 158 Thousand
MT (48.02%) for NO2 and 7,461.7 Thousand MT (18.58%) for CO2.

Reduction of PM2.5 in kMT: Mitigation Measures

120

100
PM2.5 Emission

80

60

40

20

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 3.1 Reduction of national PM2.5 emissions from measures

Reduction of Black Carbon in Thousand MT: Mitigation Measure

16
14
Black Carbon Emission

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 3.2 Reduction of national black carbon emissions from measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 50

 Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides
350
300
Nitrogen Oxides Emission

250
200
150
100
50
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 3.3 Reductions of national nitrogen oxide emissions from measures

Reduction of Carbon Dioxides in kMT: Mitigation Measure

45,000
40,000
35,000
Carbon Dioxides Emission

30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 3.4 Reduction of carbon dioxide from measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 51

 Reduction of Methane in kMT: Mitigation Measure
400

350

300
Methane Emission

250

200

150

100

50

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 3.5 Reduction of methane from measures

3.6 Expected changes in air pollution concentration and impacts

According to the table “Summary of baseline and nationally avoided emission” above, the
implementation of the mitigation measures as targeted in the plan could make a significant
reduction in emission of air pollutants, short-lived climate pollutants and greenhouse gases. The
effect that these emission reductions would have on the concentration of fine particulate matter
(PM2.5) in Cambodia, and the health impacts associated with exposure to PM2.5 depends on
several factors.

The first factor is the contribution of emissions from activities to PM2.5 concentrations in
Cambodia. Besides, the human and economic activities within the country the source of emission
pollutants can contribute from international shipping, natural sources and the transport of
emissions from other countries. Meanwhile, the implementation of emission reduction measures
in Cambodia can lead to a substantial contribution to reducing PM2.5 and other air pollutants;
regional emission reductions can also make a significant contribution to achieving this as well if
according to WHO air quality guidelines.

To monitor air quality and especially PM2.5 concentration in ambient air, Cambodia is
installing air quality monitoring equipment. Although the installation of air quality equipment and
stations is still a need of the government, so far Cambodia installed 44 air quality monitoring
equipment across cities central of all provinces. According to 2019 annual report from General

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 52

Director of Environmental Protection, the concentration of PM2.5 ranges from 8 to 50μm/m3 with
the annually average concentration of 21.30μm/m3 (standard 25μm/m3/year).

The second factor that determines how the implementation of those measures will affect
PM2.5 concentration in Cambodia is the contribution that emissions of black carbon, organic
carbon, NOx, SO2, NH3 and natural sources make to PM2.5 concentration in the nation. Presently,
there is no study of the composition of PM2.5 to understand this contribution. Yet, the calculation
from LEAP-IBC shows that each of these air pollutants would be significantly reduced (10-60%
in 2030 compared to the baseline scenario) by executing these measures, and therefore a reduction
in PM2.5 concentration would be expected.

Finally, the third factor that determines the effectiveness of these measures is the relationship
between exposure to air pollution and negative health impacts in Cambodia. Although there is
limitation of research on the linkage between air pollution and public health in Cambodia.
However, according to WHO there is evidence of harmful health effects at even very low levels
of PM2.5 exposure; and that in the absence of a threshold for harmful health effects, public health
will benefit from any reduction in PM2.5 concentrations (The Regional Office for Europe of the
World Health Organization, 2013). This refers that by implementing all emission reduction
measures will improve public health in Cambodia.

3.7 Air Pollution Human Health Benefits

Exposure to air pollution, in particular fine particulate matter (PM2.5), is associated with
substantial health impacts, primarily through respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Murray et
al., 2020). PM2.5 air pollution is both directly emitted to the atmosphere, in the form of black
carbon, organic carbon, and dust particulates, and is also formed in the atmosphere from the
emission of gaseous air pollutants including Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Dioxide, Ammonia and
NMVOCs. Long-term exposure to elevated PM2.5 concentration significantly increases the risk
of premature death. As a consequence of the emission reductions shown in Section X from the
implementation of the mitigation measures included in Cambodia’s Clean Air Plan, the exposure
of Cambodians to health-damaging levels of air pollutants would be decreased.

To quantify the health benefits that could result from the implementation of the mitigation
measures included in Cambodia’s Clean Air Plan, an air pollution health impact assessment was
undertaken. In the ambient air pollution health impact assessment methods implemented in the
LEAP tool (explained in detail in Kuylenstierna et al., 2020), the health endpoint for which the
impact of ambient (i.e. outdoor) PM2.5 exposure is estimated is premature mortality. Premature
mortality attributable to PM2.5 exposure is estimated for children (less than 5 years) and adults
(>30 years) in − 5- year age groups (30–34, 35-39…75-79, >80 years) from 5 disease categories

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 53

(children: acute lower respiratory infection; adults: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and lung cancer). The metric used to quantify
exposure to ambient air pollution is the national population-weighted annual average ambient
PM2.5 concentration, i.e. the average exposure across all Cambodians, averaged across the year.
This metric is an indicator of long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 concentrations. While there
are important health impacts that occur due to short-term (i.e. acute) exposure to PM2.5, the health
burden is substantially higher for the long-term (i.e. chronic) exposure (REVIHAAP, 2013). The
overall methodology for quantifying the health impacts of the different emission scenarios in
LEAP is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Overview of LEAP-IBC calculation framework for air pollution health impact
assessment (source: Kuylenstierna et al. 2020).

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 54

 To quantify premature mortality attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure for each population
group and each disease category, national population-weighted annual average PM2.5
concentrations were combined with ‘integrated exposure response’ (IER) functions that have
previously been extensively used for quantifying air pollution health burdens (Burnett et al., 2014;
Cohen et al., 2017). The IER functions (Equation 1) quantify the relative risk (RR) for mortality
from specific diseases for PM2.5 exposures up to very high levels (up to 10,000 µg m-3), by
integrating RRs derived from epidemiological studies between cause-specific mortality and PM2.5
exposure from ambient air pollution, household air pollution, second hand smoke, and active
smoking.
δ
𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐸𝑅 = 1 + α(1 − 𝑒 −γ(𝑧−𝑧𝑐𝑓 ) ) Eq. 1

Where zcf is the PM2.5 low concentration cut-off, z is the PM2.5 concentration that a
population is exposed to, and α, δ, and γ are IER-specific parameters (Burnett et al., 2014; Cohen
et al., 2017). The RR derived from the IER function for a particular disease and age group, is then
used in combination with the baseline mortality rate for that disease for the population in the target
country, and the exposed population in the age category in the target country to estimate the
number of premature deaths attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure from the particular disease in
that age group (Equation 2).
𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐸𝑅 −1
ΔMort = 𝑦0 ( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑝 Eq. 2
𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐸𝑅

Here y0 is the baseline mortality rate for each disease category, and Pop is the exposed
population for each child or adult age category. Baseline mortality rates for each disease category
were taken from the Global Burden of Disease Results tool (http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-
results-tool).

Population-weighted annual average PM2.5 concentrations were estimated by combining

the emissions estimated in LEAP for each PM2.5 and PM2.5-precursor pollutant with outputs from
an atmospheric chemistry transport model, GEOS-Chem Adjoint. National total emissions of
primary PM2.5 (black carbon, organic carbon and other primary PM emissions), and secondary
inorganic PM2.5 precursors (NOx, SO2 and NH3) derived using LEAP for the target country are
spatially distributed into 2 o x 2.5o grids covering the country to match the scale of the GEOS-
Chem Adjoint model results (see below). The proportion of national total emissions of each
pollutant assigned to the 2 o x 2.5o grids covering the country was based on the spatial distribution
of emissions across Cambodia in an existing gridded emission dataset, the IIASA GAINS
ECLIPSE emissions dataset (Stohl et al., 2015). The ECLIPSE estimates emissions of SLCPs and
air pollutants for historical and future projections in 0.5o grids globally. For those grids that cover
the target country, the ECLIPSE emissions were apportioned by population (based on Gridded
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 55
Population of the World v3 dataset (CIESIN, 2005)). This ensured that the LEAP-derived
emissions only replace the emissions associated with the target country. Emissions from the rest
of the world are represented by the gridded ECLIPSE emissions outside of the target country.

Next, to translate gridded emissions to population-weighted annual average PM2.5

concentrations, accounting for transport and chemical processing in the atmosphere, the gridded
emissions are then combined with parameterized output from the adjoint of the GEOS-Chem
global atmospheric chemistry transport model (Bey et al., 2001; Henze et al., 2007). The GEOS-
Chem Adjoint model output quantifies the relationship between emissions of a particular pollutant
that contributes directly to PM2.5 (BC, OC or other PM), or is a precursor to PM2.5 (NOx, SO2
and NH3) in any location, and the associated change in PM2.5 in the target country. GEOS-Chem
simulates the formation and fate of pollutants globally at a grid resolution of 2° × 2.5°, with 47
vertical levels. Emissions of aerosols and aerosol precursors include both natural (i.e., ocean,
volcanic, lightning, soil, biomass burning, biogenic and dust) and anthropogenic (transportation,
energy, residential, agricultural, etc.) sources. The adjoint of the GEOS-Chem model calculates
the sensitivity of a particular model response metric (in this case population-weighted annual
average surface PM2.5 concentration across the target country) with respect to an emission
perturbation in any of the global model 2° × 2.5° grid cells (Henze et al., 2007), accounting for all
of the mechanisms related to aerosol formation and fate. These sensitivities are output from the
GEOS-Chem adjoint as gridded ‘coefficients’, which are then multiplied by emission estimates in
IBC to estimate the change in population-weighted annual average PM2.5 concentrations in
Cambodia for each year and emission scenario.

Adjoint coefficients were produced for each pollutant that contributes to population-
weighted annual average PM2.5 concentrations, namely, BC, OC, NOx, SO2, NH3 and other PM
(in this case, predominantly mineral dust), reflecting their different reactivity and formation
pathways in the atmosphere. The adjoint coefficients are applied by multiplying, in each grid and
for each pollutant, the coefficient by emissions, and summing across all grids to estimate the
change in PM2.5PW for a particular year for a particular scenario.

Population-weighted annual average PM2.5 concentrations is combined with Equations 1

and 2 to estimate the number of premature deaths attributable to ambient air pollution for each
year and emission scenario. Premature mortality attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure was
estimated for 2015, and for 2030 for the baseline scenarios and for the scenario that reflect the
implementation of mitigation measures.

In 2015 population-weighted annual PM2.5 concentrations were estimated to be ~21 µg m-

3 in Cambodia (Figure X), more than twice the World Health Organization international air quality
guideline value. As shown in Figure X below, a large fraction of this PM2.5 concentration is
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 56
estimated to result from emissions in other countries that is transported to Cambodia, with 22% of
PM2.5 exposure estimated to result from national emissions emitted in Cambodia. This total
exposure to PM2.5 concentrations was estimated to result in 3,100 premature deaths in 2015
(Figure X), primarily affecting older people, with also resulting in ~500 infant deaths in 2015, 17%
of the total number of premature deaths. In the baseline projection, both annual PM2.5 exposure,
and premature deaths were estimated to increase in 2030 compared to 2015 levels, with an annual
exposure of 24 µg m-3 in 2030 in the baseline scenario, a 14% increase compared to 2015 levels.
Premature deaths were projected to increase to 5700 per year in 2030, an 83% increase. The larger
relative increase in health burden from air pollution exposure compared to the increase in PM2.5
concentrations is due to the larger, and older population exposed to air pollution in 2030 compared
to 2015 levels.

The full implementation of Cambodia’s Clean Air Plan was estimated to reduce population-
weighted PM2.5 concentrations by 4 µg m-3 in 2030 compared to the baseline scenario, a 17%
reduction in total population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations in 2030 compared to the baseline
scenario. This reduction is also a 57% reduction in the contribution of Cambodia’s emissions to
PM2.5 concentrations in Cambodia. This reduction in PM2.5 concentrations across Cambodia
would avoid almost 900 (878) premature deaths per year, 15% of the total health burden from air
pollution, and 57% of the health burden caused by emissions from Cambodia itself.

30.
PM2.5 concentration (µg m -3)

25.
20.
15.
10.
5.
-

From Natural Background From Rest of World Emissions

From National Emissions

Figure 3.7 Population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations for Cambodia from LEAP-IBC for 2010-
2030 for the baseline scenario

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 57

 30.

PM2.5 concentration (µg m -3) 25.

20.

15.

10.

5.

From Natural Background From Rest of World Emissions

From National Emissions Avoided vs. Baseline

Figure 3.8 Reduction in population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations for Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 from the implementation of all measures included in Cambodia’s Clean Air
Plan, compared to the baseline scenario

6,000.

5,000.
Premature Deaths

4,000.

3,000.

2,000.

1,000.

-
2013

2015

2017

2019
2010
2011
2012

2014

2016

2018

2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030

Less than 5 years Age 30 to 50 years Age 50 to 70 years Over 70 years

Figure 3.9 Premature deaths attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure in Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 for the baseline scenario

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 58

 6000

5000
Premature Deaths

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2012

2022

2029
2010
2011

2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021

2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028

2030
Age 30 to 50 years Age 50 to 70 years Less than 5 years
Over 70 years Avoided vs. Baseline

Figure 3.10 Premature deaths attributable to ambient PM2.5 exposure in Cambodia from LEAP-
IBC for 2010-2030 from the implementation of all measures included in Cambodia’s Clean Air
Plan, compared to the baseline scenario

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 59

4. ACTION PLAN TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION

In this section, the implementation of mitigation measures is broken down into several
sectorial actions to tell in what extent the measures could contribute to the reduction of emission,
including the emissions of air pollutants, short-lived climate pollutants and/or greenhouse gases.
Each measure focus on the main sources of pollution such as transport and industrial, residential,
construction and waste sectors. In Air Pollution Circular Measure, there is a measure for an
alternative energy option. However, there appear to be some challenges due to insufficient of
resource, both human and financial resource.

4.1 Emission Control from Transportation

The emission is associated with a wide range of negative health effects, including premature
mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and lung cancer, and non-fatal health
outcomes including asthma and other respiratory conditions in adults and children. In their most
recent comprehensive review of health effects of air pollution. To cope with this, the
administration of air pollutants from vehicles, fuel quality is required.

Table 4.1 Mitigation measures apply for transportation sector

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Circular #01 on Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution
The quality management of high sulfur content 1- Sulfur level to meet Euro 1- 2020
on fuel III standard 2- 2021
2- Sulfur level to meet Euro 3- 2024
IV standard
3- Sulfur level to meet Euro
V standard
(Government Circular)
The Administration of Air Pollutants from 1- Imported cars to meet 1- 2022
Vehicles Euro IV in 2022 2- 2027
1- Promoted the implementation of the 2- Imported cars to meet
emission standard on air pollutants Euro V in 2027
from vehicles as the following: (Government Circular)
a. For car type
- From 1st January 2022 onward, all
kinds of new and used vehicles
imported into the Kingdom of
Cambodia must comply with the
Standard in Type 4 (EURO IV) as
stated in Annex II of this circular
- From 1st January 2027 onward, all
kinds of new and used vehicles
imported into the Kingdon of
Cambodia must comply with the
Standard in Type 5 (EURO V) as stated
in Annex II of this circular

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 60

 b. For Motorcycle and Tricycle Types All imported motorcycles 2023
- From 1st January 2023 with new and and tricycles to meet Euro
used motorcycle and tricycle that III
manufactured and imported into the (Government Circular)
Kingdom of Cambodia must comply
with the Standard in Type 3 (Euro III)
as stated in Annex III of this circular
1- Implementing as prioritize with the Developing or improving 2030
public transport strategy and enhancing public transport strategy
the construction of motorcycle and and route systems to reduce
pedestrian route systems air pollution
(Assumption)
2- There should be a plan to reduce the Reducing import of used 2030
import of used vehicles and encourage cars 30% in 2030
the use of new vehicles and/or vehicles (Assumption)
that use clean energy in order to
eliminate the import of old vehicles
3- Strengthening the management and Strengthening the 2030
monitoring the fuel quality and management and
suppressing the production, sale and monitoring the fuel quality
distribution of fuel products that do not of 80% of fuel station have
meet fuel quality standards which have to comply with EU
high sulfur content exceed the standard standard
(Assumption)
Additional recommended measure
1- Freight transport implementing Euro 1- All new heavy-duty 1- 2022
IV standards vehicles meet Euro IV 2- 2022
2- Passenger transport, all buses standards from 2022
implementing Euro IV 2- All new buses meet
Euro IV standards
from 2022
(Assumption)
With the implementation of the mitigation measures in the transport sector with extending
the mitigation measures to cover not only passenger vehicle but the freight transport and public
transport, it is estimated that the emissions from transport sector will be reduced by 78.32 %, 73.51
%, 46.61% and 7.90% for PM2.5, black carbon, NOx and CO2 respectively.

Table 4.2 Emission reductions for transport mitigation measures by pollutant

Transport (Thousand MT)

Carbon Monoxide
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen Oxide

Volatile Organic
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non-Methane

Compounds
Ammonia
Branches

Methane
PM2.5

PM10

Baseline
emissions 9.07 5.93 21.35 21.35 0.57 8.15 268.50 805.42 7.87 1818.19 27497.56
(2030)

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 61

 Air Circular
Measures 1.71 4.14 9.89 9.89 0.88 0.33 238.71 116.98 4.98 519.74 26722.11
(2030)
All Measures
1.41 1.57 4.63 4.63 0.88 0.33 143.35 104.44 4.91 485.82 25325.62
(2030)
Emission
reduction
(Baseline
7.36 1.80 11.46 11.46 -0.31 7.82 29.78 688.43 2.89 1298.45 775.45
emissions - Air
Circular
Measures)
% Reduction 81.13 30.32 53.67 53.67 -54.75 95.90 11.09 85.48 36.71 71.41 2.82
Emission
reduction
(Baseline 7.66 4.36 16.72 16.72 -0.31 7.82 125.15 700.97 2.96 1332.37 2171.94
emissions - All
Measures)
% Reduction 84.43 73.51 78.32 78.32 -54.75 96.00 46.61 87.03 37.64 73.28 7.90

PM2.5 Reductions kMT: Mitigation Measures

25

20

15

10

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 4.1 PM2.5 reductions from transport measures

Carbon dioxide Reductions kMT: Mitigation Measures

30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular All Measure

Figure 4.2 Carbon dioxide reductions from transport measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 62

4.2 Emission Control from Industries and Handicrafts

Cambodia is not heavily industrialized country and most of the industries are garment
factories. There is also light industry such as food and beverages, wood products, rubber
manufacturing, etc. and by 2020, the 796 factories in Phnom Penh. Several fuel types (coal, petroleum
products, biomass, and electricity) is used for the industrial sector. The coal consumption is an
increasing trend over time due to the investment on the thermal coal power plant in Cambodia and
expecting in a growing trend in the future. Industrial development is one of the key factors for
economic development of Cambodia which is, to some extent, leading to increase the level of air
pollution such as SOx, NOx, CO etc.

In order to protect the human health and minimize the impact on the environment, emission
control from the industrial sector is required, thus the prevention and end-of-pipe control is needed.
The prevention focuses on minimizing all possible emissions in place through modifying the
manufacturing processes while the control focus on the technic to trap or destroy the pollutants. It
is mentioned in article 24 of sub-degree on The Control of Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance
about role and responsibility of the pollution source owners to control the pollution in place.

Table 4.3 Mitigation measures apply for industry sector

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Sub-decree on The Control of Air Pollution and Noise Disturbance
Implementing industrial emission control 50% reduction in industrial 2030
emission as a result of
implementation of emission
control
(Assumption)
Table 4.4 Emission reductions for industry mitigation measures by pollutant

Industry
Organic Carbon (MT)

Non-Methane Volatile
Nitrogen Oxide (MT)

Organic Compounds
Sulfur-Dioxide (MT)
Black Carbon (MT)

Carbon Monoxide
(Thousand MT)

(Thousand MT)

(Thousand MT)
Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia (MT)

Methane (MT)
PM2.5 (MT)

PM10 (MT)
Branches

Baseline
emissions 3,167.97 1,843.90 6,433.66 6,576.93 11.48 8,637.63 11,866.26 13.27 1,336.38 26.84 1,308.05
(2030)
Implementation
of all
mitigation 1,547.59 900.75 3,142.95 3,212.93 12.22 8,438.96 5,806.40 12.97 1,305.64 26.22 1,277.96
measures
(2030)
Emission
reduction
(Baseline
1,620.38 943.15 3,290.71 3,364.00 -0.74 198.67 6,059.86 0.30 30.74 0.62 30.09
emissions - all
mitigation
measures)
% Reduction 51.14 51.14 51.14 51.14 -6.45 2.30 51.07 2.26 2.30 2.31 2.30

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 63

 PM2.5 Reductions Thousand MT: Mitigation Measures
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All Measure

Figure 4.3 PM2.5 reductions from industry measures

CO2 Reductions Thousand MT: Mitigation Measures

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All Measure

Figure 4.4 CO2 reductions from industry measures

The implementation of the mitigation measures in industrial sector, in particular the

implement of controlling pollution sources as stated in the sub decree on control of air pollution
and noise disturbance could lead to significantly decrease of 51.15% of organic carbon, 51.14%
of black carbon, 51.14% of PM2.5, 51.14% of PM10 and 51.07% of nitrogen oxide. As for PM2.5,
slightly decrease is observed after 2020 and a significant decrease is expected by 2030.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 64

4.3 Emission Control from Electricity Generation

The economic development and population growth affect on electricity consumption. The
electricity generation increased almost 5 times between 2010 and 2015 and above 2 times higher
in 2015 as compared to 2014 (of 2,981 GWh). For electricity generation, the energy for lighting,
cooling and for equipment is the main source emitting air pollutants. In order to protect the human
health and minimize the impact on the environment, emission control from residential sector is
required. The mitigation measures focus on minimizing all possible emissions in place through
improving energy efficiency.

Table 4.5 Mitigation measures apply for electricity generation

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Cambodia’s Updated Nationally Determined Contribution
Energy Efficiency - Energy efficiency in 2030
- Application of electrical equipment’s residential sector
labeling and Minimum Energy improves by 31.7%
Performance Standards (lighting, - Energy efficiency in
cooling and equipment) commercial and public
- Improvement of process performance services sector improves
of energy efficiency by establishment by 41.7%
of energy management in - Energy efficiency in
building/industries industry sector improve
- Public awareness campaigns on by 2.3%
energy saving (Assumption)
- Building codes and
enforcement/certification for new
buildings and those undergoing major
renovation
- Introduction of efficient electrical
motors and boilers

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 65

Table 4.6 Emission reductions for electricity generation by pollutant

Electricity Generation

Carbon Dioxide (Thousand

Nitrogen Oxide (Thousand

Organic Compounds (MT)

Sulfur-Dioxide (Thousand

Carbon Monoxide (MT)

Organic Carbon (MT)

Non-Methane Volatile
Black Carbon (MT)

Ammonia (MT)

Methane (MT)
PM2.5 (MT)

PM10 (MT)
Branches

MT)

MT)

MT)
Baseline
emissions 20.74 16.29 412.14 853.05 19.67 44.65 21.94 135.31 106.59 846.76 8,698.47
(2030)
Implementation
of all
mitigation 8.78 8.98 209.75 390.38 14.73 20.94 8.54 56.89 48.34 358.08 3,447.86
measures
(2030)
Emission
reduction
(Baseline
11.96 7.31 202.39 462.67 4.94 23.71 13.40 78.42 58.25 488.68 5,250.61
emissions - all
mitigation
measures)
% Reduction 57.67 44.87 49.11 54.24 25.11 53.10 61.08 57.96 54.65 57.71 60.36

Reduction of Carbon Dioxide in kMT: Mitigation Measure

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All Mesure

Figure 4.5 CO2 reductions from electricity generation measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 66

 Reduction of Sulfur Dioxide in kMT: Mitigation Measure
50

40

30

20

10

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All Mesure

Figure 4.6 SO2 reductions from electricity generation measures

The implementation of the mitigation measures in electricity generation, in particular the

implement of improving energy efficiency as stated in the NDC could lead to significantly
decrease of 57.67% of organic carbon, 44.87% of black carbon, 49.11% of PM2.5, 54.24% of
PM10, 61.08% of nitrogen oxide, 53.10% for sulfur dioxide and 60.36% for carbon dioxide.

4.4 Emission Control from Residential Sector

For residential sector, the energy for cooking and lighting is the main source emitting air
pollutants. The consumption of the electricity as the lighting source at households was increased
gradually from 75 ktoe in 2010 to 131 ktoe in 2015. For cooking, solid fuels (firewood and
charcoal) remained shared the largest fuel mixed in Cambodia and followed by LPG. In order to
protect the human health and minimize the impact on the environment, emission control from
residential sector is required. The mitigation measures focus on minimizing all possible emissions
in place through improving cooking stove and shifting from bio-mass to bio-gas.

Table 4.7 Mitigation measures apply for residential sector

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan
1- Promote and installing fuel efficiency 1- 60% of residential in 1- 2030
stove in rural areas rural switch from using 2- 2030
2- Promote using bio-gas for cooking in rural less efficiency stoves
areas 2- 60% of residential in
rural switch from using
bio-mass to bio-gas
(Assumption)

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 67

Table 4.8 Emission reductions for residential mitigation measures by pollutant

Residential (Thousand MT)

Non-Methane Volatile
Organic Compounds

Carbon Monoxide
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen-Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Ammonia

Methane
PM2.5

PM10
Baseline
emissions 13.89 4.19 32.00 39.86 4.34 3.96 10.83 128.78 24.19 406.34 24.20
2030/Unit
Air Pollution
Circular
4.24 1.42 9.84 12.16 1.43 1.30 3.59 39.60 7.97 149.54 69.14
Measures
2030/Unit

Total
Emission
Reduction
9.65 2.77 22.16 27.70 2.90 2.67 7.24 89.17 16.22 256.80 -44.94
(Baseline
Emission -
All Measure)
% Reduction 69.47 66.05 69.26 69.49 66.99 67.32 66.87 69.25 67.05 63.20 -185.71

Reduction of PM2.5 in Thousand MT: Mitigation Measure

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular

Figure 4.7 PM 2.5 reductions from residential measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 68

 Reduction of CO2 in Thousand MT: Mitigation Measure
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular

Figure 4.8 CO2 reductions from residential measures

The implementation of the mitigation measures in residential sector, in particular the

implement of controlling pollution sources as stated in the mitigation measures suggested by
expert from Stockholm University could lead to significantly decrease of 69.47%% of organic
carbon, 66.05% of black carbon, 69.26% of PM 2.5, 69.49% of PM10 and 63.20% of carbon
monoxide. As for PM 2.5, slightly decrease is observed after 2020 and a significant decrease is
expected by 2030.

4.5 Emission Control from other sources

In Cambodia, charcoal making was assumed still processed in traditional kilns with very
low efficiency (11.43%) was used for transformation wood to charcoal. This traditional method of
charcoal making shows the largest pollution was carbon monoxides. There is currently no
regulation in place to address emissions from charcoal making. In order to alleviate the air
pollution emission from this source for public health and environmental sake, improving efficiency
of charcoal production through enhancing charcoal kiln efficiency is required.

Table 4.9 Mitigation measures apply for charcoal making source

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Additional recommended measure: Charcoal Making
Improve efficiency of charcoal production Charcoal kiln efficiency 2030
increase from 11% to best
available 30% efficiency
(Assumption)

Table 4.10 Emission reductions for charcoal making mitigation measures by pollutant
Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 69
 Charcoal Making

Non-Methane Volatile
Organic Compounds

Carbon Monoxide
Organic Carbon

Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Ammonia

Methane
PM2.5

PM10
(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)
Baseline emissions
4,589 676 9,248 9,248 1,316 2,047 116,670 47,664 344,318
2030/Unit

All Measures 2030/Unit 1,748 257 3,524 3,524 501 780 44,451 18,160 131,185

Total Emission
Reduction (Baseline 2,841 419 5,724 5,724 815 1,267 72,219 29,504 213,133
Emission - All Measure)

% Reduction 61.91 61.98 61.89 61.89 61.93 61.90 61.90 61.90 61.90

Reduction of PM2.5 in Thousand MT: Mitigation Measure

10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All measure

Figure 4.9 PM 2.5 reductions from charcoal marking measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 70

 Reduction of Carbon monoxide in Thousand MT: Mitigation Measure
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline All measure

Figure 4.10 CO reductions from charcoal making measures

The implementation of the mitigation measures in charcoal making, in particular the implement
of controlling pollution sources as stated in the mitigation measures suggested by expert from
Stockholm University could lead to significantly decrease of 61.91% of organic carbon, 61.98%
of black carbon, 61.89% of PM 2.5,61.93 of ammonia, and 61.90% of sulfur dioxide, NMVOC,
methane and carbon monoxides.

4.5.1 Emission Control from Construction Sites

Within the processes, include earthmovings, tunnel and bridge works, transportation of
materials, concrete production, and operation of machines and equipment generate wastes and
pollution. Minimizing the impacts to the environmental is a challenging task to achieve. Among
those impacts, emissions of particulate matter, such as particulate matter with a particle size that
is less than ten microns in size (PM10), and gases released by the machineries and equipment used
during construction play a significant role to lower air quality. Even though the emissions are
temporary, significant impact is still there and thus, properly measure and mitigation are needed.
There shall be a reinforcement on the management of dust or particulate matter into the air and
other discharges from pollutant sources, such as construction sites, concrete production sites,
transport of pebble sand, cement or other construction materials by means to require prior tire
cleaning from the production sites, installation of high pressure steam spray, and apply the proper
tire cover before leaving out from the business sites in order to avoid any spills or crumbs and
dusty or particulate matter in to the roads. On the other hand, there shall be a reinforcement on
the inspection and strengthening the education to all construction site owners.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 71

Table 4.11 Mitigation measures apply for construction sector

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Circular N. 01 on Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution
Administration of Construction Site 50% of all construction 2030
1- Shall be reinforced the management of projects implement air
dust or particulate matter into the air and pollution reduction
other transport of pebble sand, cement or measurement on
other construction materials by means to administration of
require prior tier cleaning from the construction sites
production sites, installation of high- (Assumption)
pressure steam spray, and apply the
proper tire cover before leaving out from
the business sites in order to avoid any
spill or crumbs and dusty or particulate
matter in to the roads.
2- Shall be reinforce the inspection and
shall be strengthened the education to all
construction site owners
Table 4.12 Emission reductions for construction mitigation measures by pollutant

Construction

Non-Methane Volatile
Organic Compounds

Carbon Monoxide
Organic Carbon

Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Ammonia
Branches

Methane

(TMT)
PM2.5

PM10
(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)

(MT)
(MT)

Baseline
emissions - - 2222.5 22225 - - - - - - -
(2030)
Air circular
measures - - 1666.9 16669 - - - - - - -
(2030)
Emission
reduction
(Baseline
emissions - - - 555.62 5556.4 - - - - - - -
all
mitigation
measures)
% Reduction - - 25 25 - - - - - - -

In Cambodia, residential construction has mainly contributed to the emission from

construction. In 2020, the residential construction activities alone produced up to 48.59 % of
particulate matter from construction site sector. With implementation of mitigation measures 25%
of PM10 and 25 % of PM2.5 is expected to be reduced in construction sector by 2030.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 72

 PM10 Reductions MT: Mitigation Measures

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline emissions (2030) Air circular measures (2030) Implementation of all mitigation measures

Figure 4.11 PM10 reductions from construction measures

4.5.2 Emission Control from Open Waste Burning

Emissions from open burning are typically affected by many variables including wind,
ambient temperature, moisture content of the debris burned, composition and compactness of the
pile. Generally, the relatively low temperatures burning, for instance open burning, increase
emissions of particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons and suppress emissions of
nitrogen oxides. The open burning can be categorized as open burning of biomass fuel (agricultural
residue wastes, forest fire, etc.) and solid anthrophonic fuel open burning (for example, household
solid waste). The open burning, which is not an ideal combustion, generally produces soot and
particulate matter (PM) that can be found in form of smoke plume, carbon monoxide (CO),
methane (CH4) and other light hydrocarbons etc. Open burning emissions are troubling from a
public health perspective because during open burning, the emissions are not released through tall
stacks which aid dispersion, but it stays at or near the ground level. It is not spread evenly
throughout the year but they are typically episodic in time or season and also
localized/regionalized.

Table 4.13 Mitigation measures apply for open waste burning

Mitigation Measures Goals Timeline

Circular N. 01 on Measures to Prevent and Reduce the Ambient Air Pollution
The administration of the opened-field waste 1- 50% reduction of illegal 1- 2030
burning opened waste burning
1- Must have strategies to prevent and to across country through
avoid of all kinds of forest cleaning, implementing air pollution
burning of garbage, burning solid waste in reduction measurement on
the open areas, landfill and public squares administration of air
2- Must educating people to stop burning pollutants emission from
garbage, solid waste, grasses, stalks and opened-field waste
other agricultural wastes burning

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 73

 3- If having severe forest fire, must (Assumption)
immediately apply strategies through
using all possible means in order to
effectively extinguish the forest fire
Table 4.14 Emission reductions for open waste burning mitigation measures by pollutant

Waste (Thousand MT)

Carbon Dioxide (MT)

Carbon Monoxide
Volatile Organic
Organic Carbon

Nitrogen-Oxide
Sulfur-Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non-Methane

Compounds
Ammonia
Branches

Methane
PM2.5

PM10
Baseline
emissions 11.98 1.49 22.29 27.06 2.55 1.14 11.15 51.38 8.32 86.4 -
(2030)
Air circular
measures 5.99 0.75 11.15 13.53 1.28 0.57 5.58 25.69 4.16 43.2 -
(2030)

Emission
reduction
(Baseline
emissions - 5.99 0.74 11.14 13.53 1.27 0.57 5.57 25.69 4.16 43.2 -
all
mitigation
measure)

% Reduction 50 49.66 49.98 50 49.80 50 49.96 50 50 50 -

PM2.5 Reductions Thousand MT: Mitigation Measures

25

20

15

10

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular

Figure 4.12 PM2.5 reductions from open waste burning mitigation measures

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 74

 Carbon Monoxide Reductions Thousand MT: Mitigation Measures
100

80

60

40

20

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Baseline Air Pollution Circular

Figure 4.13 CO reduction from open waste burning mitigation measures

Through the implementation of the mitigation measures in the waste sector, the emissions
reduction from waste sector by 2030 will be 50% for Methane, 50% for Carbon Monoxide, 50%
for PM10 and 49.98 % for PM 2.5. There reduction in of pollutants is observed after in 2020 due
to the implementation of a measure that would stop burning of municipal waste. This is will be an
effective measure which provide immediate results in reducing emissions in this sector.

Solid waste management strategy will be a solution. According to Sub-decree on Urban

Garbage and Solid Waste Management, which is establish in August 2015 with the goal to enhance
the management of garbage and solid waste of urban areas with effectiveness, transparency and
accountability, referring to ensure aesthetics, public health and environmental protection the
management centralization. In mid-February 2021 the Urban Garbage and Solid Waste
Management Committee was established to fulfill the objective that the solid waste is properly
managed from the places of generation until waste processing in order to turn the waste into
electricity.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 75

5. IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING THE MEASURES

5.1 Characterizing the nature of the air pollution problem

Appropriate ambient air quality monitoring is required to tell the nature of the air pollution
using air quality index and make good quality data available to the public. With real-time ambient
air quality monitoring, the information on pollution compositions, concentration, source sector
will be known. The data from the monitoring are of important to map the trends and seasonal
variations in air quality, to alert to public to take action on days with high levels of pollution, and
to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation of mitigation measures.

5.2 Developing an emission inventory

Air pollutant emission inventory, an indispensable tool for a wide range of environmental
measures, is a scientific tool available for the management of the atmospheric environment. With
the inventory, the types of activities that cause emissions, the chemical or physical identity of
the pollutants included and the quantity thereof, the geographic area covered, the time period over
which emissions are estimated and the methodology used are determined. The inventory, which is
developed within the national planning process, is of critical important in the process of
monitoring, evaluating, reviewing and updating the air quality plan. The inventory development
process will be updated every 5 years to allow the implementation of the plan to be tracked.

5.3 Identifying the air quality goal and timeframe for achievement

It is essential to establish specific air quality goals. The emission inventory is an important
baseline information for estimating future emissions by projection based on the changes in socio-
economic indices (e.g. economic growth, population growth, changes in energy use…), emission
factors (e.g. after the introduction of better control measures), fuel substitution and so on. The
estimation of future emissions provides important information for setting emissions targets and
time needed to achieve the target, for example, a reduction of 35 % of PM 2.5 by 2030 in Phnom Penh.

5.4 Conducting air quality modelling and identifying new emission reduction strategies in
order to achieve the air quality goal

Existing technology is accessed to improve and maintain air pollution, GHG emission
inventory and projections. Data on emissions play a role as the input for atmospheric transport and
deposition models. The concentration and deposition can be estimated by modeling, in comparison
with the monitoring data on the ground and/or from satellite, will be of important information for
decision-making regarding to air quality management. The air quality modelling, like the
mentioned in this document, will enable to understand how the implementation of programs will
contribute to achieving the air quality goal.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 76

5.5 Formulating and adopting the requirements

Other than to setting an emission standard, regulations should reflect the country’s context
after have been oversaw from different point of view, best match to available technology, and
needs to include source monitoring and reporting requirements. Proposed regulations should
undergo a reasonable commenting period with approval from relevant stakeholders.

5.6 Implementing effective programs for permitting and enforcement

Permit is an effective tool to ensure that the emission source owner have enough knowledge
and understanding regarding to air pollution control requirements they have to fulfill. For example,
renewing permits for vehicles that comply with the national vehicle emission standards, the
renewing of air emission from manufacturing, the implementation of monitoring plan or spot check
the see if the pollution source owners have really complied with the existing frameworks they are
supposed to fulfill.

5.7 Monitor implementation of air pollution mitigation measures identified in this plan

An emission inventory provides the baseline information that enables the likely effects of
introducing of various prevention and control measures with several sectors to be assessed and
compared between now and what it supposes to be in the future. Based on knowledge on costs of
each options, decision-maker will be able to select the most the effective and efficiency emission
reduction measures. The emission inventory data play a role as an index which share some
similarities to those used in economic trend. The trend allows us to judge whether we should
introduce or reinforce regulations, economic measures or technical measures to control air
pollutant emissions.

5.8 Public participation

Improving the effectiveness of environmental decision making requires sustained

participation by relevant stakeholders. Participation from people of all group, especially the
disadvantaged, can influence policy formulation, design alternatives, investment choices, and
management decisions. Three groups that should participate in planning and management are 1.)
those whose interests are affected by environmental problems, strategies, and plans; 2.) those who
control relevant implementation instruments; and 3.) those who possess relevant information and
expertise.

5.9 Review and update Air Pollution Action Plan

Review and update Air Pollution Action Plan every 5 years to ensure that all relevant
corporate strategies and policies and the implemented mitigation measures reflect the importance
of improving local air quality and reducing exposure in the country.

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 77

Table 5.1 Air Pollution Action Plan Roadmap: Activities, Organizations and time line

Activity Sub-actions Organizations Involved Time Frame

Conduct appropriate • Establish monitoring station(s) • Ministry of Ongoing
ambient air quality in key areas Environment
monitoring to see the • Map trends and seasonal
nature of the air varieties in ambient air
pollution and make quality
good quality data • Produce daily air quality data
available to the and make it accessible to the
public. public

Access to existing • Continue developing existing • Ministry of 2021-2030

technology to LEAP-IBC analysis in Environment
improve and maintain Cambodia • Academic
air pollution and • Conduct studies on air institutions
GHG emission pollution emission from
inventory and
factors
projections
• Cooperate with academic
institutions
Set ambient air • Establish appropriate • Ministry of 2022-2030
pollution mitigation measures for each Environment
concentration goal sector (transport, industry, • Ministry of
and timeline for agriculture…) Public Work
achievement • Implementation of the and
mitigation measures Transport
• Revising or developing • Ministry of
regulations related Air Industry,
pollution control. Science,
Technology
and
Innovation
• Ministry of
Planning
• Ministry of
Mine and
Energy
• Ministry of
Agriculture
Forestry and
Fishery
• Ministry of
Land
Management,
Urban
Planning and
Construction

Continue to trial low and • Take all opportunities to trial • Ministry of Ongoing
zero emission and evaluate new low and zero Environment
technology emission • Ministry of
• Promote new low and zero Industry, Science,
emission among sectors Technology and
Innovation
• Ministry of
Agriculture
Forestry and
Fishery
• Academic
institutions/environ
mental companies

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 78

Increase awareness of air • Conduct events with an • Ministry of Ongoing
pollution amongst public information stall. Provide Environment
information for newsletters. • Ministry of
• Encourage public to take part in Education, Youth
• reducing air pollution and Sport
• Widely disseminates to public • Sub – national level
the knowledge of air pollution
and controls (social media,
education curriculum…)

Mainstream air pollutants • Monitor implementation of • Ministry of 2022 - 2030

and SLCPs into MRV measures and quantify their air Environment
and implementation pollutant emission reductions

Coordinate • Formulating and adopting • Ministry of 2022-2030

implementation of air enforceable national Environment
pollution mitigation requirements on emission
measures limits and standards
• Implement effective programs
for permitting and enforcement
Monitoring and • MRV framework for • Ministry of 2022 - 2030
Evaluation of Clean Air sustainable low emissions Environment
Plan transport
• Monitor implementation of
mitigation measures
identified in Plan
• Review and update National
Air Pollution Action Plan
accordingly

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 79

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Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure.
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Cohen, A.J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R.T., 2017. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden
of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: An analysis of data from the Global burden
of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet In press, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-
6736(17)30505-6
EDC. (2010-2015). Annual Report. Electricite Du Cambodge (EDC).
Heaps, C.G., 2016. Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) system. [Software version:
2018.1.38] Stockholm Environment Institute. Somerville, MA, USA.
https://www.energycommunity.org
IGES & UNEP. (2018). State of Waste Management in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. United
Kuylenstierna, J.C.I., Heaps, C.G., Ahmed, T., Vallack, H.W., Hicks, W.K., Ashmore, M.R.,
Malley, C.S., Wang, G., Lefèvre, E.N., Anenberg, S.C., Lacey, F., Shindell, D.T.,
Bhattacharjee, U., Henze, D.K., 2020. Development of the Low Emissions Analysis
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climate co-benefits: Application for Bangladesh. Environ. Int. 145.
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MAFF. (2011-2016). Annual Summary Report of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing. Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing.
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Construction. Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction.

MME & CERIA. (2016). Cambodia Nation Energy Statistics. National Library of Indonesia
Cataloguing-in-Publication Data. 62
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Report. Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC).

Murray, C.J.L., Aravkin, A.Y., Zheng, et al., 2020. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204
countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of
Disease Study 2019. Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2
NIS & MOP. (2013). Cambodia Inter-censal Population Survey 2013.

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NIS & MOP. (2017). Population Projection of Cambodia from 2013-2023: Based on Cambodia
intercensal population survey 2013 and Cambodia demographic and health survey 2014.
Royal Government of Cambodia.
NIS. (2017). Retrieved October 2019, from National Institute of Statistic:
https://www.nis.gov.kh/nis/NA/NA2016_Tab.htm
Phalla, S. (2016). Current Waste Management Situation in Cambodia (Siem Reap Municipality).
SWITCH-Asia Regional Roundtable and Networking Event on Waste Management and
Circular Economy in Asia. Siem Reap.
REVIHAAP, 2013. Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP Project
technical report. World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe. Bonn.
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Final-technical-rep.
Sethy, S. (2017). State of the 3Rs in Asia and the Pacific.
World Bank. (2019). Retrieved October 2019, from https://data.worldbank.org/country/cambodia

https://www.ccacoalition.org/en/content/air-pollution-measures-asia-and-pacific

The UNEP (2018) Report ’Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific: Science-based Solutions’ 25
policy and technology clean air measures that could help achieve safe air quality levels for 1 billion
people by 2030 – with numerous benefits for public health, economic development and the climate.
https://ccacoalition.org/en/solutions

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 APPENDIX

Clean Air Plan of Cambodia 82

ANNEX 1

The technical working group has duty to perform the task as follow:

1. Participating in activities that are essential to run the project implementation smoothly
2. Establishing an inter-ministerial SLCP working group including terms of reference of the
working group and operational modality
3. Establishing communication network and information sharing mechanisms including
development of national knowledge exchange network platform on CCAC/SLCPs
4. Conducting consultation workshops, awareness workshop and public campaigns on SLCPs
for the stakeholders
5. Develop training materials, leaflet, and brochure on SLCPs and its implications, benefits
of reductions
6. Developing national framework and guideline/guidance on CCAC initiatives, SLCPs
mitigation strategy and action plans
7. Conducting an assessment on status of knowledge and level of recognition of stakeholders
on SLCPs
8. Identify potential sectors and list of actions to reduce short-lived climate pollutants
9. Participating in LEAP IBC training and developing a national black carbon inventory
covering key sectors
10. Mainstreaming CCAC initiatives including SLCPs mitigation strategy and plans into
sectoral/ national strategy and action plans of government institution/ ministries.

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ANNEX 2: Data Collection from each sector

Source Methodology Sub-sectors Activity Data Emission

Sector Factors
Residential Emissions = Split by activity and Default: Pollutants:
Activity * technology, e.g. Total energy CO2, CO, CH4,
Emission Cooking consumption by NMVOCs,
Factor Lighting activity, technology N2O, NOx,
Appliances and fuel SO2, PM10,
Activity = Cooling PM2.5, BC,
Fuel Heating Alternative: OC, NH3
Consumption Other etc. Proportion of
Fuel households that do Units: kg per
Consumption each activity, with unit energy
= Households each fuel or consumed
* Energy technology (e.g.
Intensity number of
households that
cook using solid
biomass, number of
households with air
conditioning)
Energy intensity of
individual
activities, fuels and
technologies (e.g.
energy
consumption of an
air conditioner,
energy
consumption of
biomass stove)
Commercial Emissions = Default: None Default: Total Pollutants: CO2,
and Public Activity * energy CO, CH4,
Services Emission Alternative: consumption by NMVOCs,
Factor Disaggregated to fuel N2O, NOx,
individual SO2, PM10,
Activity = commercial (e.g. Alternatives: PM2.5, BC,
Fuel restaurants, hotels, Total energy OC, NH3
Consumption shops etc.) and public consumption for
Fuel (e.g. hospitals, sub-sectors by Units: kg per
Consumption government activity, technology unit energy
= Value buildings etc.) and fuels consumed
Added * services
Energy Data on the number
Intensity Disaggregation could of commercial and
also include activities public services that
and technologies do each activity
within commercial with each
and public services technology, and
(e.g. lighting, energy intensity of
heating, cooking, each
cooling etc.) to activity/technology

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 understand activities (e.g. number of
contributing to hotels with air
energy consumption conditioning, and
and emissions average energy
consumption of air
conditioners in
hotels)
Transport Emissions = Road Default: Pollutants: CO2,
Activity * Rail Total energy CO, CH4,
Emission Aviation consumption in NMVOCs,
Factor Domestic Shipping each transport sub- N2O, NOx,
Pipelines sector, split by fuel SO2, PM10,
Other PM2.5, BC,
Non-road Alternatives: OC, NH3
vehicles Road:
Activity = Number of vehicles Units: kg per
Annual fuel in fleet split by unit energy
consumption vehicle type, fuel consumed
(TOE) used, vehicle
emission standards. Alternatives:
Average distance For air
travelled by pollutants (i.e.
vehicles of each not CO2, CH4)
type per year kg per km
Average fuel travelled for
consumption of alternative
vehicle in each transport
category method

Aviation
Number of
domestic and
international flights
per year
Total fuel used (or
fuel sold) for
domestic and
international
flights.

Industry Emissions = Default: Brick Kilns Default: Total Pollutants:

Activity * reported separately to energy CO2, CO, CH4,
Emission all other industry consumption by NMVOCs,
Factor fuel for all N2O, NOx,
Alternative: industries except SO2, PM10,
Activity = Disaggregated to brick kilns PM2.5, BC,
Fuel individual industrial OC, NH3
Consumption sub-sectors (e.g. Brick Kilns: Total
Fuel chemical, paper, iron number of bricks
Consumption and steel etc. produced per year

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 = Production by traditional and Units: kg per
* Energy Disaggregation could improved brick unit energy
Intensity * also include activities kilns consumed
Fuel Share and technologies
within industries Alternatives:
Total energy
consumption for
sub-sectors by
activity, technology
and fuels

Data on the number

of industries that
do each activity
with each
technology, and
energy intensity of
each
activity/technology
Agriculture, Emissions = Default: None Default: Total Pollutants:
Forestry and Activity * energy CO2, CO, CH4,
Fishing Emission Alternative: consumption by NMVOCs,
Factor Disaggregated to fuel for all N2O, NOx,
individual agriculture, forestry SO2, PM10,
Activity = agricultural, forestry and fishing sector PM2.5, BC,
Fuel and fishing sub- OC, NH3
Consumption sectors and/or Alternatives:
Fuel activities (e.g. Total energy Units: kg per
Consumption agricultural consumption for unit energy
= Value machinery, fishing sub-sectors by consumed
Added ($) * boats etc.) activity, technology
Energy and fuels
Intensity
Data on the number
of, e.g. agricultural
machinery or
fishing boat trips
per year split by
with each
technology, and
energy intensity of
each
activity/technology
Energy Default: Split by Default: Total Pollutants:
Industry Petroleum Refining energy CO2, CO, CH4,
Own Use and Other Own Use consumption by NMVOCs,
fuel for Petroleum N2O, NOx,
Refining and Other SO2, PM10,
Own Use PM2.5, BC,
OC, NH3

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 Units: kg per
unit energy
consumed
Transmission Losses in N/A
and transmission and
Distribution distribution of
of Electricity electricity (%)
Electricity Default: Split by Default: Percent Pollutants:
Generation fuel/technology used share of electricity CO2, CO, CH4,
to generate electricity generated for each NMVOCs,
fuel. N2O, NOx,
Efficiency of SO2, PM10,
electricity PM2.5, BC,
generation for each OC, NH3
process
Units: kg per
Alternatives: unit energy
Capacity (MWh) of consumed
each fuel for
generating
electricity
System load curve
for electricity
generation
Oil Refining None Imports and kg per unit
exports of oil energy
products (gasoline, consumed
diesel, kerosene,
heavy fuel oil,
LPG, Other)
Oil None Imports and kg per unit
Production exports of crude oil energy
consumed
Natural Gas None Imports and kg per unit
Production, exports of natural energy
Processing gas consumed
and
Distribution
Charcoal Traditional and Imports and kg per unit
Making improved charcoal exports of charcoal energy
kilns % charcoal consumed
produced using
traditional and
improved kilns
Coal Mining Surface and Imports and kg per unit
Underground mining exports of coal energy
% coal mined from consumed
surface and
underground
mining
Coke Traditional and Imports and kg per unit
Production Improved ovens exports of coke energy
consumed

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 % coke produced
in traditional and
improved mines
Oil Number of wells Kg per well
Exploration drilled drilled
Gas Flaring Volume of gas Kg per m3 gas
from oil flared flared
production
Industrial Minerals Total annual Kg per tonne
Process Chemicals production of each product
Emissions Metals mineral, chemical, produced
Pulp and Paper metal etc.
Alcoholic Beverages
Food Production Building
Building construction rate
Construction (Hectare-months
per year)
Solvent Use Paint Application Total annual Kg pollutant per
Metal Degreasing production and/or tonne product
Dry Cleaning use of each solvent sold/used
Chemicals in each activity
Manufacture
Other Use of
Solvents
Agriculture Emissions = Livestock Enteric Number of animals Kg per animal
Activity * Fermentation and of each type
Emission Manure Management
Factor
Particulates from
Activity = Animal Housing % time animals Kg per animal
Fuel spend in housing
Consumption Fertiliser Application
Fuel Tonnes of fertiliser Kg per kg N
Consumption applied to fields fertiliser applied
= Value Agricultural Residue
Added ($) * Burning Annual crop Kg per tonne
Energy production, crop residue
Intensity percentage of crop burned
residue burned in
Methane from Rice field
Cultivation
Hectares of land
used for rice
production that are
managed as
continuously
flooded fields, that
are intermittently
aerated or that are
rainfed or
deepwater

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Waste Methane from Population whose
municipal solid waste waste is collected
in landfill
Annual waste
generation rate
(kg/person/year)

Fraction of waste
collected disposed
in landfill

Fraction of waste
that is organic

Waste Incineration Tonnes of waste Kg per tonne

that is openly waste burned
burned or burned in
waste incinerators

Ammonia from Total Population Kg per person

human excreta who have latrines per year
vs outside
Methane from
domestic water Fraction of
population with
different waste
water treatment
types (Latrines,
Septic Tank,
Anaerobic reactor
or deep lagoon,
aerobic treatment
plant, untreated
discharge)
Vegetation Split by land cover Annual area burned Kg per tonne
Fires type: for each landcover biomass burned
Savannah type
Primary Tropical or
Subtropical forest
Secondary Tropical
or Subtropical forest
Pasture
Other forest
Shrubland
Grasslands
Peatland
Other
HFCs Emissive HFC sold in each
applications (aerosol year for each
solvents, propellants, application
other)

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 Contained HFC imported or
application (foam manufactured for
blowing agents, fire each application
protection,
refrigeration and air
conditioning, other)

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ANNEX 3: Environmental Effects (Emissions) with all scenario by 2030 (Thousand MT)

Carbon Monoxide
Volatile Organic
Organic Carbon

Nitrogen Oxides

Carbon Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non Methane

Compounds
Ammonia

Methane
PM2.5

PM10
Scenario

2015 31.8 8.5 68.1 124.9 32.9 83.9 127.0 462.2 304.4 1234.2 13608.1
Baseline 2030 45.0 14.6 98.5 112.0 70.0 132.4 329.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
Construction Controls 45.0 14.6 97.9 112.0 70.0 126.9 329.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
Euro 4 Buses 45.0 14.0 97.4 112.0 70.0 131.3 314.8 1,116.7 218.2 2,718.6 39,884.1
Euro 4 Freight 44.7 12.6 94.5 112.0 69.7 128.4 249.2 1,109.4 218.2 2,699.4 39,047.6
Euro 4 cars 44.8 14.4 98.1 112.4 69.9 132.0 306.5 1,092.9 218.0 2,521.4 39,715.1
Euro III Motorcycles 37.8 12.9 87.4 112.0 70.0 121.3 319.2 457.6 215.6 1,637.1 39,983.3
Improved Charcoal 42.1 14.2 92.8 111.2 68.8 126.7 328.6 1,047.0 188.7 2,512.5 40,150.8
Industrial Emission Controls 43.4 13.6 95.3 112.0 70.0 129.1 323.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
More efficient biomass stoves 45.0 14.6 98.5 112.0 70.0 132.4 329.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
NDC Energy Efficiency 44.9 14.5 98.3 112.0 59.5 132.1 323.6 1,118.9 218.2 2,724.8 38,110.4
NDC Renewable Electricity Generation 45.0 14.6 98.4 112.0 52.4 132.1 318.0 1,119.1 218.2 2,725.2 35,900.6
Open Waste Burning 39.0 13.8 87.4 110.7 69.5 118.9 323.4 1,093.5 214.1 2,682.4 40,150.8
Sulphur Fuel Quality 45.0 14.6 98.5 112.0 62.2 132.4 329.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
Switch biomass to gas stoves 35.3 11.8 76.3 109.1 67.4 104.7 321.7 1,030.0 202.0 2,468.8 40,195.8
Switch to public transport 45.0 14.6 98.6 112.0 70.0 132.5 329.1 1,116.1 218.1 2,699.5 39,935.0
Tour bus standards 45.0 14.6 98.5 112.0 70.0 132.4 329.0 1,119.2 218.2 2,725.6 40,150.8
Air Pollution Circular 22.0 9.3 53.2 108.1 59.0 74.2 286.4 315.9 195.0 1,127.2 39,420.3
All Measures 17.2 5.3 38.7 107.3 33.5 59.4 171.0 230.7 165.3 879.0 32,689.1

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ANNEX 4: Environmental Effects (Percentage Reduction in Emissions) for individual mitigation actions in 2030 compared to the baseline scenario

Carbon Monoxide
Volatile Organic
Organic Carbon

Nitrogen Oxides

Carbon Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Black Carbon

Non Methane

Compounds
Ammonia

Methane
PM2.5

PM10
Scenario

2015
Baseline 2030
Construction Controls - - 0.6 - - 4.2 - - - - -
Euro 4 Buses -0.0 3.7 1.1 - 0.1 0.8 4.3 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.7
Euro 4 Freight 0.7 13.5 4.1 - 0.5 3.1 24.3 0.9 0.0 1.0 2.7
Euro 4 cars 0.4 1.4 0.4 -0.3 0.2 0.3 6.8 2.4 0.1 7.5 1.1
Euro III Motorcycles 16.0 11.3 11.3 0.0 0.1 8.4 3.0 59.1 1.2 39.9 0.4
Improved Charcoal 6.3 2.9 5.8 0.7 1.8 4.3 0.1 6.5 13.5 7.8 -
Industrial Emission Controls 3.5 6.3 3.3 - - 2.5 1.8 - - - -
More efficient biomass stoves - - - - - - - - - - -
NDC Energy Efficiency 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 15.0 0.3 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.1
NDC Renewable Electricity Generation 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 25.2 0.3 3.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.6
Open Waste Burning 13.3 5.1 11.3 1.1 0.8 10.2 1.7 2.3 1.9 1.6 -
Sulphur Fuel Quality - - - - 11.1 - - - - - -
Switch biomass to gas stoves 21.4 19.0 22.5 2.6 3.8 20.9 2.2 8.0 7.4 9.4 -0.1
Switch to public transport 0.0 -0.3 -0.1 0.0 0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.3 0.0 1.0 0.5
Tour bus standards - - - - - - - - - - -
Air Pollution Circular 51.1 36.4 46.0 3.5 15.8 44.0 12.9 71.8 10.7 58.6 1.8
All Measures 61.7 63.4 60.7 4.2 52.1 55.1 48.0 79.4 24.3 67.8 18.6

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