Journal Description
Fire
Fire
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal about the science, policy, and technology of fires and how they interact with communities and the environment, published monthly online by MDPI. The Global Wildland Fire Network is affiliated with Fire.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), AGRIS, PubAg, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q2 (Forestry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Paper Types: in addition to regular articles we accept Perspectives, Case Studies, Data Descriptors, Technical Notes, and Monographs.
Impact Factor:
3.0 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.4 (2023)
Latest Articles
Transferability of Empirical Models Derived from Satellite Imagery for Live Fuel Moisture Content Estimation and Fire Risk Prediction
Fire 2024, 7(8), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080276 (registering DOI) - 6 Aug 2024
Abstract
Estimating live fuel moisture content (LFMC) is critical for assessing vegetation flammability and predicting potential fire behaviour, thus providing relevant information for wildfire prevention and management. Previous research has demonstrated that empirical modelling based on spectral data derived from remote sensing is useful
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Estimating live fuel moisture content (LFMC) is critical for assessing vegetation flammability and predicting potential fire behaviour, thus providing relevant information for wildfire prevention and management. Previous research has demonstrated that empirical modelling based on spectral data derived from remote sensing is useful for retrieving LFMC. However, these types of models are often very site-specific and generally considered difficult to extrapolate. In the present study, we analysed the performance of empirical models based on Sentinel-2 spectral data for estimating LFMC in fire-prone shrubland dominated by Cistus ladanifer. We used LFMC data collected in the field between June 2021 and September 2022 in 27 plots in the region of Andalusia (southern Spain). The specific objectives of the study included (i) to test previous existing models fitted for the same shrubland species in a different study area in the region of Madrid (central Spain); (ii) to calibrate empirical models with the field data from the region of Andalusia, comparing the model performance with that of existing models; and (iii) to test the capacity of the best empirical models to predict decreases in LFMC to critical threshold values in historical wildfire events. The results showed that the empirical models derived from Sentinel-2 data provided accurate LFMC monitoring, with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 15% in the estimation of LFMC variability throughout the year and with the MAE decreasing to 10% for the critical lower LFMC values (<100%). They also showed that previous models could be easily recalibrated for extrapolation to different geographical areas, yielding similar errors to the specific empirical models fitted in the study area in an independent validation. Finally, the results showed that decreases in LFMC in historical wildfire events were accurately predicted by the empirical models, with LFMC <80% in this fire-prone shrubland species.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Vulnerability of Forest Systems to Wildfire: Implications on Forest Management Tools. VIS4FIRE Project)
Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study on Explosion Characteristics of LPG/Air Mixtures Suppressed by CO2 Synergistic Inert Powder
by
Enlai Zhao, Zhentang Liu, Song Lin and Xiaomeng Chu
Fire 2024, 7(8), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080275 - 6 Aug 2024
Abstract
In order to study the explosion suppression characteristics of LPG/air mixture by CO2 synergistic inert powder, explosion suppression experiments were conducted in a 20 L explosion device. The results show that the explosion suppression effect of NaHCO3 powder is prior to
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In order to study the explosion suppression characteristics of LPG/air mixture by CO2 synergistic inert powder, explosion suppression experiments were conducted in a 20 L explosion device. The results show that the explosion suppression effect of NaHCO3 powder is prior to Al(OH)3 powder under the condition of no CO2 synergy. As the mass concentration of inert powder increases, the peak value of explosion pressure Pex and the peak value of the pressure rise rate (dP/dt)ex decrease, and the explosion suppression effect gradually enhances. Gas–solid two-phase inhibitors exhibit more significant inhibitory effects than single-phase inhibitors. Increasing the volume fraction of CO2 or the mass concentration of inert powder can improve the explosion suppression effect. The explosion suppression effect of CO2/NaHCO3 is significantly better than that of CO2/Al(OH)3. The research results have certain significance for the prevention and control of LPG explosion accidents.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigation of Combustion Dynamics and Flame Properties of Fuel)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on the Natural Smoke Exhaust Performance of Board-Coupled Vertical Shaft in High-Altitude Tunnel Fires
by
Zihe Gao, Pengju Zhao, Zhaoguo Wu, Jiajun Cai and Linjie Li
Fire 2024, 7(8), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080274 - 6 Aug 2024
Abstract
Vertical shaft natural ventilation is a common smoke exhaust method in highway tunnel fires. This study investigated the vertical shaft natural smoke exhaust work in highway tunnel fires with the effect of multiple factors through numerical simulation. Using the analysis of the flow
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Vertical shaft natural ventilation is a common smoke exhaust method in highway tunnel fires. This study investigated the vertical shaft natural smoke exhaust work in highway tunnel fires with the effect of multiple factors through numerical simulation. Using the analysis of the flow field of smoke in nearby areas of the vertical shaft and the quantitative calculation of the gas exhausted through the vertical shaft, considering the impact of shaft division and board height, an optimal vertical shaft arrangement was proposed, and the working conditions of this arrangement in low-pressure environments were discussed. The results show that dividing a single large vertical shaft into multiple small vertical shafts and appropriately adjusting the board height can reduce the incidence of vertical shaft plug holes and significantly enhance the vertical shaft smoke exhaust performance. Meanwhile, the board-coupled shaft (BCS) has excellent working ability in low-pressure environments, and when pressure drops, smoke exhaust efficiency will improve. This research offers a foundation and reference value for improving the vertical shaft smoke exhaust system in highway tunnels.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Industrial Fire and Urban Fire Research)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on the Fire Characteristics of Dual Fire Sources and the Difference in Power Temperature of Different Fire Sources in Tunnel
by
Xiaokun Zhao, Minghao Ni, Wencai Wang, Hongwei Wang and Jianing Wang
Fire 2024, 7(8), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080273 - 6 Aug 2024
Abstract
To investigate the combustion characteristics of multiple fire sources in the tunnel caused by ‘jumping’ discontinuous fire spread, we utilized scaled model experiments, numerical simulation software, and theoretical research. Our study focused on analyzing the influence of different fire source powers on the
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To investigate the combustion characteristics of multiple fire sources in the tunnel caused by ‘jumping’ discontinuous fire spread, we utilized scaled model experiments, numerical simulation software, and theoretical research. Our study focused on analyzing the influence of different fire source powers on the temperature characteristics of double fire sources in the tunnel. We examined the temperature characteristics, critical wind speed, and change rule under various wind speeds, fire source spacing, and fire source powers. Additionally, we explored the temperature characteristics, critical wind speed, and change rule of different fire source powers under varying wind speed conditions. The mathematical model for roof temperature decay and the temperature decay coefficients of dual source fires were established through the analysis of scale-down model experiments and numerical simulations. In comparison to single-source fires, the temperature variations in the tunnel of dual source fires exhibit a more intricate pattern, with higher average temperature and temperature peak values. These values are influenced by factors such as fire source spacing and power. Numerical simulation software was utilized to investigate the impact of fire source spacing at 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m, as well as the effect of varying fire source power on the temperature distribution within a tunnel under consistent fire source position and growth coefficient. The study revealed that, with consistent double fire source position and ventilation conditions in the tunnel, the upstream fire source exhibited greater power than the downstream fire source, resulting in the lowest average and peak temperatures in the tunnel. This observation could potentially enhance escape and rescue operations within the tunnel. Similarly, the lowest average and peak temperatures in the tunnel were also identified, offering potential benefits for optimizing escape and rescue strategies in tunnel scenarios.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Numerical Simulation)
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Open AccessArticle
Investigating FWI Moisture Codes in Relation to Satellite-Derived Soil Moisture Data across Varied Resolutions
by
Hatice Atalay, Ayse Filiz Sunar and Adalet Dervisoglu
Fire 2024, 7(8), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080272 - 5 Aug 2024
Abstract
In the Mediterranean region, particularly in Antalya, southern Türkiye, rising forest fire risks due to climate change threaten ecosystems, property, and lives. Reduced soil moisture during the growing season is a key factor increasing fire risk by stressing plants and lowering fuel moisture
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In the Mediterranean region, particularly in Antalya, southern Türkiye, rising forest fire risks due to climate change threaten ecosystems, property, and lives. Reduced soil moisture during the growing season is a key factor increasing fire risk by stressing plants and lowering fuel moisture content. This study assessed soil moisture and fuel moisture content (FMC) in ten fires (2019–2021) affecting over 50 hectares. The Fire Weather Index (FWI) and its components (FFMC, DMC, DC) were calculated using data from the General Directorate of Meteorology, EFFIS (8 km), and ERA5 (≈28 km) satellite sources. Relationships between FMCs, satellite-based soil moisture datasets (SMAP, SMOS), and land surface temperature (LST) data (MODIS, Landsat 8) were analyzed. Strong correlations were found between FWI codes and satellite soil moisture, particularly with SMAP. Positive correlations were observed between LST and FWIs, while negative correlations were evident with soil moisture. Statistical models integrating in situ soil moisture and EFFIS FWI (R: −0.86, −0.84, −0.83 for FFMC, DMC, DC) predicted soil moisture levels during extended fire events effectively, with model accuracy assessed through RMSE (0.60–3.64%). The SMAP surface (0–5 cm) dataset yielded a lower RMSE of 0.60–2.08%, aligning with its higher correlation. This study underlines the critical role of soil moisture in comprehensive fire risk assessments and highlights the necessity of incorporating modeled soil moisture data in fire management strategies, particularly in regions lacking comprehensive in situ monitoring.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) Applications in Wildfire Science: Principles, Progress and Prospects)
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Open AccessArticle
Characteristics of Pyrolysis Products of California Chaparral and Their Potential Effect on Wildland Fires
by
Mahsa Alizadeh, David R. Weise and Thomas H. Fletcher
Fire 2024, 7(8), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080271 - 5 Aug 2024
Abstract
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The aim of this study was to investigate the pyrolysis of selected California foliage and estimate the energy content of the released volatiles to show the significance of the pyrolysis of foliage and its role during wildland fires. While the majority of the
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The aim of this study was to investigate the pyrolysis of selected California foliage and estimate the energy content of the released volatiles to show the significance of the pyrolysis of foliage and its role during wildland fires. While the majority of the volatiles released during the pyrolysis of foliage later combust and promote fire propagation, studies on the energy released from combustion of these compounds are scarce. Samples of chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), Eastwood’s manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa), scrub oak (Quercus berberidifolia), hoaryleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus crassifolius), all native to southern California, and sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), native to the southern U.S., were pyrolyzed at 725 °C with a heating rate of approximately 180 °C/s to mimic the conditions of wildland fires. Tar and light gases were collected and analyzed. Tar from chamise, scrub oak, ceanothus and sparkleberry was abundant in aromatics, especially phenol, while tar from manzanita was mainly composed of cycloalkenes. The four major components of light gases were CO, CO2, CH4 and H2. Estimated values for the high heating values (HHVs) of volatiles ranged between 18.9 and 23.2 (MJ/kg of biomass) with tar contributing to over 80% of the HHVs of the volatiles. Therefore, fire studies should consider the heat released from volatiles present in both tar and light gases during pyrolysis.
Full article
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Open AccessArticle
The Influence of the Fire Point on the Thermal Dynamic Disaster in the Goaf
by
Xiaokun Chen, Chao Song and Zhipeng Zhang
Fire 2024, 7(8), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080270 - 4 Aug 2024
Abstract
A thermal dynamic disaster in the goaf is one of the most serious coal mine disasters formed by coal spontaneous combustion and gas interweaving. However, the influence of the high-temperature hidden fire source formed in the goaf on the evolution law of thermal
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A thermal dynamic disaster in the goaf is one of the most serious coal mine disasters formed by coal spontaneous combustion and gas interweaving. However, the influence of the high-temperature hidden fire source formed in the goaf on the evolution law of thermal dynamic disasters is not clear, and effective prevention and control measures cannot be taken. Therefore, this paper uses the experimental platform of thermal dynamic disaster in the goaf to study the influence of different fire point positions on the development of thermal dynamic disaster in the goaf through a similar simulation experiment of thermal dynamic disaster evolution in the goaf and analyzes the corresponding relationship between temperature and CO concentration in the upper corner. The results show that under different locations of heat source, the high-temperature heat source of coal spontaneous combustion migrates to the air leakage side with sufficient oxygen supply, and an oxygen-poor circle is formed near the ignition point. Under the action of air leakage flow, CH4 accumulates in the deep part of the goaf on the return air side. Due to the increase in coal, part of CH4 is produced, which leads to the increase in concentration of CH4 at the ignition point. Under the action of different heat sources, the changing trend of concentration of CO and temperature in the return air corner is the same, but the temperature change in the return air corner shows a lag compared with the change in the concentration of CO, so concentration monitoring of CO can reflect the evolution process of the fire field in the goaf more quickly than temperature monitoring.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prevention and Control of Mine Fire)
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Open AccessArticle
Thermal Characteristics of Multiple Blockages with Various Sizes in Longitudinal Ventilated Tunnel Fire
by
Herui Zhang, Fengqiang Dai, Bin Miao, Zhengfei Wu and Jianchun Ou
Fire 2024, 7(8), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080269 - 2 Aug 2024
Abstract
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In longitudinal ventilation tunnel fires, the thermal characteristics become more intricate due to the presence of blockages. This phenomenon becomes more complex when multiple blockages occur, which results in a unique interaction between the fire and longitudinal ventilation through gaps between the blockages.
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In longitudinal ventilation tunnel fires, the thermal characteristics become more intricate due to the presence of blockages. This phenomenon becomes more complex when multiple blockages occur, which results in a unique interaction between the fire and longitudinal ventilation through gaps between the blockages. Most of the previous studies have only considered single obstacles or have only performed qualitative analyses and have not obtained predictive models. To fill this research gap, we conducted numerical simulations using the Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) to study the effects of vehicular blockages in three lanes and two fire locations. Our study highlights the differences in the flame behavior, maximum temperature rise, and smoke back-layering length in the presence of multiple blockages and reveals that as the ventilation velocity increases, the flame bifurcation angle increases and the smoke back-layering length decreases. Additionally, when the fire is in the side lane, the flame tilts towards the sidewall, leading to higher maximum temperatures compared to those in the middle lane. Based on these findings, we have developed modified formulas that predict the maximum temperature rise, smoke back-layering length, and maximum temperature ratio at different fire locations and blockage rates, which are linearly related.
Full article
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Open AccessReview
The Progress of Autoignition of High-Pressure Hydrogen Gas Leakage: A Comprehensive Review
by
Gan Cui, Yixuan Li, Di Wu, Hongwei Li, Huan Liu, Xiao Xing and Jianguo Liu
Fire 2024, 7(8), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080268 - 2 Aug 2024
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As a paradigm of clean energy, hydrogen is gradually attracting global attention. However, its unique characteristics of leakage and autoignition pose significant challenges to the development of high-pressure hydrogen storage technologies. In recent years, numerous scholars have made significant progress in the field
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As a paradigm of clean energy, hydrogen is gradually attracting global attention. However, its unique characteristics of leakage and autoignition pose significant challenges to the development of high-pressure hydrogen storage technologies. In recent years, numerous scholars have made significant progress in the field of high-pressure hydrogen leakage autoignition. This paper, based on diffusion ignition theory, thoroughly explores the mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen leakage autoignition. It reviews the effects of various factors such as gas properties, burst disc rupture conditions, tube geometric structure, obstacles, etc., on shock wave growth patterns and autoignition characteristics. Additionally, the development of internal flames and propagation characteristics of external flames after ignition kernels generation are summarized. Finally, to promote future development in the field of high-pressure hydrogen energy storage and transportation, this paper identifies deficiencies in the current research and proposes key directions for future research.
Full article
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Open AccessArticle
Impacts and Drivers of Summer Wildfires in the Cape Peninsula: A Remote Sensing Approach
by
Kanya Xongo, Nasiphi Ngcoliso and Lerato Shikwambana
Fire 2024, 7(8), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080267 - 1 Aug 2024
Abstract
Over the years, the Cape Peninsula has seen a rise in the number of fires that occur seasonally. This study aimed to investigate the extent of fire spread and associated damages during the 2023/2024 Cape Peninsula fire events. Remote sensing datasets from Sentinel-5P,
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Over the years, the Cape Peninsula has seen a rise in the number of fires that occur seasonally. This study aimed to investigate the extent of fire spread and associated damages during the 2023/2024 Cape Peninsula fire events. Remote sensing datasets from Sentinel-5P, Sentinel-2, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2) were used. Most of the fires on the northern side of the Cape Peninsula had a short burning span of between 6 and 12 h, but fires with a duration of 12–24 h were minimal. The northern area is composed of low forests and thickets as well as fynbos species, which were the primary fuel sources. Excessive amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and black carbon (BC) emissions were observed. High speeds were observed during the period of the fires. This is one of the factors that led to the spread of the fire. Relative humidity at 60% was observed, indicating slightly dry conditions. Additionally, the Leaf Water Content Index (LWCI) indicated drier vegetation, enhancing fire susceptibility. High temperatures, low moisture and strong winds were the main drivers of the fire. The Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) values for the targeted fires showed values close to −1, which signifies presence of a fire scar. The study can be of use to those in the fire management agencies and biodiversity conservation in the region.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass-Burning)
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Open AccessReview
Current Status and Prospects of Plant Flammability Measurements
by
Minting Jian, Yi Jian, Hong Zeng, Dongyu Cao and Xinglei Cui
Fire 2024, 7(8), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080266 - 1 Aug 2024
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In recent years, the frequency of wildfires worldwide has been gradually increasing, posing significant threats to global ecosystems and human society. Given that plants serve as the primary fuel in natural environments, accurately assessing the flammability of plants is crucial for wildfire management
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In recent years, the frequency of wildfires worldwide has been gradually increasing, posing significant threats to global ecosystems and human society. Given that plants serve as the primary fuel in natural environments, accurately assessing the flammability of plants is crucial for wildfire management and fire ecology studies. Plant flammability is a multifaceted trait influenced by various physiological, physical, and chemical characteristics of plants. Currently, there is no universally accepted standard for quantifying plant flammability. By analyzing published research over the past few decades, this study found that 17.27% of studies assessed plant flammability by measuring flammability-related characteristics, such as moisture content, leaf size, bark thickness, oil content, and terpene content; a total of 34.55% of studies assessed plant flammability through burning experiments by measuring burning parameters, such as ignition time, duration of combustion, and flame spread rate. The remaining studies, approximately 50%, used a combination of burning experiments and flammability-related characteristic measurement to assess plant flammability. This study outlined the current status of plant flammability measurements, discussed the merits of each measurement method, and proposed suggestions for enhancing the assessment of plant flammability, with the aim of contributing to the standardization of plant flammability measurements.
Full article
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Open AccessArticle
Emissions and Fire Risk Assessment of Nitrocellulose as a Sustainable Alternative in Pyrotechnic Compositions
by
David León, Isabel Amez, Miloš Radojević, Nebojša Manić, Dragoslava Stojiljković, Aleksandar Milivojević, Javier García-Torrent and Blanca Castells
Fire 2024, 7(8), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080265 - 1 Aug 2024
Abstract
The use of fireworks as a sign of celebration is a common practice in many countries. During the last few years, this sector has been subjected to various social criticisms that have even led to a ban on their use in different places.
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The use of fireworks as a sign of celebration is a common practice in many countries. During the last few years, this sector has been subjected to various social criticisms that have even led to a ban on their use in different places. One of the main causes is the environmental pollution they generate, due to emissions from combustion reactions associated with the use of pyrotechnic devices. Nitrate ester-based compounds as propellants are used in other solid rockets such as ammunition, but their use in pyrotechnics is currently limited to a small number of fireworks. This research analyses the substitution of black powder with nitrocellulose ([C6H7(NO2)3O5]n) as a propellant for aerial articles, as well as to the use of nitrocellulose as a perchlorate-free compound. In addition to achieving better clarity effects due to less smoke, the use of nitrocellulose reduces greenhouse gas emissions. However, this nitrogen-rich compound is more unstable, and the ignition sensitivity is higher. Therefore, the benefits and risks associated with this alternative compound need to be evaluated, but the evidence shown suggests a promising direction for the sustainable evolution of pyrotechnic compositions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial Fires and Explosions: Risk Assessment, Prevention, Detection, Mitigation and Impact)
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Open AccessArticle
Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Wildfire Regimes in Miombo of the LevasFlor Forest Concession, Central Mozambique
by
Osvaldo M. Meneses, Natasha S. Ribeiro, Zeinab Shirvani and Samora M. Andrew
Fire 2024, 7(8), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080264 - 26 Jul 2024
Abstract
Wildfires are an intrinsic and vital driving factor in the Miombo ecosystem. Understanding fire regimes in Miombo is crucial for its ecological sustainability. Miombo is dominant in Central Mozambique, having one of the highest fire incidences in the country. This study evaluated the
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Wildfires are an intrinsic and vital driving factor in the Miombo ecosystem. Understanding fire regimes in Miombo is crucial for its ecological sustainability. Miombo is dominant in Central Mozambique, having one of the highest fire incidences in the country. This study evaluated the spatio-temporal patterns of fire regimes (intensity, seasonality, frequency and fire return interval) in the LevasFlor Forest Concession (LFC), Central Mozambique using remotely sensed data from 2001 to 2022. We conducted hotspot spatial statistics using the Getis-Ord Gi* method to assess fire distribution and patterns. The results revealed that 88% of the study area was burnt at least once from 2001 to 2022, with an average burned area of 9733 ha/year (21% of LFC’s total area). Fires were more likely to occur (74.4%) in open and deciduous Miombo types. A total of 84% of the studied area, burned in a range of 4 to 22 years of fire return interval (FRI) over the 21 assessed. Only 16% of the area was affected by high to very high FRI (1 to 4 years), with an average FRI of 4.43 years. Generally, fires are more frequent and intense in September and October. These results highlight the usefulness of remote sensing in evaluating long-term spatiotemporal fire trends for effective fire management strategies and control measures in African savanna ecosystems.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Application of Remote Sensing in Forest Fire)
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Open AccessArticle
Fire Risk Reduction and Recover Energy Potential: A Disruptive Theoretical Optimization Model to the Residual Biomass Supply Chain
by
Tiago Bastos, Leonor Teixeira and Leonel J. R. Nunes
Fire 2024, 7(8), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080263 - 23 Jul 2024
Abstract
Rural fires have been a constant concern, with most being associated with land abandonment. However, some fires occur due to negligent attitudes towards fire, which is often used to remove agroforestry leftovers. In addition to the fire risk, this burning also represents a
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Rural fires have been a constant concern, with most being associated with land abandonment. However, some fires occur due to negligent attitudes towards fire, which is often used to remove agroforestry leftovers. In addition to the fire risk, this burning also represents a waste of the energy present in this residual biomass. Both rural fires and energy waste affect the three dimensions of sustainability. The ideal solution seems to be to use this biomass, avoiding the need for burning and recovering the energy potential. However, this process is strongly affected by logistical costs, making this recovery unfeasible. In this context, this study aims to propose an optimization model for this chain, focusing on the three dimensions of sustainability. The results of the present study comprise a summary of the current state of the art in supply-chain optimization, as well as a disruptive mathematical model to optimize the residual biomass supply chain. To achieve this objective, a literature review was carried out in the first phase, incorporating the specificities of the context under study to arrive at the final model. To conclude, this study provides a review covering several metaheuristics, including ant colony optimization, genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, and simulated annealing, which can be used in this context, adding another valuable input to the final discussion.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Upgrading of Biomass Resources for Subsequent Combustion Use)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study on the Influence of High-Pressure Water Mist on the Ceiling Temperature of a Longitudinally Ventilated Tunnel
by
Hui Zhu, Weining Du and Wenfeng Li
Fire 2024, 7(8), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080262 - 23 Jul 2024
Abstract
In this study, a tunnel model with a length of 20 m, a width of 5 m, and a height of 5 m was used, and an experimental investigation was conducted to examine the impact of high-pressure water mist on the temperature distribution
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In this study, a tunnel model with a length of 20 m, a width of 5 m, and a height of 5 m was used, and an experimental investigation was conducted to examine the impact of high-pressure water mist on the temperature distribution along the tunnel ceiling. Specifically, different experimental settings, such as various nozzle pressures, nozzle positions, and longitudinal ventilation speeds, in the high-pressure water mist system were employed to investigate the smoke-spreading process of tunnel fire under different conditions, and an effective method utilizing a high-pressure water mist system was proposed for blocking smoke and heat. The experimental results reveal that the high-pressure water mist system can be used to effectively improve the ceiling temperature during tunnel fires; when the nozzle pressure is set as 10 MPa, and the nozzle position is located at x7, the highest thermal insulation efficiency in the tunnel is obtained. Additionally, the joint application of the high-pressure water mist system and the mechanical smoke exhaust effectively mitigates the ambient temperature within the tunnel, thereby playing a pivotal role in enhancing the fire safety of the tunnel.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Control in Urban Infrastructure and Underground Space: 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Effects of Fuel Removal on the Flammability of Surface Fuels in Betula platyphylla in the Wildland–Urban Interface
by
Xintong Chen, Mingyu Wang, Baozhong Li, Lixuan Wang, Jibin Ning, Guang Yang and Hongzhou Yu
Fire 2024, 7(7), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7070261 - 22 Jul 2024
Abstract
This paper aimed to provide technical support for fuel management by exploring different strengths of fuel removal on the physical and chemical properties and flammability of Betula platyphylla forests in the wildland–urban interface. After investigating the northeastern region during the forest fire prevention
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This paper aimed to provide technical support for fuel management by exploring different strengths of fuel removal on the physical and chemical properties and flammability of Betula platyphylla forests in the wildland–urban interface. After investigating the northeastern region during the forest fire prevention period in May 2023, a typical WUI area was selected, and three different treatment strengths, combined with a control, were set up to carry out indoor and outdoor experiments for 27 weeks. Compared with previous studies, this study mainly investigated and analyzed the dynamic changes in the physical and chemical properties and fuel flammability after different intensities of treatments on a time scale. By processing and analyzing the data, the following results were obtained. Significant differences existed in the fuel loading of different time-lag fuels over time (p < 0.05). The ash and ignition point of 1 h time-lag fuel after different treatment intensities generally increased first and then decreased, and the higher heat value and ash-free calorific value generally decreased first and then increased. The physical and chemical properties of 10 h and 100 h time-lag fuel fluctuated with time, but the overall change was insignificant. The indicator that had the greatest impact on the combustion comprehensive score for different time-lag fuels was fuel loading. The change in the flammability of dead surface fuel with time varied significantly, and different treatment intensities effectively reduced the fuel’s flammability. The reduction effects, presented in descending order, were as follows: medium-strength treatment > low-strength treatment > high-strength treatment > control check. In conclusion, different treatment intensities have significant effects on the flammability of the fuel, and the medium-strength treatment has the best effect. Considering the ecological and economic benefits, adopting the medium-strength treatment for the WUI to regulate the fuel is recommended.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Fuel Treatment and Fire Risk Assessment)
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Open AccessArticle
Safety Design Criteria for the Emergency Discharge of Hazardous Substances in Small and Medium-Sized Polystyrene Polymerization Batch Reactor Processes: Case Study of the South Korean Chemical Industry
by
Sang-Ryung Kim and Sang-Gil Kim
Fire 2024, 7(7), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7070260 - 21 Jul 2024
Abstract
In small and medium-sized chemical plants, explosions constantly occur owing to runaway reactions because of equipment defects or human errors and so on. Accordingly, in this study, based on a case study of an explosion accident in a polystyrene reactor in South Korea,
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In small and medium-sized chemical plants, explosions constantly occur owing to runaway reactions because of equipment defects or human errors and so on. Accordingly, in this study, based on a case study of an explosion accident in a polystyrene reactor in South Korea, the dis-charge capacity of hazardous substances during a runaway reaction is reviewed and a method for safely disposing of hazardous substances is proposed. Using an acceleration rate calorimeter, the maximum temperature rise rate during the polystyrene reaction was determined, and it was determined that 355,643 kg/h can flow during a runaway reaction. A 30-inch header size was then selected to consider maximum flow rate, and two 81.4 heat exchangers were selected to completely condense the hazardous substances. As a result, the facilities at the workplace were configured to condense all hazardous substances and discharge them into the atmosphere. If this method is used, it is believed that the lives of workers can be protected by preventing fires and explosions in small and medium-sized chemical plants in which runaway reactions may occur.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire and Explosions Risk in Industrial Processes)
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Open AccessArticle
Seasonal Effects of Wildfires on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil in Andean Grassland Ecosystems in Cusco, Peru: Pending Challenges
by
Melida Roman, Ricardo Zubieta, Yerson Ccanchi, Alejandra Martínez, Ysai Paucar, Sigrid Alvarez, Julio Loayza and Filomeno Ayala
Fire 2024, 7(7), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7070259 - 21 Jul 2024
Abstract
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Soils are a valuable renewable resource on human timescales, and they interact with distinctive grassland ecosystems characterized by unique biodiversity and essential provision of ecosystem services, such as water supply and carbon sequestration. However, knowledge of the effects of wildfires on soil properties
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Soils are a valuable renewable resource on human timescales, and they interact with distinctive grassland ecosystems characterized by unique biodiversity and essential provision of ecosystem services, such as water supply and carbon sequestration. However, knowledge of the effects of wildfires on soil properties and nutrient availability in the Andes remains limited. Andean grasslands are currently one of the ecosystems of the Peruvian Andes most affected by wildfires. Our objective is to analyze the effect of fire activity on the physicochemical properties of soil and analyze its social context in Cusco, in the southern Andes of Peru. Soil samples were collected during five periods, spanning both the dry and rainy seasons, to characterize changes in soil properties and monitor vegetation recovery post-fire in two local communities dedicated to livestock activities. The vegetation restored after the wildfire was measured by the “step transect” method. Post-fire changes in soil properties indicate slight increases in pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium during the onset of the rainy season; thereafter, a gradual reduction in these values was observed. This reduction can be attributed to leaching associated with the seasonal rainfall and runoff regime. Our findings indicate that one-year post-fire, the biomass in burned areas is reduced to 30–46% of the biomass in unburned areas. A complete regeneration is likely to occur in up to 4 years; this assertion is supported by the perceptions of the affected population, as expressed in interviews conducted in the two farming communities. These results are significant for decision-makers formulation of policies and regulations regarding grasslands and their seasonal restoration.
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Open AccessArticle
The Effect of Combustion Phase According to the Premixed Ethanol Ratio Based on the Same Total Lower Heating Value on the Formation and Oxidation of Exhaust Emissions in a Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Engine
by
Se-Hun Min and Hyun-Kyu Suh
Fire 2024, 7(7), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7070258 - 19 Jul 2024
Abstract
A compression ignition engine generates power by using the auto-ignition characteristics of fuel injected into the cylinder. Although it has high fuel efficiency, it discharges a lot of exhaust emissions such as NOX and PM. Therefore, there is much ongoing research aiming
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A compression ignition engine generates power by using the auto-ignition characteristics of fuel injected into the cylinder. Although it has high fuel efficiency, it discharges a lot of exhaust emissions such as NOX and PM. Therefore, there is much ongoing research aiming to reduce the exhaust emissions by using the technologies applied in this regard, such as PCCI, HCCI, etc. However, these methods still discharge large exhaust emissions. The RCCI method, which combines the spark ignition method and compression ignition method, is attracting attention. So, in this work, the objective of this study is to numerically investigate the effect of combustion phase according to the premixed ethanol ratio based on the same total heating value in-cylinder by changing the initial air composition on the formation and oxidation of exhaust emissions in the RCCI engine. The heating value of the premixed ethanol ratio varied from 0% to 40% based on the same total lower heating value in-cylinder in steps of 10%. It was assumed that the ethanol introduced into the cylinder through the premixing chamber was evaporated, and the initial air composition in the cylinder was changed and set. It was revealed that when the premixed ratio based on the same total lower heating value was increased, the introduced fuel amount into the crevice volume with advancing the start of energizing timing was decreased, which increased the peak cylinder pressure. In addition, the ignition delay was also longer due to the low cylinder temperature by the evaporation latent heat of the ethanol, which reduced the compression loss, so the IMEP value was increased. The rich equivalence ratio had a narrow distribution in the cylinder, which caused a reduction in cylinder temperature, so the NO formation amount was reduced. The ISCO value increased the increase in premixed ethanol ratio based on the same total lower heating value in-cylinder because the flame propagation of ethanol by combustion of diesel did not work well, and the CO formed by combustion was slowly oxidized due to the cylinder’s low temperature as a result of the evaporation latent heat of ethanol. From these results, the optimal operating conditions for simultaneously reducing the exhaust emissions and improving the combustion performance were judged such that the start of energizing timing was BTDC 23 deg, and the premixed ethanol ratio based on the same total lower heating value in-cylinder was 40%.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ignition Mechanism and Advanced Combustion Technology)
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Open AccessArticle
An Automated Cropland Burned-Area Detection Algorithm Based on Landsat Time Series Coupled with Optimized Outliers and Thresholds
by
Sumei Zhang, Huijuan Li and Hongmei Zhao
Fire 2024, 7(7), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7070257 - 18 Jul 2024
Abstract
Given the increasingly severe global fires, the accurate detection of small and fragmented cropland fires has been a significant challenge. The use of medium-resolution satellite data can enhance detection accuracy; however, key challenges in this approach include accurately capturing the annual and interannual
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Given the increasingly severe global fires, the accurate detection of small and fragmented cropland fires has been a significant challenge. The use of medium-resolution satellite data can enhance detection accuracy; however, key challenges in this approach include accurately capturing the annual and interannual variations of burning characteristics and identifying outliers within the time series of these changes. In this study, we focus on a typical crop-straw burning area in Henan Province, located on the North China Plain. We develop an automated burned-area detection algorithm based on near-infrared and short-wave infrared data from Landsat 5 imagery. Our method integrates time-series outlier analysis using filtering and automatic iterative algorithms to determine the optimal threshold for detecting burned areas. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of using preceding time-series and seasonal time-series analysis to differentiate fire-related changes from seasonal and non-seasonal influences on vegetation. Optimal threshold validation results reveal that the automatic threshold method is efficient and feasible with an overall accuracy exceeding 93%. The resulting burned-area map achieves a total accuracy of 93.25%, far surpassing the 76.5% detection accuracy of the MCD64A1 fire product, thereby highlighting the efficacy of our algorithm. In conclusion, our algorithm is suitable for detecting burned areas in large-scale farmland settings and provides valuable information for the development of future detection algorithms.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vegetation Fires and Biomass Burning in Asia)
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