Next Article in Journal
Modal Analysis of a Fire-Damaged Masonry Vault
Next Article in Special Issue
Fire Endurance of Spherical Concrete Domes Exposed to Standard Fire
Previous Article in Journal
Thermal Infrared-Image-Enhancement Algorithm Based on Multi-Scale Guided Filtering
Previous Article in Special Issue
Comparative Study of the Suppression Behavior and Fire-Extinguishing Mechanism of Compressed-Gas Aqueous Film-Forming Foam in Diesel Pool Fires
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Fire
Volume 7
Issue 6
10.3390/fire7060193
fire-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Evaluation of the Properties and Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Binderless Particleboards Made from Canary Island Palm Trunks

by
Berta Elena Ferrandez-Garcia
*,
Teresa Garcia-Ortuño
*,
Manuel Ferrandez-Villena
and
Maria Teresa Ferrandez-Garcia
Centro de Investigación e Innovación Agroalimentaria y Agroambiental (CIAGRO-UMH), Miguel Hernandez University, 03300 Orihuela, Spain
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fire 2024, 7(6), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060193
Submission received: 13 May 2024 / Revised: 2 June 2024 / Accepted: 5 June 2024 / Published: 8 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Prevention and Flame Retardant Materials)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Repurposing agricultural and forestry by-products not only is beneficial for the environment but also follows the principles of the circular economy. In southeastern Spain, the Canary Island palm tree (Phoenix canariensis W.) is widely used in urban landscapes. Plantations affected by the red weevil, a pest, generate an abundance of plant waste that must be crushed and transferred to authorized landfills. The aim of this study was to manufacture boards using particles from trunks of the Canary Island palm tree without adding any binders in order to obtain an ecological and fire-resistant product. In order to manufacture the boards, three particle sizes (<0.25, 0.25–1, and 1–2 mm), a temperature of 110 °C, a pressure of 2.6 MPa, and a pressing time of 7 min were used. The boards were pressed in a hot plate press for 7 min up to four times (7 min, 7 + 7 min, 7 + 7 + 7 min, and 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 min). The resulting boards showed good thermal performance, and the board´s reaction-to-fire performance was classified as Bd0 (an Fs value of 70.3 mm). This study also showed that boards with a particle size smaller than 0.25 mm that underwent four pressing cycles of 7 min each in the press can be categorized as grade P2 according to the European Standards (MOR of 20 N/mm2, MOE of 2589.8 N/mm2, and IB of 0.74 N/mm2). Therefore, these manufactured particleboards could be used as a flame-retardant material for the interior enclosures of buildings (vertical and horizontal) without the need for coatings.

1. Introduction

The construction sector is the sixth most polluting industry worldwide, generating approximately 40% of the total CO2 emissions [1]. Renovating and constructing green buildings while reducing contamination can be achieved in part through the use of low-environmental-impact materials, such as bio-based materials. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)’s report on forestry and trade, wood-based boards have witnessed a significant increase in production, with 25% growth over the past five years. Their production exceeded 110 million cubic meters in 2022 [2].
The rising cost of wood, land scarcity, and supply shortages have driven research into non-wood alternatives. Apart from having many other environmental benefits, the by-products of agricultural activity can be utilized as raw material in the construction industry for the manufacture of goods such as particleboards. Agricultural waste constitutes an alternative source of income and a means of reducing expenses. From a technical perspective, non-wood plants possess a wide range of fiber qualities [3]. When properly managed, they can be developed into wood substitute materials while following the principles of the circular economy.
The residues of date palm trees are an interesting option as a substitute for wood in particleboards due to their renewable nature and abundant availability. Globally, there are approximately 120 million date palm trees [4], and each one generates approximately 47.57 kg of palm waste annually [5], including petioles, rachises, leaflets, fibrillae, bunches, pedicels, spathes, thorns, and trunks, most of which are gathered during seasonal pruning as a fundamental agricultural practice.
The Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis W.) stands as one of the most iconic endemic plant species of the Canary Islands, where there are approximately 300,000 natural individuals [6]. In southeastern Spain, it is one of the most abundant species in the area due to its utilization in urban landscapes. These palm trees are also present in many countries around the Mediterranean Sea, Mexico, and the United States, but the exact number of individuals is unknown.
The red weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus O.) is a pest that affects palm trees; it has caused the deaths of a very large number of these trees, leaving behind a significant amount of waste. During the mid-1980s, the red weevil invaded the Arabian Gulf nations, inflicting severe damage to palm trees [7]. The transportation of infected palms, as well as other gardening material, and the characteristics of the crop facilitated the rapid dissemination of this pest. The spread of the weevils affected over sixty countries from the Middle East and Africa to Europe. If timely curative measures are not taken, the presence of this pest typically results in the death of the palm tree. Nevertheless, implementing curative measures in the initial stage of an attack is often challenging due to the difficulty in detecting early-stage infestations [8].
In this way, the numerous plantations affected by the red weevil generate large amounts of plant waste that must be crushed and transferred to authorized landfills. The use of this waste can contribute to the adoption of sustainable solutions for the control and eradication of contaminated specimens and result in environmental improvements.
Numerous studies have focused on manufacturing particleboards from various types of palm tree waste [9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. Additionally, palm tree pruning waste has been investigated for its use as a reinforcement [19,20,21] and in the manufacture of various compounds [22,23]. These studies indicate that the outcomes vary based on the palm species and the plant part used (typically the leaves or trunk). Furthermore, the results show that the particle size and production parameters should be considered due to their importance, since they can greatly affect the physical and mechanical properties of the developed materials.
Most of the binders currently used by the timber industry are derived from fossil resources. They include formaldehyde-based resins, vinyl acetate resins, and isocyanate-based resins. These adhesives, which were developed within the petrochemical sector, exhibit outstanding performance, possess favorable properties, and are economically viable. Nevertheless, the utilization of these adhesives in the industry will eventually face limitations due to the depletion of fossil resource reserves. It has also been proven that formaldehyde-based resins are toxic and can cause serious health problems, such as cancer [24], so their use is increasingly restricted [25]. Due to these problems, there is a heightened interest in manufacturing formaldehyde-free boards, which has led to increased pressure on particleboard manufacturers to stop using these binders. On this basis, new studies on particleboards have been performed by utilizing natural resins and adhesives, such as proteins, lignins, tannins, glutens, starches, citric acid, and bark, to replace synthetic resins [10,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33].
Currently, research on plant biomass aims to produce binderless particleboards through various pre-treatment methods, and the self-bonding capacity of natural fibers during the transition to the glassy state has been widely demonstrated [34]. Particleboards can be processed without the need for binders; this process is facilitated by the effects of water (molecule solubilization), the temperature, and the pressure, which enable particle agglomeration [35]. The cell walls of plant particles are primarily composed of a mixture of organic macromolecules, including pectins, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, waxes, starch, proteins, and aromatic compounds, along with a minor portion of mineral molecules such as ash [36]. Therefore, cell walls can be regarded as biochemically complex compounds. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin molecules are polysaccharides (carbohydrate polymers) that possess hydrophilic properties. Water-soluble compounds are typically pectins and small soluble molecules. Depending on the botanical species and the specific part of the plant, the proportions of organic macromolecules change [37]. Furthermore, the size and shape of the particles greatly influence the properties of binderless boards [38] due to the higher number of contact points between the fibers and the more streamlined particle arrangement system, which significantly improve the self-bonding of the particles [3]. Hence, determining the size range of the particles is a crucial factor for enhancing the performance of binderless boards.
A significant concern regarding building materials derived from agricultural, forestry, and plant residues is the limited knowledge concerning their reaction-to-fire performance. While renewable building materials hold promise for substituting conventional materials such as cement, they must follow essential standards. Fire safety considerations must align with the EU Construction Products Regulation (CPR) [39]. Several studies have explored the fire resistance of particleboards composed of or incorporating agricultural residues such as flax [40], oil palm [41], kenaf [42], and rice straw [43]. However, there is a notable gap in the literature regarding the reaction-to-fire performance of palm tree particleboards.
Particleboards are used in furniture and coverings in construction. To improve their fire resistance properties, fire-retardant solutions are used. These compounds interfere with a particular stage of the combustion process and are based on silicon, chlorine, bromine, phosphorus, nitrogen, hydroxides, phosphates, carbonates, or sulfates [44]. Other studies have assessed the emission of smoke and toxic gases produced by the widespread use of epoxy resins and the use of different fire retardants that reduce these emissions [45,46]. There have also been studies on flame retardants with graphene to encapsulate the possible toxic gases released [47].
Taking into consideration the need for new construction materials that can offer environmental advantages, such as reducing air pollution and decreasing landfill wastes, the aim of this work was to manufacture particleboards using trunks of the Canary Island palm tree, without the use of binders, and evaluate the fire performance, mechanical properties, and physical properties of the boards. The goal was to obtain an ecological, biodegradable, fire-resistant product by following the principles of the circular economy.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The Canary Island date palm biomass was obtained from 5 palm trees affected by red palm weevils at the EPSO of the Miguel Hernández University of Elche. One example is illustrated in Figure 1. The 5 different trunks were cut, chopped, and dried outdoors for six months. They were subsequently crushed in a blade shredder and filtered out through a vibrating sieve, and three particle sizes were selected (<0.25, 0.25–1, and 1–2 mm). The particles initially had a relative moisture content of 55%, so they were allowed to air dry for an additional three months until a relative moisture content of 9% was reached with a density of 196 ± 13 kg/m3. The water sprayed onto the boards was procured from the public water supply network and had an average temperature of 20 °C.

2.2. Manufacturing Process of the Particleboards

Initially, the particle mat was formed using 1.50 kg of particles for each size (depending on the type of board) in an iron mold with dimensions of 600 × 400 mm. Afterwards, water was sprayed onto the surface in an amount equaling 10% of the weight of the particles, and the mixture was homogenized by stirring it manually for 5 min. The mat was then placed into a hot plate press with a temperature of 110 °C and a pressure of 2.6 MPa for 7 min (particleboard type 1). The selection of the parameters was based on the results of previous studies [20]. Then, the panels were taken out from the hot press and left to cool in a horizontal position. For particleboard types 2, 3, and 4, the preparation process was repeated, with up to 4 pressing cycles of 7 min each. The particleboards were codified as follows: A1, <0.25 mm particle size and one pressing cycle of 7 min; A2, <0.25 mm particle size and two pressing cycles of 7 min; A3, <0.25 mm particle size and three pressing cycles of 7 min; A4, <0.25 mm particle size and four pressing cycles of 7 min; B1, 0.25 to 1.00 mm particle size and one pressing cycle of 7 min; B2, 0.25 to 1.00 mm particle size and two pressing cycles of 7 min; B3, 0.25 to 1.00 mm particle size and three pressing cycles of 7 min; B4, 0.25 to 1.00 mm particle size and four pressing cycles of 7 min; C1, 1.00 to 2.00 mm particle size and one pressing cycle of 7 min; C2, 1.00 to 2.00 mm particle size and two pressing cycles of 7 min; C3, 1.00 to 2.00 mm particle size and three pressing cycles of 7 min; and C4, 1.00 to 2.00 mm particle size and four pressing cycles of 7 min.
The boards were made with a single layer and a thickness of approximately 7 mm. Four particleboards of each type were made. The characteristics of the manufactured boards are indicated in Table 1, and the boards with the 3 different particle sizes are shown in Figure 2.
Afterwards, the particleboards were cut into specimens in order to carry out the necessary tests for the characterization of the mechanical and physical properties of each of the 48 studied boards, with the dimensions indicated by the European Standards [48,49]. Subsequently, the specimens were conditioned in a JP Selecta conservation chamber (model Medilow-L, Barcelona, Spain) at a temperature of 20 °C for 24 h and a relative moisture content of 65%.
The properties of the particleboards were determined and evaluated while applying the current European Standards [50,51], including those for the density [52], the water absorption (WA) and thickness swelling (TS) after immersion in water for 2 and 24 h [53], the modulus of elasticity (MOE), the modulus of rupture (MOR) [54], the internal bonding strength (IB) [55], the thermal conductivity [55], and the reaction-to-fire performance using a single flame source [56,57,58,59].
To determine the moisture content of the boards in this study, an Imal laboratory moisture meter (model 200, from Modena, Italy) was utilized, while a heated tank with a water temperature of 20 °C was employed for the water immersion test.
The mechanical tests were conducted on an Imal universal testing machine (model IB600, Modena, Italy), and the thermal conductivity tests were performed on a heat-flow-measuring instrument (NETZSCH Instruments Inc., Bulington, MA, USA). The fire reaction tests were carried out on a flammability meter (model CEAST 1653, Turin, Italy).
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used, and elemental analyses (qualitative and semiquantitative) were performed using energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Micrographs were taken from 0.5 × 0.5 cm fractured cross sections. An FEI brand Nova Nano SEM 200 field emission scanning electron microscope was used with the following characteristics:
  • A resolution of 1 ηm at 30 kv and 1.5 ηm at 10 kV (under a vacuum);
  • A throttle voltage of 200 V to 30 kV;
  • A high-vacuum working mode for conductive samples and a low-vacuum working mode for semi- and non-conductive samples;
  • An energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis system (EDS or EDX), Oxford brand, model INCA X-Sight;
  • SPSS v.28 software (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA) for performing a statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of α < 0.05 and Pearson correlations in order to measure the dependence of the manufacturing parameters.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physical and Thermal Properties

The results for the density, thickness swelling, water absorption, and thermal conductivity of the manufactured boards are shown in Table 2.
The boards had a density between 750.94 kg/m3 and 1093.41 kg/m3, which was categorized as medium–high. This aligns with the densities obtained by other researchers for particleboards without binders [34]. A greater time in the hot plate press resulted in a higher density. Some of the average values did not reflect these results accurately due to the standard deviation, as certain data points may have skewed the mean value.
The panels subjected to a longer time in the press offered better results for thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA). However, the parameters obtained did not allow these boards to be classified as P3 type (non-structural boards for use in dry environments) [49], since a limit of 17% TS after 24 h must be achieved.
The thermal conductivity of the boards ranged between 0.060 and 0.075 W/m·K. These were good results compared to those of commercial particleboards [47,48,49], with values between 0.180 and 0.070 W/m·K (depending on their density), and were similar to those of cork particleboards (0.065 W/m·K).
After performing an analysis of variance for the particle size and for the number of cycles (Table 3), it was observed that the density, TS, WA, and thermal conductivity (δ) depended on the number of pressing cycles and did not depend on the particle size. According to the Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) values in Table 4, the density increased and the TS, WA, and δ decreased with a greater number of cycles.

3.2. Mechanical Properties

In accordance with the European Standards [50], the minimum requirements for the general use of particleboards with a thickness between 6 and 13 mm in dry environments are an MOR value of 10.5 N/mm2 and an IB value of 0.28 N/mm2 (grade P1). An MOR value of 11.0 N/mm2, an MOE value of 1800 N/mm2, and an IB value of 0.40 N/mm2 are the minimum standards for the manufacture of furniture (grade P2). For a load (grade P3), the minimum values of MOR, MOE, and IB are 15.0 N/mm2, 2.050 N/mm2, and 0.45 N/mm2, respectively.
The best mechanical performance (Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5) was achieved with the smallest particle size and four pressing cycles (A4-type board), which resulted in an MOR of 20.0 N/mm2, an MOE of 2589.8 N/mm2, and an IB of 0.74 N/mm2.
Boards A3 and A4 could be classified as P2 as per the European Standards. They could not be categorized as P3, as they did not meet the necessary minimum 24 h TS value. Therefore, it would be recommended to apply a water-repellent product, similar to those used in the wood industry, to attain this classification. The boards with a particle size of 0.25 to 1 mm or 1 to 2 mm did not reach the necessary IB values.
According to analyses carried out by several researchers [13,35,60], one of the most important factors for the production of boards is the particle size. This is in line with the conclusion of this study that the best mechanical properties are attained with a smaller particle size.
Pintiaux et al. [34] indicated that, to manufacture vegetable fiberboards with other ecological binders (tannins, lignin, etc.), high temperatures are required (higher than 180 °C). However, in this work, the particleboards were manufactured from trunks of the Canary Island palm tree with temperatures of 110 °C, and this was acceptable as reflected in the specifications of the European Standards [48,49].
In a previous study [20], it was observed that the Canary Island date palm has large amounts of sugars, and it seems that the self-bonding mechanism is due to these sugars and the production of furfural. This indicates that the union of the particles is due to the furan resins obtained in the manufacturing process.
As can be seen in Table 5, in comparison to the results of previous studies on binderless palm tree trunk particleboards, the process of pressing cycles with lower temperatures and lower pressures yielded better results in terms of the mechanical properties of the resulting boards.

3.3. Reaction-to-Fire Performance

Three test specimens of the three-cycle and four-cycle boards were used to perform the reaction-to-fire test. As per the European Standards [57], the samples were conditioned to achieve a constant mass at a temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and a relative moisture content of 60 ± 5% RH before testing. Subsequently, the samples were vertically affixed to a frame and a flame was applied for 60 s at a 45° inclination, positioned 40 mm above the lower edge. Figure 6 shows some of the tested specimens.
Figure 6 shows that the burned area appeared to be superficial across all the tested specimens.
The results of the reaction-to-fire test are shown in Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9. The flame spread (Fs) is the measure of the flame height, and in all the specimens, it was from 60.3 to 70.4 mm.
Statistically, the analysis of variance (ANOVA; Table 3) indicated that the particle size influenced the weight loss and the flame spread (Fs) of the specimens, but the flame depth was influenced by the number of pressing cycles. Moreover, according to the bivariate Pearson’s correlations (Table 4), the Fs decreased as the particle size increased; therefore, it did not have a direct relationship with weight loss. In addition, the values were within the admissible range. They corresponded to products obtained from a heterogeneous material, such as plants, and to the use of specimens from inside and outside the board for testing, as established by the European Standards [48].
Regarding the reaction-to-fire performance, the European Standards [58] establish that, when the Fs is less than 150 mm in 60 s, the boards are categorized as B. If there are also no burning drops or ignitions in any specimen, as was the case in this study, the boards are classified as d0. Therefore, the palm trunk particle boards without adhesives were classified as Bd0. To classify them as a higher class, flammability tests must be carried out.
Silicon-based chemical compounds are used as environmentally friendly fire retardants [62,63], and silica is recognized for its fire-retardant properties [42]; thus, the favorable behavior of the boards against fire could be attributed to the material’s high silicon content. Silicon-based compounds form physically strong carbon/silica surface layers. These layers protect the substrate and serve as a barrier to prevent the migration of thermal degradation products to the surface [64,65].
By comparing the values obtained with those reported by other authors, as indicated in Table 6, we observed that the Canary palm boards had better properties against fire compared to other plant residues without any type of flame retardant, except vine prunings, which had large amounts of silica as well.
The thickness and density of boards influence their time to ignition and weight loss: the lower the thickness, the shorter the time to ignition [69]. The boards in this work had a thickness of 7 mm, so it would be necessary to check whether the fire properties improve with thicker boards.

3.4. Evaluation of the Material Microstructure

In the micrograph of the longitudinal section of a Canary Island palm trunk (Figure 10a), the typical characteristics of vascular bundles were observed, consisting of fibers, vessels, and phloem embedded in the parenchymatic tissue. The SEM micrographs of the trunk samples indicated the presence of vascular bundles covered with large amounts of aligned siliceous phytoliths. This probably contributed to the lower thickness swelling in the boards made of Canary Island palm particles. In the EDS analysis, it was observed that the palm tree trunks had a high content of silicon phytoliths, and these silicon phytoliths were still arranged on the outside of the fibers in the boards manufactured with larger particles (Figure 10b). Therefore, these boards had better properties against fire. Figure 11 shows the characteristic shape of the Canary Island palm phytoliths.

4. Conclusions

In this study, binderless particleboards made from Canary Island palm trunks were successfully manufactured. The mechanical, physical, and thermal properties were analyzed, and the study concluded that, by using a manufacturing process with a low pressing temperature, particleboards can be manufactured from ecological materials. This variety of particleboard is a potential substitute for the traditional wood-based panels commonly utilized in construction, in addition to being environmentally friendly and following the principles of the circular economy.
The test results showed that the density, TS, WA, MOR, IB, thermal conductivity, and flame depth depended on the number of pressing cycles. The MOR, IB, Fs, and weight loss due to fire depended on the particle size used. To obtain more resistant boards, small particle sizes should be used; however, to make boards with better thermal and fire-resistant performance, larger particles and a lower number of pressing cycles should be considered. Therefore, in future research, two- and three-layer particleboards should be tested in order to combine both applications.
A3- and A4-type boards fall under the P2-grade classification (non-structural particleboards for indoor use) and exhibit favorable thermal performance. Hence, they could serve as interior enclosures for buildings, both vertically and horizontally, without requiring coatings. In future studies, consideration should be given to applying a water-repellent product or adjusting the dosages to enhance the properties of these boards for outdoor usage.
All the tested boards exhibited a good reaction-to-fire performance and were classified as Bd0, and those with a larger particle size had better properties. Moreover, the performance of the manufactured particleboards in this study was better than that of wood-based boards without fire retardants.
By using pressing cycles for the manufacture of boards, binderless boards with good properties were obtained. To improve this manufacturing process, it would be necessary to conduct additional tests by varying the time of each cycle, the temperature of the press, and the pressure. Moreover, subsequent aging and durability tests against environmental and biological factors should be performed.
The utilization of waste from Canary Island palm tree trunks to manufacture ecological and fire-retardant materials such as particleboards could offer environmental advantages by reducing air pollution and decreasing landfill waste accumulation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, T.G.-O. and M.T.F.-G.; research and experiments, B.E.F.-G. and M.F.-V.; resources, M.T.F.-G.; formal analysis, B.E.F.-G.; project administration, T.G.-O.; data curation, M.F.-V.; resources, M.T.F.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, B.E.F.-G.; writing—review and editing, B.E.F.-G. and T.G.-O.; supervision, T.G.-O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Second Vice Presidency and Ministry of Social Services, Equality and Housing of the Valencian Generalitat in Spain through the Plan IRTA, project HBIRT3-2023-1.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Second Vice Presidency and Ministry of Social Services, Equality and Housing of the Valencian Generalitat in Spain through the Plan IRTA, project HBIRT3-2023-1; Centro de Investigación e Innovación Agroalimentaria y Agroambiental (CIAGRO-UMH); and the University Miguel Hernandez for their support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Sizirici, B.; Fseha, Y.; Cho, C.-S.; Yildiz, I.; Byon, Y.-J. A Review of Carbon Footprint Reduction in Construction Industry, from Design to Operation. Materials 2021, 14, 6094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Stats. Available online: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO (accessed on 12 May 2024).
  3. Chen, M.; Zheng, S.; Wu, J.; Xu, J. Study on preparation of high-performance binderless board from Broussonetia papyrifera. J. Wood Sci. 2023, 69, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Tahir, A.H.F.; Al-Obaidy, A.H.M.J.; Mohammed, F.H. Biochar from date palm waste, production, characteristics and use in the treatment of pollutants: A Review. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 737, 012171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Almi, K.; Benchabane, A.; Lakel, S.; Krike, A. Potential utilization of date palm wood as composite reinforcement. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2015, 34, 1231–1240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Sosa, P.A.; Saro, I.; Johnson, D.; Obon, C.; Alcaraz, F.; Rivera, D. Biodiversity and conservation of Phoenix canariensis: A review. Biodivers. Conserv. 2021, 30, 275–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Murphy, S.T.; Briscoe, B.R. The red palm weevil as an alien invasive: Biology and the prospects for biological control as a component of IPM. BioControl 1999, 20, 35–46. [Google Scholar]
  8. Ferry, M.; Gomez, S. The red palm weevil in the Mediterranean area. Palms 2002, 46, 172–178. [Google Scholar]
  9. Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez Garcia, M.T.; Andreu Rodriguez, J.; Ferrandez Garcia, C.E.; Ferrandez-Villena, M. Evaluating the properties of palm particle boards (Washingtonia robusta H. Wendl). In Proceedings of the 6th Iberian Congress of Agroengineering, Evora, Portugal, 5–7 September 2011; Sociedad Española de Agroingeniería: Valencia, Spain, 2011; pp. 126–130. ISBN 978-972-778-113-3, 5-7. [Google Scholar]
  10. Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Ferrandez-Villena, M. Influence of particle size on the properties of boards made from Washingtonia palm rachis with citric acid. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Hidalgo-Cordero, J.F.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T. Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard made from palm tree prunings. Forests 2018, 9, 755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T.; Andreu-Rodriguez, J.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Ferrandez-Villena, M. Valorization of pruning residues: The use of Phoenix canariensis to elaborate eco-friendly particleboards. In Proceedings of the Structures and Environmental Technologies. International Conference of Agricultural Engineering-CIGR-AgEng 2012, Valencia, Spain, 8–12 July 2012; Federación de Gremios de Editores de España: Madrid, Spain, 2012; ISBN 978-84-615-9928-8. [Google Scholar]
  13. Amirou, S.; Zerizer, A.; Pizzi, A.; Haddadou, I.; Zhou, X. Particleboards production from date palm biomass. Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod. 2013, 71, 717–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Hegazy, S.; Ahmed, K.; Hiziroglu, S. Oriented strand board production from water-treated date palm fronds. BioResources 2015, 10, 448–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Hegazy, S.; Ahmed, K. Effect of date palm cultivar, particle size, panel density and hot water extraction on particleboards manufactured from date palm fronds. Agriculture 2015, 5, 267–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Or, K.H.; Putra, A.; Selamat, M.Z. Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers as sustainable acoustic material. In Proceedings of the Mechanical Engineering Research Day 2015 (MERD’15), Melaka, Malaysia, 31 March 2015; pp. 99–100. [Google Scholar]
  17. Kerdtongmee, P.; Saleh, A.; Eadkhong, T.; Danworaphong, S. Investigating Sound Absorption of Oil Palm Trunk Panels Using One-microphone Impedance Tube. BioResources 2016, 11, 8409–8418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Kalaivani, R.; Ewe, L.S.; Chua, Y.L.; Ibrahim, Z. The Effects of Different Thickness of Oil Palm Trunk (Opt) Fiberboard on Acoustic Properties. Sci. Int. 2017, 29, 1105–1108. [Google Scholar]
  19. Kriker, A.; Bali, B.; Debicki, G.; Bouziane, M.; Chabannet, M. Durability of date palm fibres and their use as reinforcement in hot dry climates. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2008, 30, 639–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T. Potential use of Phoenix canariensis biomass in binderless particleboards at low temperature and pressure. BioResources 2017, 12, 6698–6712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Braiek, A.; Karkri, M.; Adili, A.; Ibos, L.; Nasrallah, S.B. Estimation of the thermophysical properties of date palm fibers/gypsum composite for use as insulating materials in building. Energy Build. 2017, 140, 268–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Boumhaout, M.; Boukhattem, L.; Hamdi, H.; Benhamou, B.; Nouh, F.A. Thermomechanical characterization of a bio-composite building material: Mortar reinforced with date palm fibers mesh. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 135, 241–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Bourmaud, A.; Dhakal, H.; Habrant, A.; Padovani, J.; Siniscalco, D.; Ramage, M.H.; Shah, D.U. Exploring the potential of waste leaf sheath date palm fibres for composite reinforcement through a structural and mechanical analysis. Compos. A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2017, 103, 292–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Cogliano, V.J.; Grosse, Y.; Baan, R.A.; Straif, K.; Secretan, M.B.; El Ghissassi, F.; Working Group for Volume 88. Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-Tert-Butoxypropan-2-Ol. Meeting Report: Summary of IARC Monographs on Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol, and 1-tert-Butoxy-2-Propanol. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1205–1208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. European Commission Homepage. Available online: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/news/chemicals-eu-restricts-exposure-carcinogenic-substance-formaldehyde-consumer-products-2023-07-14_en (accessed on 19 February 2024).
  26. Imam, S.H.; Gordon, S.H.; Mao, L.; Chen, L. Environmentally friendly wood adhesive from a renewable plant polymer: Characteristics and optimization. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2001, 73, 529–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. El-Wakil, N.A.; Abou-Zeid, R.E.; Fahmy, Y.; Mohamed, A.Y. Modified wheat gluten as a binder in particleboard made from reed. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2007, 106, 3592–3599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ciannamea, E.M.; Stefani, P.M.; Ruseckaite, R.A. Medium-density particleboards from modified rice husks and soybean protein concentrate-based adhesives. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 818–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Moubarik, A.; Allal, A.; Pizzi, A.; Charrier, F.; Charrier, B. Preparation and mechanical characterization of particleboard made from maritime pine and glued with bio-adhesives based on cornstarch and tannins. Maderas-Cienc. Tecnol. 2010, 12, 189–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Wang, Z.; Gu, Z.; Hong, Y.; Cheng, L.; Li, Z. Bonding strength and water resistance of starch-based wood adhesive improved by silica nanoparticles. Carbohydr. Polym. 2011, 86, 72–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Andreu-Rodríguez, J.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T.; Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Garcia-Ortuño, T. Panels made from giant reed bonded with non-modified starches. BioResources 2012, 7, 5904–5916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Ferrandez-Villena, M. Experimental Evaluation of a New Giant Reed (Arundo Donax L.) Composite Using Citric Acid as a Natural Binder. Agronomy 2019, 9, 882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Matsumae, T.; Horito, M.; Kurushima, N.; Yazaki, Y. Development of bark-based adhesives for plywood: Utilization of flavonoid compounds from bark and wood. II. J. Wood Sci. 2019, 65, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Pintiaux, T.; Viet, D.; Vandenbossche, V.; Rigal, L.; Rouilly, A. Binderless Materials Obtained by Thermo-Compressive Processing of Lignocellulosic Fibers: A Comprehensive Review. BioResources 2015, 10, 1915–1963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Chabriac, P.A.; Gourdon, E.; Glé, P.; Fabbri, A.; Lenormand, H. Agricultural by products for building construction and modeling to predict micro-structural parameters. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 112, 158–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Lui, F.H.Y.; Kurokochi, Y.; Narita, H.; Saito, Y.; Sato, M. The effects of chemical components and particle size on the mechanical properties of binderless boards made from oak (Quercus spp.) logs degraded by shiitake fungi (Lentinula edodes). J. Wood Sci. 2018, 64, 246–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Terzopoulou, P.; Kamperidou, V. Chemical characterization of Wood and Bark biomass of the invasive species of Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle), focusing on its chemical composition horizontal variability assessment. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 17, 469–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Arufe, S.; Hellouin de Menibus, A.; Leblanc, N.; Lenormand, H. Physico-chemical characterisation of plant particles with potential to produce biobased building materials. Ind. Crops Prod. 2021, 171, 113901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. European Council. EU Construction Product Regulation No 305/2011; CPR. COST Action FP1404; European Council: Brussels, Belgium, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  40. Lazko, J.; Landercy, N.; Laoutid, F.; Dangreau, L.; Huguet, M.; Talon, O. Flame retardant treatments of insulating agro-materials from flax short fibres. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98, 1043–1051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Selamat, M.E.; Hui, T.Y.; Hashim, R.; Sulaiman, O.; Kassim, M.H.M.; Stalin, N.J. Division of Bioresource, Paper and Coatings Technology, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Properties of Particleboard Made from Oil Palm Trunks Added Magnesium Oxide as Fire Retardant. J. Phys. Sci. 2018, 29, 59–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Lee, C.H.; Sapuan, S.M.; Hassan, M.R. A Review of the Flammability Factors of Kenaf and Allied Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2014, 2014, 514036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Ferrández-Garcia, C.C.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrández-Garcia, M.T.; Ferrández-Villena, M.; Ferrández-García, C.E. Fire-resistance, Physical, and Mechanical Characterization of Binderless Rice Straw Particleboards. BioResources 2017, 12, 8539–8549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Popescu, C.M.; Pfriem, A. Treatments and modification to improve the reaction to fire of wood and wood based products. An overview. Fire Mater. 2020, 44, 100–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Wang, J.; Wei, Y.; Wang, Z.; He, X.; Wang, C.; Lin, H.; Deng, Y. MOFs-derived self-sacrificing template strategy to double-shelled metal oxides nanocages as hierarchical interfacial catalyst for suppressing smoke and toxic gases releases of epoxy resin. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 432, 134328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Zhi, M.; Yang, X.; Fan, R.; Yue, S.; Zheng, L.; Liu, Q.; He, Y. A comprehensive review of reactive flame-retardant epoxy resin: Fundamentals, recent developments, and perspectives. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2022, 201, 109976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Attia, N.F.; Elashery, S.E.; Zakria, A.M.; Eltaweil, A.S.; Oh, H. Recent advances in graphene sheets as new generation of flame retardant materials. Mater. Sci. Eng. B. 2021, 274, 115460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. EN 312; Particleboards. Specifications. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2010.
  49. EN 309; Particleboards. Definitions and Classification. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2005.
  50. EN 13986:2004+A1; Wood-Based Panels for Use in Construction. Characteristics, Evaluation of Conformity and Marking. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2015.
  51. EN 326-1; Wood-Based Panels. In Sampling, Cutting and Inspection. Part 1: Sampling and Cutting of Test Pieces and Expression of Test. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 1994.
  52. EN 323; Wood-Based Panels. Determination of Density. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 1993.
  53. EN 317; Particleboards and Fiberboards. Determination of Swelling in Thickness after Immersion in Water. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 1993.
  54. EN 310; Wood-Based Panels. Determination of Modulus of Elasticity in Bending and of Bending Strength. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 1993.
  55. EN 319; Particleboards and Fiberboards. Determination of Tensile Strength Perpendicular to the Plane of de Board. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 1993.
  56. EN 12667; Thermal Performance of Building Materials and Products: Determination of Thermal Resistance by Means of Guarded Hot Plate and Heat Flow Meter Methods: Products of High and Medium Thermal Resistance. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2001.
  57. EN ISO 11925-2; Reaction to Fire Tests—Ignitability of Products Subjected to Direct Impingement of Flame—Part 2: Single-Flame Source Test. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2020.
  58. EN 13501-1; Fire Classification of Construction Products and Building Elements—Part 1: Classification Using Data from Reaction to Fire Tests. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2018.
  59. EN 13823:2020+A1; Reaction to Fire Tests for Building Products. Building Products Excluding Floorings Exposed to the Thermal Attack by a Single Burning Item. European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium, 2022.
  60. Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T. The Influence of Processing and Particle Size on Binderless Particleboards Made from Arundo donax L. Rhizome. Polymers 2020, 12, 696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Hashim, R.; Nadhari, W.N.A.W.; Sulaiman, O.; Hiziroglu, S.; Sato, M.; Kawamura, F.; Tanaka, R. Evaluations of some properties of exterior particleboard made from oil palm biomass. J. Compos. Mater. 2011, 45, 1659–1665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Liang, S.; Neisius, N.M.; Gaan, S. Recent developments in flame retardant polymeric coatings. Prog. Org. Coat. 2013, 76, 1642–1665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Giudice, C.A.; Pereyra, A.M. Silica nanoparticles in high silica/alkali molar ratio solutions as fire-retardant impregnants for woods. Fire Mater. 2010, 34, 177–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Gardelle, B.; Duquesne, S.; Rerat, V.; Bourbigot, S. Thermal degradation and fire performance of intumescent silicone-based coatings. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2013, 24, 62–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Kashiwagi, T.; Gilman, J.W.; Butler, K.M.; Harris, R.H.; Shields, J.R.; Asano, A. Flame retardant mechanism of silica gel/silica. Fire Mater. 2000, 24, 277–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Ferrandez-Garcia, C.E.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Garcia, A.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T. Analysis of the thermal insulation and fire-resistance capacity of particleboards made from vine (Vitis vinifera L.) prunings. Polymers 2020, 12, 1147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Benhamou, A.A.; Boussetta, A.; Kassab, Z.; Nadifiyine, M.; Sehaqui, H.; El Achaby, M.; Moubarik, A. Application of UF adhesives containing unmodified and phosphate-modified cellulose microfibers in the manufacturing of particleboard composites. Ind. Crops Prod. 2022, 176, 114318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. El-Sayed, G.H.; Atallah, M.M.; Ahmad, M.I.M. Production of Fire-Resistant Particle Boards from some Agricultural Residues. J. Soil Sci. Agric. Eng. 2021, 12, 145–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Tureková, I.; Ivanovičová, M.; Harangózo, J.; Gašpercová, S.; Marková, I. Experimental Study of the Influence of Selected Factors on the Particle Board Ignition by Radiant Heat Flux. Polymers 2022, 14, 1648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Fire 07 00193 g001
Figure 1. (a) Canary Island date palm infested with red palm weevils; (b) the infested trunk after being cut down.
Figure 1. (a) Canary Island date palm infested with red palm weevils; (b) the infested trunk after being cut down.
Fire 07 00193 g001
Fire 07 00193 g002
Figure 2. Particleboards manufactured with 3 particle sizes (from left to right: type A, type B, and type C).
Figure 2. Particleboards manufactured with 3 particle sizes (from left to right: type A, type B, and type C).
Fire 07 00193 g002
Fire 07 00193 g003
Figure 3. Modulus of rupture (MOR).
Figure 3. Modulus of rupture (MOR).
Fire 07 00193 g003
Fire 07 00193 g004
Figure 4. Modulus of elasticity (MOE).
Figure 4. Modulus of elasticity (MOE).
Fire 07 00193 g004
Fire 07 00193 g005
Figure 5. Internal bonding strength (IB).
Figure 5. Internal bonding strength (IB).
Fire 07 00193 g005
Fire 07 00193 g006
Figure 6. Some specimens of Canary Island palm trunks used in the reaction-to-fire test.
Figure 6. Some specimens of Canary Island palm trunks used in the reaction-to-fire test.
Fire 07 00193 g006
Fire 07 00193 g007
Figure 7. Flame height (Fs) test results.
Figure 7. Flame height (Fs) test results.
Fire 07 00193 g007
Fire 07 00193 g008
Figure 8. Flame depth test results.
Figure 8. Flame depth test results.
Fire 07 00193 g008
Fire 07 00193 g009
Figure 9. Weight loss of the specimens during the reaction-to-fire test.
Figure 9. Weight loss of the specimens during the reaction-to-fire test.
Fire 07 00193 g009
Fire 07 00193 g010
Figure 10. (a) Canary Island palm trunk; (b) manufactured board with a particle size from 1 to 2 mm.
Figure 10. (a) Canary Island palm trunk; (b) manufactured board with a particle size from 1 to 2 mm.
Fire 07 00193 g010
Fire 07 00193 g011
Figure 11. Phytolith from the trunk of a Canary Island palm tree.
Figure 11. Phytolith from the trunk of a Canary Island palm tree.
Fire 07 00193 g011
Table 1. Types of manufactured particleboards.
Table 1. Types of manufactured particleboards.
Type of BoardNo. of BoardsParticle Size (mm)Time (min)Pressing CycleTemperature (°C)Pressure (MPa)
A14<0.25711102.6
A24<0.257 + 721102.6
A34<0.257 + 7 + 731102.6
A44<0.257 + 7 + 7 + 741102.6
B140.25 to 1.00711102.6
B240.25 to 1.007 + 721102.6
B340.25 to 1.007 + 7 + 731102.6
B440.25 to 1.007 + 7 + 7 + 741102.6
C141.00 to 2.00711102.6
C241.00 to 2.007 + 721102.6
C341.00 to 2.007 + 7 + 731102.6
C441.00 to 2.007 + 7 + 7 + 741102.6
Table 2. Average results of physical properties.
Table 2. Average results of physical properties.
Type of BoardDensity
(kg/m3)		TS 2 h
(%)		TS 24 h
(%)		WA 24 h
(%)		WA 2 h
(%)		Thermal Conductivity
(W/m·K)
A1882.32 (11.16)45.65 (1.89)58.78 (2.27)63.57 (0.12)84.10 (4.87)0.075 (0.003)
A2873.70 (28.63)29.21 (2.28)41.78 (1.27)51.54 (4.70)67.31 (0.64)0.068 (0.004)
A31102.27 (26.07)20.07 (1.94)28.47 (2.49)39.72 (1.27)59.09 (1.29)0.068 (0.003)
A41093.41 (61.32)15.63 (3.61)20.69 (0.62)37.43 (13.75)54.50 (8.69)0.067 (0.004)
B1840.98 (37.73)19.13 (1.92)38.73 (1.48)61.57 (5.92)94.48 (5.38)0.070 (0.002)
B2852.29 (68.66)25.37 (10.30)39.68 (9.61)55.30 (10.69)74.98 (7.75)0.070 (0.001)
B3935.46 (16.60)16.02 (1.65)29.05 (3.61)37.52 (8.11)75.46 (10.71)0.060 (0.003)
B4999.01 (53.90)20.95 (10.42)34.37 (20.90)37.32 (7.91)66.10 (11.19)0.061 (0.002)
C1750.94 (36.08)16.70 (1.69)21.60 (1.84)63.96 (4.51)89.20 (5.19)0.064 (0.004)
C2822.18 (62.91)34.98 (6.24)43.21 (4.89)59.30 (13.72)81.53 (3.88)0.062 (0.004)
C31056.08 (40.64)20.33 (4.53)27.69 (6.41)39.52 (7.78)52.82 (7.73)0.060 (0.003)
C41031.50 (37.97)21.31 (3.32)30.85 (1.43)38.39 (5.73)54.57 (2.49)0.061 (0.002)
TS: thickness swelling; WA: water absorption; ( ): standard deviation.
Table 3. ANOVA results for manufacturing variables (particle size and cycle number).
Table 3. ANOVA results for manufacturing variables (particle size and cycle number).
FactorPropertiesSum of Squaresd.f.Half QuadraticFSig.
Particle sizeDensity48,068.923224,034.41.9790.152
MOR182.076291.0385.7180.007
MOE890,667.252445,333.6271.1760.319
IB0.93520.46727.5950.000
TS—2 h150.696275.3480.9130.410
TS—24 h118.200259.1000.3900.680
WA—2 h8.27524.1370.0230.977
WA—24 h1204.0242602.0122.9800.063
Thermal conductivity (λ)0.00020.0000.2180.808
Weight loss0.05620.02811.754<0.001
Flame height123.111261.5568.8780.003
Flame depth5.42222.7110.6640.529
No. of cyclesDensity354,021.4373118,007.14628.0880.000
MOR387.7903129.26311.9780.000
MOE10,260,552.86933,420,184.29025.2200.000
IB0.32530.1083.2020.034
TS—2 h794.7383264.9133.9330.016
TS—24 h1304.0153434.6723.5160.024
WA—2 h4398.00931466.00323.3780.000
WA—24 h5259.81931753.27317.9220.000
Thermal conductivity (λ)0.00030.00011.4700.003
Weight loss0.01210.0122.3140.148
Flame height (Fs)0.22210.2220.0160.902
Flame depth14.942114.9424.6200.047
d.f.: degrees of freedom; F: Fisher–Snedecor distribution; Sig.: significance.
Table 4. The Pearson correlation coefficient values obtained with respect to the manufacturing variables.
Table 4. The Pearson correlation coefficient values obtained with respect to the manufacturing variables.
FactorDensityTS—24 h WA—24 h λMOR MOE IB Fs
Particle size PCC−0.160−0.100−0.017−0.190−0.319 *−0.089−0.670 **−0.728 **
Sig.0.3170.5340.9170.5550.0420.5820.000<0.001
No. of cyclesPCC0.780 **−0.393 *−0.747 **−0.823 **−0.376 *0.784 **0.404 **0.031
Sig. 0.0000.0110.0000.0010.0150.0000.0090.902
*: The correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-sided); **: The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-sided).
Table 5. Average values for palm tree trunk particleboards studied by different authors.
Table 5. Average values for palm tree trunk particleboards studied by different authors.
MaterialPressure (MPa)Temp. (°C)Time (min)Density (kg/m3)TS—24 h (%)MOR (N/mm2)MOE (N/mm2)IB (N/mm2)Source
Oil palm+10% UF40160881041.55.801149.61.16[40]
Oil palm12180208002013.37 0.71[61]
Canary palm2.612030838.527.56131467.80.40[20]
Canary palm2.61107 + 7 + 7 + 71093.420.69202589.80.74This study
Type P2 -≥11≥1800≥0.40[47]
Type P3 ≤17≥15≥2050≥0.45[47]
Table 6. Comparison of single-flame-source test results of particleboards in different studies.
Table 6. Comparison of single-flame-source test results of particleboards in different studies.
Particleboard MaterialBinderBoard Thickness (mm)Flame RetardantFlame Height (mm)Source
Vine prunings9% UF7.5-41–67.78[66]
Wood10% UF14Phosphate-modified cellulose microfibers132[67]
Cotton stalks10% UF 14Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and boric acid85.7[68]
Corn stalks10% UF 14Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and boric acid88.4[68]
Sawdust10% UF 14Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and boric acid91.1[68]
Rice straw10% UF 14Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 and boric acid92[68]
Canary Island palm trunks-7-60.3–70.4This study
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ferrandez-Garcia, B.E.; Garcia-Ortuño, T.; Ferrandez-Villena, M.; Ferrandez-Garcia, M.T. Evaluation of the Properties and Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Binderless Particleboards Made from Canary Island Palm Trunks. Fire 2024, 7, 193. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060193

AMA Style

Ferrandez-Garcia BE, Garcia-Ortuño T, Ferrandez-Villena M, Ferrandez-Garcia MT. Evaluation of the Properties and Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Binderless Particleboards Made from Canary Island Palm Trunks. Fire. 2024; 7(6):193. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060193

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ferrandez-Garcia, Berta Elena, Teresa Garcia-Ortuño, Manuel Ferrandez-Villena, and Maria Teresa Ferrandez-Garcia. 2024. "Evaluation of the Properties and Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Binderless Particleboards Made from Canary Island Palm Trunks" Fire 7, no. 6: 193. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7060193

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop