B.

ED UNIT-2,3,4,5 CLASSIFICATION
OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH

Dr. Muhammad Safdar

 Educational Research
• Educational Research is the application of
the scientific method to solve the
educational problems;
• It is the habit of Questioning what we do
and empirical evidence to find the answer to
the Questions related to the field of
education.
• “Taught Man what He knew not”
(The Holy Quran; Ch-96)
 Significance / need of educational research

• In education, research helps in:

1. Investigating and help in improving the
teaching –learning process.
2. Improving the teaching practices.
3. Improving the curriculum.
4. Comparing various practices of teaching.
5. Administration of school (how it can be
run effectively & efficiently)
 Significance / need of educational
research
Educational research helps in:
6. Improving the theory of education
7. Student guidance (general and vocational)
8. Evaluating the existing curricula and
developing the curricula.
9. Educational planning and policy making
10. Constructing Tests and developing
techniques of evaluation.
11. comparative effectiveness of AV Aids /tools
Scientific Method
 Classification of Educational Research

1. By Purpose
2. By Method
 Classification by purpose
By purpose, Educational research is
classified into:
a. Basic research;
b. Applied research;
c. Action research;
d. Evaluation research
f. Research and Development
 Basic /pure / fundamental research

• The primary purpose of basic research

is solely the development of a theory
(say a learning theory);
• a law (Thorndike law of effect);
• a principle (principles of good teaching)
• or the extension of knowledge.
 Basic /pure / fundamental research

• It builds up broad generalizations,

principles and theories of education. It
results in the discovery of useful
concepts such as those of motivation,
reinforcement, concept formation etc.
• It is not concerned with day to day
problems.
 Basic /pure / fundamental research
Characteristics
1. It aims at developing educational theories
and principles that will be applicable to a
broad population.
2. It requires expert training.
3. It makes use of a wide range of methods to
locate the research problem
4. In pure researches, Highly specific
hypothesis are developed.
 Basic /pure / fundamental research
Characteristics
5. It involves careful attention so that
error is reduced to the minimum.

6. It calls for a complex analysis of data.

7. The generalizations usually remain

confined to books and research reports.
Applied research / Functional research

• Education is an applied science and

the primary function of applied
research in education is to find
improvements for education both to be
understood as fields of human actions,
not as fields of knowledge.
Walter R. Borg (1987)
 Applied research
• Applied research deals with problems
of practical value.
• Applied research is less rigorous than
the basic research.
• One type of applied research is action
research.
 Action research
• The purpose of action research is to solve
practical problems through the application
of scientific methods.
• It is concerned with local educational
problem (on hand problems) and is
conducting in a local setting.
• Action Research is the research a person
conducts in order to enable him to achieve
his purposes more effectively.
 Action research
• Action research is usually conducted by teachers
and administrators for solving a specific
problem or for providing information for
decision making at the local level.
• A teacher conducts action research to improve
his own teaching Or to improve the learning
process
• A school administrator conducts action research
to improve his administrative behaviour.
Sources of problems for Action Research

• The first important source for locating

problems for action research is the
classroom / lab / a student etc.
• For example a teacher who finds that the
performance of the students in mathematics
in his class is poor…….
• Habitually late comers in every test
(example of 4 Manchalaes…)
Sources of problems for Action Research

• Effect of pre-lab on the learning of the students

• students problems for enhancing the classroom
efficiency.
• The institution library seems to be an important
source for locating problems for research.
• Sometimes the ministry of education throw out
some new problems for experimenting in the
institutions, e.g. a department conduct an
experiment to see whether the suggestive activities
in the new syllabus are effective or not
 Evaluation research
• Evaluation is the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing data in order to
make decisions. Evaluation involves Qs such
as:
1. Is this teacher training program worth
what it cost?
2. Is the new activity based science
curriculum better than the former?
 Evaluation research
• Answer of these questions require
collection, analysis and interpretation
of data with respect to one or more
criteria.
• The more objective the criteria, and
data; the lesser will be the subjectivity
since how people feel is often an
important variable.
 Research and Development (R & D)
• The major purpose of R & D is not to
formulate or test theory but to develop
effective products for use in schools. It may
includes:
• teacher training material,
• learning material,
• sets of behavioural objectives,
• no cost-low cost material,
• Management Information System (MIS)
Classification of research by Method

1. Historical research (documentary)

2. Descriptive Research (normative)
3. Experimental Research
 Historical (documentary) research
what was?

• History is the integrated narrative of the

past events representing a critical search for
truth.
• It is Restricted to human history.
• It is an approach to understand the present
in the light of past.
• Reconstruction of the events / the human
experiences of the past.
 Historical research (documentary)

• Historical approach: it is the organization

of facts of the past in support of new
concepts to be developed.
• Historical subjects: man, places, ideas,
trends, Thoughts, systems, etc.
• Historical technique: research conducted on
the basis of records and documents on the
basis of past.
 Historical research (documentary)

• Definition
• it is a systematic and objective location,
evaluation and synthesis of evidence in
order to establish facts and draw
conclusions concerning past events.
• The study of the past events / experiences in
order to solve the problems of the present
concern (and may anticipate into the future.
 Usefulness of historical research

• It gives insight into some educational

problems that could not be gained
otherwise.
• Historical study of an educational idea or an
institution or practice helps us understand
our present system.
• It provides sound basis for the present
working and practices of teaching, learning,
curriculum and other aspects of T-L.
 Usefulness of historical research

• It helps us to establish a sound basis for further

progress and development.
• It gives us insight into human behaviour that can
be valuable in arriving at practical solutions of
educational problems.
• Problem identification:
1. When some event, experience, practice of the past
is questioned.
2. When we feel some uncertainty in present
working, practices…
 Three steps involved in historical
research
1. The collection of data through primary and
secondary sources;
2. It involves internal and external criticism of
the data collected;
3. Presentation of facts which involves
problems of organization composition,
exposition (description) and interpretation.
 These guidelines should be observed in
historical research
1. The primary sources should be used as
extensively as possible.
2. Personal bias should not be allowed to
influence research procedure.
3. Proper recognition should be given to the
inter-relationship of education with other
social institutions and forces.
 These guidelines should be observed in
historical research
4. The significant facts must be distinguished
from trivial facts in a situation.
5. The facts should be synthesized and
integrated into meaningful generalizations.
6. Care should be taken in interpreting the
words and expressions in the light of their
usage in earlier times.
 Research design / plan
1. Formulating the problem: some event,
development, experience,…questioned
2. Collecting source materials: identifying
sources, primary / secondary
3. Criticizing source material: to established
authenticity, internal / external
4. Formulating the hypotheses to explain
events or conditions: cause and effect…
5. Interpreting and reporting the findings:
 Source materials
• Primary sources:
a) testimony of able eye; ear witness of the event;
b) actual objects /remains used in the past that
can be examined directly;
c) A first-hand evidence;
d) Remains, relics, record; oral or written,
diaries, letters, wills, notes, official records,
speeches, printed and written material,…
autobiography…
 Source materials
• Secondary sources: information provided
by a person who did not directly observe the
event, object or condition and reported by
quoting someone who had received that
information someone else.
• Location of source material: libraries,
actual places, institutions, contact with
people, old books, stores dealing with
antiques,……
Historical criticism or evaluation of data
sources
• Data gathered from the historical remains
requires Rigorous evaluation.
• Data has to be genuine and the sources to be
valid and reliable?
• Sources should be maximally error free?
• historical criticism mean internal and
external.
 External Criticism
• A process / method to establish
genuineness / authenticity of the source
of data----i.e. whether it is what it
appears or claims to be.
• Purpose of this criticism is generally
negative
• it start from doubt---to detect fraud,
forgery, distortion, etc.
 External Criticism
• Age of the document / object
• Authorship / creator; reputation,
qualification, expertise, interest
• Language---script
• Physical and chemical appearance and test
• Author’s objective, obligation, pressures, fears
• Sources of information used by the author
• Consistency with time and known facts
 Internal Criticism
• Validity of content / subject matter
• Accuracy and value of the statements
• Textual authenticity
• This Criticism is positive
• Comparison: with contemporary
document / historical remains
• Originality: in real language; translation;
meanings…
 Internal Criticism
• Content analysis: Language; terms used;
• Reference made;
• Customs / traditions depicted;
• Consistency;
• Relevance;
• Contradictions; biases;
• Prejudices in favour / against any group;
• Interpretation made.
 2. Descriptive research
what is?
• It is a type of research which describes and
interprets what is.
• It is some time called non-experimental.
• It is concerned with conditions or
relationship that exist; the practices that
prevail; attitude that are held; effect that
are felt; or trends that are developing.
 Descriptive research

• This type of research is also called normative,

survey research. It concerns itself with the
present phenomena in terms of conditions,
practices, beliefs, process, relationships or
trends.
• It is classified into the categories such as;
1. Survey studies
2. Interrelationship studies
3. Developmental studies
 Descriptive research

• The process…goes beyond mere gathering

and tabulating data. It involves an element
of interpretation of meaning or significance
what is described.
• Thus description is often combined with
comparison or contrast, involving
measurement, classification interpretation
and evaluation.
 Descriptive research

• It is not complete until the data are arranged

and analyzed and, then, significant conclusion
are derived.
• The methods employed in this type are non-
manipulative. The researcher only observes or
measures the variables or factors of interest.
• That is
• Observations or measurements are made as
they occur in natural setting.
 Descriptive research

• The discovery of meaning is the focus of the

whole process.
• Expression of data:
1. Qualitatively; words / verbal symbols
2. Quantitatively; mathematical symbols
 Types of descriptive research
1. Survey studies:
a) School survey
b) Job analysis
c) Documentary analysis
d) Public opinion survey
e) Community surveys
 Types of descriptive research
2. Interrelationship studies:
a) Case study
b) Causal-comparative studies
c) Correlation studies
2. Developmental studies:
a. Growth studies
b. Trend studies
 Characteristics of Descriptive research

1. It is concerned with the characteristics of the

whole population or a sample thereof. (not the
individual)
2. It collects data from a relatively large
number of subjects.
3. Its scope is very vast.
4. Surveys may be qualitative or quantitative.
5. Descriptions may be either verbal or
expressed in mathematical terms.
 3. Experimental research
• Experiment
• an attempt to established cause and effect
relationship in a controlled situation by
manipulating the experimental variable (s).
• Experience
• The interaction of the human being with its
environment. e.g. your teaching experience
 Experimental research
• Experimentation (going on with tests to
discover something)
A process… as distinguish from observation
only; a tentative procedure for the purpose of
discovering something unknown or of testing
a principle, hypothesis, supposition etc. a
chemical experiment; a teaching experiment;
a) Deliberate and controlled modification of
the condition / environment;
 3. Experimental research
b) Manipulation of one variable which may
be considered as cause or antecedent;
c) Observation of the ensuing changes in the
event or effects are made; and
d) Interpretation of these observation of
changes is done and conclusion drawn
Characteristics of Experimental Research

1. Control over the environment i.e. to

control the extraneous and intervening
variables OR to bring changes in the
environment which remain constant
throughout the period of experiment.
2. Control the composition of the experiment
or control groups i.e. matching the groups
or selecting by the process of
randomization and keep them constant.
Characteristics of Experimental Research

3. Manipulating the causal variable

(independent or experimental) i.e. introducing
the independent variable by increasing /
decreasing the intensity or new variable.
4. Measurement of values of the effects of
independent variable before and after its
administration—i.e. finding the difference
between scores or changes that occurred
(dependent variable)
(Experimental)research plan / design

1. Surveying the literature relating to the

problem;
2. Identifying and defining the problem;
3. Formulating hypothesis(es);
4. Deducing consequences and defining basic
terms and variables;
5. Constructing experimental plan and
indicating the following:
(Experimental)research plan / design
• Identifying all dependent and independent
variables;
• Identifying all non-experimental variables
(i.e. intervening and extraneous) that may
contaminate the experiment;
• Specifically mentioning the method of
control of non-experimental variables;
• Selecting the experimental research design;
(Experimental)research plan / design
• Selecting a sample of subjects to represent a
given population and assigning them to
groups;
• Mentioning procedure to introduce and
assign experimental treatment to groups;
• Construction and validation of
measurement instrument (s) for assessing
the outcome of the experiment;
(Experimental)research plan / design
• Outlining procedure for collecting data;
• Stating the statistical or null hypotheses;
• Conducting the experiment and scheduling
the process;
• Stating the manners of appraisal; statistical
analysis and interpretation of data;
• Application of Appropriate test of
significance to determine the confidence one
can place on the results;
(Experimental)research plan / design
• Stating the findings and conclusions;
• Give recommendation (on the basis of
conclusions).
 Control (over the experiment)
• Why control? Purposes:
1. Achieving isolation: to prevent a factor other
than independent variable from affecting the
dependent variable--Removing / Eliminating;
keeping the constant; equalize the conditions
2. Achieving changes in magnitude: to increase
or decrease the magnitude of the experimental
variable---presence or absence;
 Control (over the experiment)
3. Achieving Quantitative Evaluation:
quantitatively describing specific degree or
intensity of effects.
 Control (over the experiment)
• Methods (to control):
1. Physical manipulation: changing the
conditions; provision of same for all groups
2. Selective manipulation: balancing;
randomization; counterbalancing; selection
of same tool for all groups;
3. Statistical manipulation: statistical methods
of testing significance (correlation, t-test…)
 Variables and their types
• Variable is a concept or any set of characteristics,
often but not always quantitatively measured----
that may contain two or more values, categories or
attributes that can vary or differ over time or over
a given sample in contrast to a constant.
• Examples: sex, age, income, education,
achievement, intelligence, honesty, experience,
teaching methods, social status, learning,
performance, motivation, justice, equality…………
 Independent variable
• Called cause, antecedent, experimental,
treatment etc.
• A variable that is manipulated to observe its
effect on other variable (s).
• It is a variable that affect changes in the
other variable.
• It is not it self affected by changes in the
dependent variable.
 Dependent variable
• Called (effect, consequent, behaviour)
• A variable that is affected by the
independent variable;
• It is always dependent on the manipulation
in the independent variable;
• The variation in the dependent variable is
influenced by changes in certain other
variable (i.e. independent variable);
 Extraneous variable
• The variable which are uncontrolled or are
not manipulated by the experimenter that
may have a significant influence upon
dependent variable.
• In one Group: noise
• 2nd group: cool and calm class room
 Intervening variables
• Certain variables which cannot be
controlled or measured directly but they
may have a significant influence on the
results ( sometime they are called
extraneous variables);
• e.g. Temperature (during an experiment),
social status of a student……
Qualitative and quantitative variables
• If a variable possesses a value or categories
which can be expressed numerically, is called
quantitative variable. (age, population, income,
marks…)
• Qualitative variables have discrete attribute or
categories, usually labeled by words and non
numerical difference between categories ( sex,
quality, happiness…)
• Both the students are suffering from high fever..
1020F
 Important concepts
• Proposition: a statement asserting
(declaring, proclaiming) something; it may
be about one or more concepts.
• a statement or assertion that expresses a
judgment or opinion. (may be true or not)
• Assumption: an important ‘fact’ presumed
to be true but not actually verified.
 Important concepts
• Postulate: a statement assumed to be true and not
tested.
• A statement that is accepted without proof.
• A postulate is a statement that is accepted as true
without having to formally prove it.
• Its truth has been demonstrated empirically.
• Axiom: a statement which has a mathematical
connotation and is used more often for statement
that are true by definition and involving high
abstract concept.
 Hypothesis

• An intelligence guess that offer a possible

solution to the problem
• A tentative solution about the problem
• (A declarative statement)
• It is a conditional proposition that is stated
in testable form and that predict a
particular relationship between two or more
variables
 Hypothesis and prediction
• Hypothesis and prediction are both a type
of guess. ...
• However, the hypothesis is an educated,
testable guess in science. A prediction uses
observable phenomena to make a future
projection.
• A hypothesis leads to one or more
predictions that can be tested by
experimenting.
 Statements or form of expression of
hypothesis
1. If-then statement: “If teacher gives
individual attention to the weak students
then those students may start working
hard”
2. Continuous statement: “As the level of
education increases, the intensity of
prejudices decreases”.
“As the pressure increases, the
temperature also increases”
 Statements or form of expression of
hypothesis
3. Difference statement: “People with high
level of education are less prejudiced than
people with low level of education”
4. Mathematical statement: P= 10- ½ E

P= Prejudice; 10= highest level of education

E= education (no. of years)
5. Null hypothesis: says that there is no
statistical significance between the two
variables in the hypothesis
 H0: µ=0 Ha: µ≠0

• In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis

is a general statement or default position
that there is no relationship between two
measured phenomena or no association
among groups. H0: µ=0
• An alternative hypothesis is a statement
which describes that there is a relationship
between two selected variables or there is a
difference in the two means scores. Ha: µ≠0
 Designs of the experiment
• Experimental group: the group of subjects
exposed to the independent variable or treatment
• Control group: the group of subjects not exposed
to the independent variable or treatment

• Matching of groups:
1. Matched pairs: subjects are matched
2. Matched groups: groups are matched
3. Randomization: each subject has equal chance of being
selected
 Designs of the experiment
• Designs with minimum control
1. One group post test design
X O
2. One group pretest- posttest design
O1 X O 2
3. Static group comparison design
X O1
O2
 Designs of the experiment
• Designs with Rigorous control
1. Pretest – posttest control group design
2. Posttest only control group design
3. Solomon four group design
 Designs of the experiment
• Design with partial control also called
“Quasi-experimental design”.
• In these design some variables which cannot
be controlled or only can partially
controlled are considered.
• The researcher may control some variables
and leave some variables to interplay
without control (e.g. randomization)
examples of Design with partial control
“Quasi-experimental design”.
• Non-randomized control-group pretest-posttest
design. O1 X O2
O3 O4
• One group time series
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
• Control-group Time-series design
RE O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
RC O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8